No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Psychopathology among adult survivors of child pornography
Abstract
Background:
The majority of studies investigating child pornography have focused on conceptualizing the problem and the harm of the crime, evaluating the risk for child pornography offending, or discuss preventive measures. Little is known about survivors of this type of crime.
Objective:
This research explores the relationship between child pornography victimization and psychopathology in adulthood. Specifically, we examined the contribution of emotional reactions at the time of the crime and shortly after (guilt, embarrassment and avoidance) on psychopathology among adult survivors of child pornography.
Participants and setting:
The study was conducted among 107 child pornography adult survivors, aged 18-63 (M = 39.48, SD = 12.31). All participants were sexually molested during the crime.
Methods:
An online survey was completed by a convenience sample of adult survivors of child pornography.
Results:
Findings indicate survivor's current age predicted current psychopathology symptoms. Survivor's emotional reactions of guilt and embarrassment at the time of the crime and shortly after were significantly associated with elevated psychopathology, above and beyond demographic characteristics and features of the crime.
Conclusions:
The present results suggest the way survivors of child pornography react to the crime might shape their mental health in the long term.
... Not infrequently, the perpetrators of child pornography crimes are family members or acquaintances, and the crime tends to last more than a year [9,10]. When abuse is perpetrated by people close to them, it tends to have more serious and long-term consequences [52], as the shake of beliefs about trust and intimacy [11]. A risk that the child is dependent and/or lives with the perpetrator, making him or her more vulnerable to repeated abuses, inhibiting disclosure and seeking help as well as receiving more negative reactions, such as disbelief from adults [12,13]. ...
... Not infrequently, coercion does not tend to be present, since that offender's resort to seduction and manipulation, which once again allows them to feed their sexual fantasies [6]. On the other hand, it fosters victims' feelings of guilt, shame, and concern to be recognized and judged for their appearance in images [10,11]. According to MacGinley, Breckenridge, and Mowll these feelings tend to negatively impact self-concept and the way victims understand abuse. ...
... According to MacGinley, Breckenridge, and Mowll these feelings tend to negatively impact self-concept and the way victims understand abuse. Another characteristic of this traumatic experience is continuous victimization [11]. In addition to the offender being able to continue threatening and silencing the victim, with resource to possession of pornographic material, thus maintaining a perverse relationship with the victim the lack of control over the sharing of images of abuse and the consequent public accessibility when they go online may be one of the most difficult aspects to overcome, as the Canadian Centre for Child Protection (CCCP) (2017) warns. ...
In a digital age with a constant technological evolution, child pornography has transcended all barriers and has become a worldwide problem. Thus, it becomes imperative to know the characteristics of victims and offenders, with respect to sociodemographic, personality, history of development and criminal background, for a more rigorous strategy of prevention and treatment of both. This understanding requires identifying the specificities of the role of the digital world in the perpetuation of this crime, such as the strategies that facilitate contact with child pornographic material, what motivates offenders to share these materials with children on the online world and what factors prompt offenders to contact with children in the offline world, since the important risk to commit child sexual abuse on these circumstances. Regarding to the victims, is fundamental to explore the psychological consequences of this crime. In most cases, the victims feel that will be emotionally persecuted by the trauma and, objectively, by the impact of knowing that their images will be always available on the internet.
... 9 Hessick, C.B. [29]. 10 Gewirtz-Meydan, A., et al. [23]. 11 Gassó, A., et al. [22]. ...
... 22 The ubiquitous use of the Internet and smart mobile devices in people's everyday lives, the wide adoption of cloud-based services by industry and government, and, for example, the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), the Internet of Everything (IoE), and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs), have led to the widely accepted belief that almost all criminal activities include some cyber elements. 23 As a consequence, digital forensics (sometimes called cyber forensics) have become an essential part of almost all crime investigation processes for law enforcement around the world. 24 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 25 also argues that there is no international definition of cybercrime or cyberattacks, but while they use the cyberenabled-cyber-dependent dichotomy, they add a further specific-crime type: online child sexual exploitation and abuse, which includes abuse on the clear internet, darknet forums and, increasingly, the exploitation of self-created imagery via extortion -known as "sextortion". ...
... 22 Sarre, R., et al. [60]. 23 Miraz, M., et al. [49]. 24 EUROPOL. ...
European law has recognised the need for international cross-disciplinary collaboration to both identify, locate and safeguard victims and prevent, investigate and prosecute online child exploitation and abuse (OCSEA). However, there is evidence that these crimes are continuing to increase and develop in step with technological advances. Changing the behaviour of both perpetrators and victims is both challenging and expensive and there is little evidence of what works to reduce these crimes. In this paper an argument is presented that changing the environments which support OCSEA is necessary if we are to detect and manage these crimes, and more importantly prevent them.
... With the recording of the sexual abuse, victims experience further and ongoing victimisation, potentially resulting in even more serious mental health consequences that may impact their adulthood as well. These include constant feelings of guilt and shame (Gewirtz-Meydan et al. 2018;Svedin and Back 2003), humiliation (Gewirtz-Meydan et al. 2019), worry about being recognized in public (Gewirtz-Meydan et al. 2018;NCMEC 2022), fear that others would think that they had been willing participants, and mental difficulties like anxiety, depression, paranoia, sleeping problems, hypervigilance, suicidal ideation or attempts, other self-harm, low body image, and relationship and sexual difficulties (Canadian Centre for Child Protection 2017). Many victims also feel pressure to co-operate and non-disclose (Silbert 1989). ...
Although the escalation in online child sexual abuse material (CSAM) is not a novel problem, recent digital proliferation has brought about new alarming challenges in addressing the issue. CSAM poses significant risks to children and society in general, the most serious being the long-lasting harmful effects on depicted victims. The already distressing problem is exacerbated by the worldwide appearance and spread of AI-driven or virtual CSAM, as AI offers a fast and increasingly profitable means for the sexual exploitation of children. The paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of current legislative measures focusing the European Union for combating online CSAM. With a particular focus on AI-driven CSAM, we will systematically evaluate the effectiveness and applicability of these regulations in addressing virtual CSAM. The paper will conclude with policy recommendations to address identified gaps in the European legislative framework concerning virtual CSAM.
... Ideally, data-related information should be precise, timely, specific, and organized with a particular purpose. Presenting it in a relevant and meaningful context can enhance understanding and decrease ambiguity (Gewirtz-Meydan et al., 2019). The current issue with social media is the prevalence of violations associated with disseminating information. ...
... Being described as child sexual abuse that had been recorded, the visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct might be the "typical" type of TA-CSA including intercourse, masturbation, and exhibition of the genitals or pubic area (Gewirtz-Meydan et al., 2018). Gewirtz-Meydan et al. (2019; also used the controversial term of child pornography stating that even though the term is intensely discussed and disliked by many professionals it is being used due to its legal understanding and application. ...
Over the past two decades, technology-assisted child sexual abuse (TA-CSA) has become the focus of attention in politics, legislation, society, as well as research. However, the majority of literature and studies focus primarily on the offenders. This scoping review therefore aims to illustrate how victims of TA-CSA are represented in studies as primary participants. The databases Embase, PsychInfo, PSYNDEX, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science as well as reference lists were searched. Studies needed to be published between 2007 and 2021 and obtain data directly from and about victims to be included in this review. A total of 570 articles were identified from which 20 studies met inclusion criteria. The analysis showed that data can be obtained via different samples like adult and minor victims or other data such as legal documents or sexualized images. The studies researched different types of TA-CSA including exposure to pornographic material, online grooming leading to both online and offline sexual abuse, sexting and sexualized images, and the visual depiction of sexually explicit content. Consequences due to the abuse were of an emotional and psychological nature, medical or physical or impacted relationships, and the social environment. Even though the impact of the abuse on the victims appeared to be similar between different types of TA-CSA, much remains unknown. In order to gain further and more detailed insight into victims of TA-CSA, a universally accepted definition of TA-CSA as well as its different types and their distinctions needs to be established.
... Web-based grooming, abuse, and exploitation may also lead to contact abuse; contact abuse cases increasingly involve web-based elements (eg, the production and distribution of images). Offline and web-based sexual abuse is not mutually exclusive in terms of risk behaviors or harm, but there is evidence of additional risks of TASA afforded by the internet and unique social and psychological harms associated with TASA [3,4]. ...
Background:
No evidence-based support has been offered to young people (YP) who have experienced technology-assisted sexual abuse (TASA). Interventions aimed at improving mentalization (the ability to understand the mental states of oneself and others) are increasingly being applied to treat YP with various clinical issues. Digital technology use among YP is now common. A digital intervention aimed at improving mentalization in YP who have experienced TASA may reduce the risk of revictimization and future harm and make YP more resilient and able to manage distress that might result from TASA experiences.
Objective:
In this paper, we describe a protocol for determining the feasibility of the i-Minds trial and the acceptability, safety, and usability of the digital intervention (the i-Minds app) and explore how to best integrate i-Minds into existing routine care pathways.
Methods:
This is a mixed methods nonrandomized study aimed to determine the feasibility, acceptability, safety, and usability of the intervention. Participants aged between 12 and 18 years who report distress associated with TASA exposure will be recruited from the United Kingdom from the National Health Service (NHS) Trust Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, sexual assault referral centers, and a web-based e-therapy provider. All participants will receive the i-Minds app for 6 weeks. Coproduced with YP and a range of stakeholders, the i-Minds app focuses on 4 main topics: mentalization, TASA and its impact, emotional and mental health, and trauma. A daily prompt will encourage YP to use the app, which is designed to be used in a stand-alone manner alongside routine care. We will follow participants up after the intervention and conduct interviews with stakeholders to explore the acceptability of the app and trial procedures and identify areas for improvement. Informed by the normalization process theory, we will examine barriers and enablers relevant to the future integration of the intervention into existing care pathways, including traditional clinic-based NHS and NHS e-therapy providers.
Results:
This study was approved by the Research Ethics Board of Scotland. We expect data to be collected from up to 60 YP. We expect to conduct approximately 20 qualitative interviews with participants and 20 health care professionals who referred YP to the study. The results of this study have been submitted for publication.
Conclusions:
This study will provide preliminary evidence on the feasibility of recruiting YP to a trial of this nature and on the acceptability, safety, and usability of the i-Minds app, including how to best integrate it into existing routine care. The findings will inform the decision to proceed with a powered efficacy trial.
Trial registration:
International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number Registry (ISRCTN) ISRCTN43130832; https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN43130832.
International registered report identifier (irrid):
DERR1-10.2196/40539.
... Grooming itself appears to cause psychological harm by increasing anxiety and depression symptoms (Wolf & Pruitt, 2019). The knowledge that images of a person's abuse are being shared on the internet appears to have a powerful effect on victims, with the degree of guilt or embarrassment experienced by a victim being a predictor of trauma symptoms (Gewirtz-Meydan et al., 2019). ...
Child Advocacy Centers are interdisciplinary hubs that play a vital role in responding to child maltreatment, especially sexual abuse. Sexual abuse cases increasingly involve an online component, but no studies have examined the experience of Child Advocacy Center staff in dealing with online sexual exploiftation. This study surveyed 37 staff at five Child Advocacy Centers in Alberta, Canada to understand their ability to recognize and respond to concerns about online and in-person sexual exploitation of their clients. The majority of respondents (54%) dealt with cases that involved grooming, luring, sexual abuse and child sexual abuse imagery (also known as child pornography) in the last year. Staff were equally confident in their ability to recognize and respond to grooming, luring, sexual abuse and child sexual abuse imagery. However, staff were more likely to have formal training in identifying sexual abuse and less likely to encounter difficulties in responding to sexual abuse relative to grooming, luring or child sexual abuse imagery. Clinicians used similar therapies when working with youth impacted by sexual abuse versus child sexual abuse imagery. Given that most Child Advocacy Center staff in our sample dealt with online child sexual exploitation, additional training in this area may be warranted.
... Even if a clear and unambiguous disclosure is made, some educators may still doubt the veracity of the story: one study found that 19 % of teachers felt that children are likely to make up stories about sexual abuse and 4 % felt that the majority of sexual abuse claims made by minors are false (Márquez-Flores et al., 2016). While this is an unfortunate situation, it is understandable since most teachers lack sufficient training in child protection (Ayling et al., 2020) and in the absence of specific training, teachers are likely to internalize and even endorse many of the same myths about sexual abuse as are commonly believed by members of the general public (Gewirtz-Meydan, Lahav, Walsh, & Finkelhor, 2019). ...
Background
Sexual exploitation of children online is an issue of growing public concern. This form of exploitation typically involves adults using the internet to communicate with children for sexual purposes or to distribute sexually explicit material involving children. To date, there is no research on the knowledge and skills of educators to recognize online sexual exploitation. This research is urgently needed since educators are well-positioned to detect, identify and report sexual exploitation of their students.
Objective
The study was conducted to understand the confidence and capacity of grade school educators to recognize and respond to online child sexual exploitation.
Participants and setting
This cross-sectional study surveyed 450 educators in Alberta, Canada between April and December 2018.
Methods
Vignettes were used to obtain experiences and attitudes surrounding four categories of exploitation or abuse: grooming, luring, sexual abuse, and sexual abuse imagery (also known as child pornography).
Results
Among school district staff, 28 % reported working with a student affected by sexual abuse in the last year, as compared to 25 % for grooming, 17 % for luring and 14 % for sexual abuse imagery. A minority of respondents expressed confidence in their ability to recognize if the internet was being employed for grooming (35 % of staff), luring (46 %) or sexual abuse (45 %) of their students.
Conclusions
Educators encounter issues of online sexual exploitation of their students almost as often as contact sexual abuse. Child protection efforts in schools should be modernized to incorporate training in online safety of children and adolescents.
This article presents the novel conceptualization of the unknowing victim (UV) and addresses the ethical ramifications of this status. Criminology and victimology have primarily focused on knowing victims, but certain crimes occur without the victim’s detection (e.g. sexual assault of an unconscious victim). There is a critical liminal dimension to UV’s status: they are on the threshold between unawareness and conscious awareness of their status as victims of crime and are thus situated on the brink of experiencing harm through their own discovery, or someone else’s disclosure, of the crime committed against them. We call for the recognition of UVs and the temporalities of their embodied experiences, and argue that there is an ethical imperative to prioritize their lived experience.
Grounded in comparative law research, this paper compares differences in the regulation of online child pornography in China and the United States. The United States began regulating child pornography through criminal law in the 1970s, gradually refining the laws to distinguish between child pornography and obscenity and prohibit the possession of child pornography and virtual child pornography. In contrast, China treats child pornography on an equal footing with adult pornography, but imposes more lenient penalties on disseminating child pornography, which has led to the proliferation of child pornography. By comparing the two countries' policies and laws on child pornography, this review makes four recommendations for other countries: (i) define child pornography in criminal law; (ii) distinguish between obscenity and child pornography; (iii) prohibit virtual child pornography on the internet; and (iv) increase criminal penalties for child pornography.
Elder abuse is a worldwide problem, aggravated by the global increase in the older population. This paper reports on a qualitative descriptive study done within the broad framework of intervention research. It explores the experiences of abused older persons in resource-poor settings in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Data were collected during individual semi-structured interviews and intervention sessions. The honest accounts of participants revealed the raw pain and distress of their experiences of abuse. In the light of the serious multidimensional reactions to elder abuse described in this article, consistent and coordinated social work services offered to older person who are abused is recommended.
In this study, we explored survivors' experience with sextortion (threats to expose sexual images to coerce victims to provide additional pictures, sex, or other favors). We conducted in-depth telephone interviews with 48 adults aged 18 to 25 who had been targets of sextortion. Nearly half of participants were minors at the time of the sextortion incident. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis, which resulted in four major dimensions. The dimensions identified were the emotional connections between victims and perpetrators, the nature of the threats, societal responses, and integrating the sextortion into their life stories. The findings emphasized the multidimensional nature of this phenomenon. There was a wide range of emotional connections, from brief connections to close intimate relationships or strong friendships. Some threats remained unfulfilled, while other were carried out. Some threats were one-time and some lasted for years. Societal responses were central in participants' narratives, with most participants actually turning to their peers and parents for support. Many expressed thankfulness for the opportunity to tell their story during the interviews. For the majority of participants sextortion was perceived as a central event in their lives, one that changed them forever. Listening to the voices of survivors helps professionals understand these harmful situations.
BACKGROUND
Modern Child Sexual Exploitation Material (CSEM) offences predominantly occur
within a technological ecosystem. The behaviours and cognitions of CSEM offenders
influence, and are influenced by, their choice of facilitative technologies that form
that ecosystem.
OBJECTIVES
This thesis will review the prior research on cognitive distortions present in and
technology usage by CSEM offenders, and present a new theory, Lawless Space
Theory (LST), to explain those interactions. The cognitions and technical behaviours
of previously convicted CSEM offenders will be examined in a psychosocial context
and recommendations for deterrence, investigative, and treatment efforts made.
PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING
Data was collected using an online survey collected from two samples, one from a
reference population of the general public (n=524) and one from a population of
previously convicted CSEM offenders (n=78), both of which were composed of
adults living in the United States.
METHODS
Two reviews were conducted using a PRISMA methodology - a systematic review of
the cognitive distortions of CSEM offenders and an integrative review of their
technology usage. A theoretical basis for LST was developed, and then seven
investigations of the survey data were conducted evaluating the public’s
endorsement of lawless spaces; the public’s perceptions of CSEM offenders; the
self-perceptions of CSEM offenders; the suicidality of the offender sample; the use of
technology and countermeasures by the offender sample; the collecting and viewing
behaviours of the offender sample; and the idiographic profiles of the offender
sample.
RESULTS
The reviews found that the endorsement of traditional child contact offender
cognitive distortions by CSEM offenders was low, and that they continued to use
technology beyond its normative lifecycle. LST was developed to explain these
behaviours, and the view of the Internet as generally lawless was endorsed by the
reference and offender samples. The public sample showed biased beliefs that
generally overestimated the prevalence of, and risk associated with, CSEM offending
when compared to the offender sample. Offenders were found to have viewed
investigators as having a lack of understanding and compassion, and they exhibited
very high suicidal ideation following their interaction with law enforcement. Offenders
exhibited similar technical abilities and lower technophilia than the reference sample,
chose technologies to both reduce psychological strain and for utility purposes, and
many exhibited cyclic deletions of their collections as part of a guilt/shame cycle.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Understanding CSEM offenders’ technological behaviours and cognitions can inform
more effective investigative, deterrence, and treatment efforts. Law enforcement
showing compassion during investigations may generate more full disclosures while
facilitating offender engagement with resources to reduce suicidality. Deterrence
efforts focused on establishing capable guardianship and reducing perceived
lawlessness provide the potential to reduce offending. Treatment of criminogenic
needs for the majority of CSEM offenders is not supported by evidence, but noncriminogenic treatment warrants broader consideration.
In the decade since the publication of the first edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology, the field has expanded into areas such as social work and education, while maintaining the interest of criminal justice researchers and policy makers. This new edition provides cutting-edge and comprehensive coverage of the key theoretical perspectives, assessment methods, and interventions in forensic psychology. The chapters address substantive topics such as acquisitive crime, domestic violence, mass murder, and sexual violence, while also exploring emerging areas of research such as the expansion of cybercrime, particularly child sexual exploitation, as well as aspects of terrorism and radicalisation. Reflecting the global reach of forensic psychology and its wide range of perspectives, the international team of contributors emphasise diversity and cross-reference between adults, adolescents, and children to deliver a contemporary picture of the discipline.
For most people across the world the availability of the Internet and, in particular, hand-held devices, has had a positive impact on the way that people interact with the world and each other. However, this has also been associated with a number of cybercrimes and the focus of this chapter is online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA). These crimes include the production, preparation, consumption, sharing, dissemination or possession of CSEM and the solicitation of children for sexual purposes (sometimes called ‘grooming’), whether or not it results, or is intended to result, in a contact offence. It is difficult to make meaningful estimates of the scale of these crimes as conviction data is dependent on an individual being identified and the capacity of law enforcement to analyse the digital data associated with the crime. However, converging data would suggest that these crimes are increasing. OCSEA crimes may take place within a specific country but national and international cross-disciplinary collaboration is needed to both identify, locate and safeguard victims and prevent, investigate and prosecute these crimes. Europe is one region that has given greatest consideration to the issue of child exploitation and in particular child sexual abuse materials. In the last twenty years there has been considerable progress in understanding the demographic profiles of people who commit OCSEA crimes, what motivates them to offend and how they may be assessed in relation to future risks, particularly the commission of contact offences. However, it is unclear why our existing data would suggest that both identified OCSEA offenders and victims are more likely to be White rather than representing country-specific population demographics.
Elder abuse is a worldwide problem, aggravated by the global increase in the older population. This paper reports on a qualitative descriptive study done within the broad framework of intervention research. It explores the experiences of abused older persons in resource-poor settings in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Data were collected during individual semi-structured interviews and intervention sessions. The honest accounts of participants revealed the raw pain and distress of their experiences of abuse. In the light of the serious multidimensional reactions to elder abuse described in this article, consistent and coordinated social work services offered to older person who are abused is recommended.
Introduction
Sexual self-concepts are people’s positive and negative perceptions as sexual beings. This study sought to further understand sexual self-concepts among young men who have sex with men with childhood sexual abuse histories. Method: Sixteen (N = 16) participants were interviewed utilizing a hermeneutical phenomenological conceptual framework and methodology. Salient themes were developed and analyzed with the assistance of NVivo. Result: Three themes were found: (1) body image concerns; (2) penile insecurities; and (3) desire for romantic attachment. Conclusion: Findings highlight several perceived factors related to sexual self-concepts that could benefit from additional exploration and consideration when providing mental health services. Nonparticipation was discussed as a limitation and a potential obstacle to service-seeking behavior among individuals that have experienced severe childhood trauma. Further awareness about the paradigm of body image and healthy relationship development could assist in improving mental health concerns among this group.
A review of 45 studies clearly demonstrated that sexually abused children had more symptoms than nonabused children, with abuse accounting for 15–45% of the variance. Fears, posttraumatic stress disorder, behavior problems, sexualized behaviors, and poor self-esteem occurred most frequently among a long list of symptoms noted, but no one symptom characterized a majority of sexually abused children. Some symptoms were specific to certain ages, and approximately one third of victims had no symptoms. Penetration, the duration and frequency of the abuse, force, the relationship of the perpetrator to the child, and maternal support affected the degree of symptomatology. About two thirds of the victimized children showed recovery during the first 12–18 months. The findings suggest the absence of any specific syndrome in children who have been sexually abused and no single traumatizing process.
Shame following childhood sexual abuse (CSA) can be intensely painful and destructive to one's sense of self and place in the world. Organised around an internalised core belief of worthlessness, extreme shame presents as a major therapeutic challenge in therapy with many CSA survivors. A range of clinical and empirical literature, alongside recounts of survivors lived experience, shows that shame is an effect of CSA for many survivors. Yet research has rarely focused specifically on survivors’ qualitative or lived experiences of shame. This article reports the results of a scoping review of the empirical research investigating adult survivors’ experiences of shame following sexual abuse in their childhood. Conducted in March 2018, the search strategy involved on‐line searches of English language, peer review and select grey literature repositories for articles published up to the end of 2017. Of the 28 peer reviewed studies included in the review, only three studies specifically investigate adult survivors lived experiences of shame. The synthesised findings from the studies identify five themes demonstrating the pervasive and detrimental influence of shame following CSA: (1) Psychological effects and trauma symptoms; (2) Relationships and social connections and disconnections; (3) Disclosure; (4) Self concept; and, (5) The process of recovery. These findings resonate with conceptual literature and broader research on the influence of shame following violence and highlight areas for future research and clinical practice. This scoping review identifies three key gaps: a need for further research across specific populations and groups; research evaluating therapeutic interventions responding to shame; and research that specifically investigates adult survivors’ lived experiences of shame following CSA.
Objective: To identify the gender differences, prevalence and cross-association of abuse and post-traumatic stress
disorder symptoms in school-going adolescents.
Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted in four government schools of Lahore, Pakistan, from February
to June 2016, and comprised students aged 11-18 years who were selected through simple random sampling
technique. The Child Abuse Scale: Adolescent Version and Hopkins Symptoms Checklist were used to measure the
gender differences, prevalence and cross-association of abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. SPSS
22 was used to analyse data.
Results: There were 478 participants with a mean age of 15.18±1.45 years. Of the total, 247(52%) subjects were
males and 231(48%) were females. The overall, 130(27%) male respondents reported significantly high abuse than
101(21%) female adolescents (p=0.032). However, 113(23%) females scored significantly high on physical and
emotional sub-scales of abuse than 98(21%) males (p=0.031). No significant gender differences in the prevalence of
sexual abuse were observed (p=0.431). On post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, 140(29%) females
demonstrated high scores than 102(21%) males (p=0.008). Association of child abuse with post-traumatic stress
disorder symptoms was also significant (p=0.008) as 133(28%) subjects reporting high abuse also exhibited high
symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Conclusion: Significant association of abuse with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms emphasise the need for
early identification and timely management of abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adolescents.
Keywords: Child abuse, PTSD symptoms, Adolescents.
This paper considers the unexplored question of whether unaware crime victims have rights or interests in knowing and not knowing information pertaining to the crime(s) committed against them. Our specific focus is on whether crimes regarding abusive images should be disclosed to the now-adult victims of child sexual abuse who feature in them. Because these issues have not been addressed in the victimology or criminological literature, we utilise literature in another discipline – healthcare ethics and law – to inform our analysis. Through engaging with the debate on the right to know and not to know information concerning one’s genetic status, we develop a conceptualisation of the issues regarding unknowing abusive image victims. A rights-based conceptualisation proves to be largely inappropriate; we contend that, instead, it would be more productive to look to unknowing abusive image victims’ interests. We argue that the interests at stake are grounded in autonomy and/or spatial privacy, and that to find a way to resolve the disclosure dilemma, these interests must be considered alongside consequentialist concerns; disclosing information regarding abusive images could empower now-adult victims but could well cause them (further) harm. Finally, we consider the implications of our analysis for victimology.
Men who have sex with men (MSM) disproportionately experience childhood sexual abuse (CSA) compared with heterosexual men, often resulting in continued trauma-related sequelae, including symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) such as avoidance. The variability in trauma-related sequelae may be associated with chronicity or duration of CSA. The relationship between duration of CSA and later PTSD symptom severity is not well understood, including the extent coping strategies account for these relationships. We used linear regression to examine these relationships and to assess the indirect effects of avoidance (behavioral disengagement and denial) and adaptive coping strategies on the relationship between CSA duration and adult PTSD symptom severity on a diverse sample included 290 MSM with a history of CSA. In adjusted models, CSA duration was significantly associated with adult PTSD symptom severity (standardized β = .23, p < .000) and with avoidance coping (standardized β = .19, p = .002). Separating this out, behavioral disengagement was significantly associated with CSA duration (standardized β = .20, p = .001) but denial was not. In adjusted analyses assessing indirect effects, avoidance coping partially accounted for the relationship between CSA duration and total trauma symptom severity (standardized β reduced from .23 to .17; Sobel = 2.90, p = .004). Similarly, behavioral disengagement partially accounted for the association between CSA duration and total symptoms (standardized β reduced from .23 to .18; Sobel = 2.68, p = .007). Avoidance coping, and behavioral disengagement specifically, may play a role in the severity of PTSD symptoms experienced by MSM with CSA histories. This work emphasizes the need for clinicians to consider behavioral disengagement in understanding PTSD symptom severity among MSM with histories of CSA.
This study evaluates and synthesizes qualitative evidence addressing factors affecting a child’s decision to disclose an experience of sexual abuse. Childhood sexual abuse is a devastating crime, with long-term negative impacts. Understanding the factors that affect a child’s decision to disclose is vital. Disclosure enables access to support and protection, both therapeutically and legally. A systematic review was conducted focusing on factors affecting a child’s decision to disclose an experience of sexual abuse. Seven studies were identified, quality appraisal undertaken, and meta-ethnography used to synthesize the studies. Six new super-ordinate themes were developed: Fear of what will happen; Others’ reactions: fear of disbelief; Emotions and impact of the abuse; An opportunity to tell; Concern for self and others; and Feelings toward the abuser. Themes indicated the importance of support, structure, and opportunity to facilitate disclosure and should be utilized by agencies to develop practices that facilitate disclosures.
Previous research has demonstrated increased psychological distress and increased risk of revicitimization for survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA). However, little is know about the associations among CSA, military sexual trauma (MST), and psychological distress among male military personnel and veterans. These issues were examined in the present study in a sample of 328 male military personnel and veterans enrolled in college. Results indicated that participants with a history of CSA were significantly more likely to experience MST (50%) than participants without a history of CSA (4%). Depression, posttraumatic stress, and guilt were significantly higher among participants with CSA and/or MST as compared to those with no history of sexual victimization, even when adjusting for age and combat exposure. Guilt significantly mediated the relationship between CSA and current psychological distress.
Recent research on a risk assessment tool for child pornography offending suggests that admission of sexual interest in children is a risk factor for any sexual recidivism. Admission is easily vulnerable to lying, however, or to refusals to respond when asked about sexual interests. This may become a particular issue when individuals are concerned about the potential impact of admission of sexual interest on sentencing and other risk-related decisions. In this study, we identified the following behavioral correlates (coded yes/no) of admission of sexual interest in children in the risk tool development sample of 286 men convicted of child pornography offenses: (a) never married (54% of sample), (b) child pornography content included child sexual abuse videos (64%), (c) child pornography content included sex stories involving children (31%), (d) evidence of interest in child pornography spanned 2 or more years (55%), (e) volunteered in a role with high access to children (7%), and (f) engaged in online sexual communication with a minor or officer posing as a minor (10%). When summed, the average score on this Correlates of Admission of Sexual Interest in Children (CASIC) measure was 2.21 (SD = 1.22, range 0-6) out of a possible 6, and the CASIC score was significantly associated with admission of sexual interest in children, area under the curve (AUC) = .71, 95% CI [ .65, .77]. The CASIC had a stronger relationship with admission in a small cross-validation sample of 60 child pornography offenders, AUC = .81, 95% CI [.68, .95]. CASIC scores may substitute for admission of sexual interest in risk assessment involving those with child pornography offenses. (PsycINFO Database Record
Sexual abuse (SA) is highly prevalent among detained youth and is associated with a number of deleterious outcomes associated with self-regulation deficits; however, less is known about the consequences of SA for boys. Thus, the current study examined posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and associated symptoms in a sample of detained youth (612 boys, 214 girls). 9.2 % of boys and 51.0 % of girls endorsed SA. There were no gender differences in rates of symptoms endorsed by sexually abused girls and boys; however, sexually abused boys reported higher rates of symptoms in comparison to non-sexually abused boys. Results indicated that, for boys only, there were significant indirect effects of emotion dysregulation (ED), borderline personality features (BP), and dissociation on the association between SA and PTSS. Additionally, there was a significant, indirect effect of BP on the association between SA and delinquent behaviors for both boys and girls.
Objective:
The unique characteristics of sexual assault (SA)-a toxic mix of an interpersonal harm, a violent exploitation of one's body, and a transformation of an act of connectedness into an act of submission-are postulated to negatively affect the self-concept. We sought to deepen the understanding of self-concept impairments among sexually assaulted women with varying levels of posttraumatic distress. To this end, we compared women with a main trauma of SA to women with a main trauma of motor-vehicle accident (MVA) and to nontraumatized (NT) women on several self-concept aspects. Our main hypotheses were (a) sexually assaulted women without PTSD exhibit impaired self-concept as compared with NT women and (b) SA is related to greater self-concept impairments as compared with MVA, even when posttraumatic distress is statistically controlled.
Method:
Women (N = 235: NT = 69, MVA = 87, SA = 79) completed a web-based survey including measures designed to assess the global and domain-specific contents and structure of the self-concept as well as background and clinical questionnaires.
Results:
Sexually assaulted women without PTSD reported impaired self-concept as compared with NT women. Furthermore, SA was related to greater self-concept impairments as compared with MVA, even when considering participants' levels of posttraumatic distress.
Conclusions:
SA is related to unique self-concept impairments that extend beyond symptoms, emphasizing the need to assess and address self-concept impairments in sexually assaulted women. The importance of adopting a multifaceted conceptualization of the self to gain a deeper understanding of the aftermath of trauma is highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record
The innovation of the Internet and the proliferation of new digital technologies in everyday life have unfortunately created more opportunities for the sexual abuse of children and especially the global distribution of child sexual abuse images online (CSAIO). Most of the current therapeutic interventions being used were designed to treat ‘conventional’ sexual abuse trauma. Victims of CSAIO may experience ongoing trauma because the recordings of their abuse have the potential to be endlessly viewed and shared by those with a sexual interest in children some of whom may be known to them. However, little is known about the potential psychological harm to victims, the extent to which existing trauma treatment modalities are applicable to them, or what modifications of these treatments may be required for effective treatment. This paper explores current ways of understanding the harms done to the victims of CSAIO and presents cautions and recommendations for moving forward.
This Special Issue stems from the international symposium, “Child Sexual Abuse Images Online: Confronting the Problem—Research, Policy, Practice,” which was held at Ryerson University in June 2014 with funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). The collection of papers in the Issue focus on child sexual abuse images online from the perspectives of children's mental health, child protection, and law enforcement. The symposium brought together local and international academics, policymakers, child advocates, practitioners, law enforcement officers, child welfare workers, and other key stakeholders who assume various roles and responsibilities in responding to child sexual abuse. Over two days we shared knowledge, experiences, and insights related to the role of technology in child sexual abuse; specifically the implications of child sexual abuse images online. Through presentations, panel discussions, and round-table working group discussions, participants examined and shared current knowledge about child sexual abuse images online, identified key priorities, and determined critical strategies and vital next steps. The five articles in this Special Issue represent those cross-sectoral contributions. We thank the Editors of Child & Youth Services, Dr. Kiaras Gharabaghi and Dr. Ben Anderson-Nathe, for inviting us to develop a Special Issue for this journal based on the presentations made at the 2014 CSAIO Symposium. We also thank our external reviewers through whom all articles in this Issue were subjected to a rigorous blind peer review.
The present study examined the relationships between dysregulations in self-conscious emotions and psychopathology in clinically referred children and adolescents. For this purpose, parent-, teacher-, and self-report Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment data of 1000 youth aged 4-18 years was analyzed as this instrument not only provides information on the intensity levels of lack of guilt, guilt, and shame, but also on the severity of various types of psychopathology. The results first of all indicated that dysregulations of self-conscious emotions were more common in this clinical sample than in the general population. Further, a consistent pattern was found with regard to the relationships between self-conscious emotions and childhood psychopathology. That is, lack of guilt was predominantly associated with oppositional defiant and conduct (i.e., externalizing) problems, while guilt and shame were primarily linked with affective and anxiety (i.e., internalizing) problems. By and large, these findings confirm what has been found in non-clinical youth, and suggest that self-conscious emotions play a small but significant role in the psychopathology of children and adolescents.
Introduction:
Sexual interest toward prepubescents and pubescents (pedophilia and hebephilia) constitutes a major risk factor for child sexual abuse (CSA) and viewing of child abusive images, i.e., child pornography offenses (CPO). Most child sexual exploitation involving CSA and CPO are undetected and unprosecuted in the "Dunkelfeld" (German: "dark field").
Aim:
This study assesses a treatment program to enhance behavioral control and reduce associated dynamic risk factors (DRF) in self-motivated pedophiles/hebephiles in the Dunkelfeld.
Methods:
Between 2005 and 2011, 319 undetected help-seeking pedophiles and hebephiles expressed interest in taking part in an anonymous and confidential 1-year-treatment program using broad cognitive behavioral methodology in the Prevention Project Dunkelfeld. Therapy was assessed using nonrandomized waiting list control design (n=53 treated group [TG]; n=22 untreated control group [CG]).
Main outcome measures:
Self-reported pre-/posttreatment DRF changes were assessed and compared with CG. Offending behavior characteristics were also assessed via self-reporting.
Results:
No pre-/postassessment changes occurred in the control group. Emotional deficits and offense-supportive cognitions decreased in the TG; posttherapy sexual self-regulation increased. Treatment-related changes were distributed unequally across offender groups. None of the offending behavior reported for the TG was identified as such by the legal authorities. However, five of 25 CSA offenders and 29 of 32 CPO offenders reported ongoing behaviors under therapy.
Conclusions:
Therapy for pedophiles/hebephiles in the Dunkelfeld can alter child sexual offending DRF and reduce-related behaviors. Unidentified, unlawful child sexual exploitative behaviors are more prevalent in this population than in officially reported recidivism. Further research into factors predictive of problematic sexual behaviors in the Dunkelfeld is warranted.
Child sexual abuse images online (CSAIO) present new and daunt-ing challenges for practitioners working in the field of child sex-ual abuse (CSA). Current understanding of the phenomenon is severely limited due to a lack of theoretical and empirical research in the area. This article reports findings from a study that examined practitioners' experiences with, and views of, CSAIO. Participants differed in how they conceptualized what constituted online CSA images and held varying degrees of concern regarding the poten-tial effects of CSAIO on the child. Some practitioners were uncertain about whether child victims of CSAIO experience particular effects different from or over and above those caused by conventional (non-Internet related) CSA. A key finding was that most practi-tioners did not have a clear understanding of CSAIO. This article includes recommendations for future research regarding the impli-cations of technology in the field of CSA. KEYWORDS abuse images, child sexual abuse, child pornogra-phy, child sexual abuse images online, cyber abuse, cyber world, sexual exploitation online The ways in which a problem is thought about, and talked about, influ-ence responses to the problem (Witkin, 2012). In clinical practice, problem construction relies on available knowledge and clinical experience, and is influenced by the values and beliefs of society at large (Dunphy, 2000),
This study investigated the emotional and familial relationships of 465 victims and perpetrators of childhood sexual abuse. Four hundred nineteen women and 56 men who were victims of childhood sexual abuse completed the Trauma Symptom Checklist-33 (TSC-33; J. Briere & M. Runtz, 1989) and a severity of sexual abuse scale. In addition, the abuse survivors answered questions about their emotional relationships with the offender prior to the abuse. The data were analyzed with analysis of variance. The dependent variable was the adjustment to the trauma, as measured by the TSC-33. The independent variables were perpetrator identity, gender, level of abuse, and emotional feelings exhibited toward the perpetrator prior to being sexually abused. The most pervasive symptoms were found among participants who were abused by a father figure and women who were very severely abused. Contrary to theoretical expectations, there were no statistically significant differences based on gender.
Cyberspace has added a new dimension to the ecology of children made the subjects of sexual abuse images distributed online. These images cannot be permanently removed and can continue to circulate in cyberspace forever. A review of the current literature suggests that helping professionals are not consistently aware of or do not probe possibilities of online sexual victimization in the investigation, assessment, and treatment of child sexual abuse. Nor is this issue adequately addressed in their education and training. There are gaps in the literature regarding how to identify and provide treatment for these children. New assessment and treatment targets are needed to enhance existing practice approaches. A contemporary ecological model that incorporates an explicit consideration of the cybersystem is provided as a starting point for practitioners to be aware of the possibility that images of child sexual abuse were recorded and distributed online.
The online distribution of abusive images has risen dramatically over recent years and this raises many questions concerning the children within the images, particularly in relation to identification and provision of services. From October 2004 until September 2007, Innocence in Danger e.V. conducted an empirical study concerning the care and treatment of victims of child pornographic exploitation (CPE) in Germany by contacting all specialized institutions nationwide dealing with sexually abused children. This was achieved through questionnaires and interviews. A total of 245 cases of child pornographic exploitation (197 girls, 48 boys) and 280 suspected cases of child pornographic exploitation were identified. It was reported that cases of CPE were of a higher complexity than offline abuse, more demanding for professionals and raised many questions about professional involvement. Identified challenges included the issue of permanence once abusive images have been distributed online, and the coping strategies of children which might foster resilience. The study concludes that even though child pornographic exploitation is much talked about, there is still a lack of knowledge in how to identify, approach and help such children.
The empirical basis for the child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome (CSAAS), a theoretical model that posits that sexually abused children frequently display secrecy, tentative disclosures, and retractions of abuse statements was reviewed. Two data sources were evaluated: retrospective studies of adults' reports of having been abused as children and concurrent or chart-review studies of children undergoing evaluation or treatment for sexual abuse. The evidence indicates that the majority of abused children do not reveal abuse during childhood. However, the evidence fails to support the notion that denials, tentative disclosures, and recantations characterize the disclosure patterns of children with validated histories of sexual abuse. These results are discussed in terms of their implications governing the admissibility of expert testimony on CSAAS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The article describes the development and psychometric evaluation of the Trauma-Related Guilt Inventory (TRGI). An initial questionnaire was constructed from multiple sources of information. Three factor analytic studies were conducted to refine the TRGI and determine its factor structure, which consists of a Distress factor and three cognitive factors, Hindsight-Bias/Responsibility, Wrongdoing, and Lack of Justification. The TRGI has high internal consistency and adequate temporal stability. In validity studies with Vietnam veterans and battered women, TRGI scales and subscales were significantly correlated with other measures of guilt and with measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and other indexes of adjustment. Findings support the conceptualization of trauma-related guilt as a multidimensional construct and highlight the role of cognitions in the experience of guilt and posttrauma psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirteen men convicted of downloading child pornography were interviewed with a view to understanding how these men talked about the photographs and the function such talk played in their accounts. The interviews were informed by earlier work with defended subjects and were analyzed within a discursive framework. Quotations are used from the interviews to illustrate the analysis. Six principal discourses emerged within these accounts in relation to child pornography: sexual arousal; as collectibles; facilitating social relationships; as a way of avoiding real life; as therapy; and in relation to the Internet. These are discussed in the context of previous research. The analysis illustrates the important role that the Internet plays in increasing sexual arousal to child pornography and highlights individual differences in whether this serves as a substitute or as a blueprint for contact offenses. It also draws our attention to the important role that community plays in the Internet and how collecting facilitates the objectification of children and increases the likelihood that in the quest for new images children continue to be sexually abused. Discourses focussing on both therapy and addiction serve to distance the respondent from personal agency and allow for continued engagement with child pornography.
This qualitative study aimed to study the process of disclosure by examining adolescents from the general population who had experienced child sexual abuse (CSA). Twenty-six sexually victimized adolescents (23 girls, 3 boys; age: 15-18 years) participated in a qualitative face-to-face in-depth interview on different aspects of disclosure. A qualitative content analysis was conducted following Mayring and using the qualitative data analysis program Atlas.ti. In addition, quantitative correlation analyses were calculated to identify factors associated with disclosure. Less than one third of participants immediately disclosed CSA to another person. In most cases, recipients of both immediate and delayed disclosure were peers. More than one third of participants had never disclosed the abuse to a parent. Main motives for nondisclosure to parents were lack of trust or not wanting to burden the parents. Factors that correlated positively with disclosure were extrafamilial CSA, single CSA, age of victim at CSA, and having parents who were still living together. Negative associations with disclosure were found for feelings of guilt and shame and the perpetrator's age. Many adolescent survivors of CSA have serious concerns about disclosure to their parents and consider friends as more reliable confidants. These findings have two main implications for prevention: (1) In order to facilitate disclosure to parents, the strengthening of the child-parent relationship should be given specific attention in prevention programs, and (2) prevention programs should aim at teaching adolescents how they can help a victim if they become a recipient of disclosure.
The present study investigates experiential avoidance and forgiveness, two general
response styles to emotional distress that may impact reactions to trauma exposure,
as potential mediators of the link between interpersonal trauma exposure and
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a cross–sectional survey of 229
undergraduate students reporting interpersonal trauma exposure. Utilizing structural
equation modeling techniques, both constructs were found to significantly
partially mediate the relation between interpersonal trauma exposure and PTSD
symptoms; experiential avoidance reduced the relation between interpersonal
trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms by 22% while forgiveness reduced this relation
by 14%. Thus, individuals who were lower in forgiveness and higher in experiential
avoidance reported higher PTSD symptoms than those higher in forgiveness
and lower in experiential avoidance. Implications for treatment and prevention of
PTSD symptoms are discussed.
Psychological abuse in childhood has been linked to psychological
distress in adulthood, although the interceding variables or
possible mediators for the adult distress have not been adequately examined.
Identification of mediating variables may provide important opportunities
for targeting intervention and prevention efforts following
psychological abuse. Experiential avoidance, a response style characterized
by avoidance of negative private events, was examined as a potential
mediator of the relationship between reports of childhood psychological
abuse and current mental health symptoms in a cross-sectional
sample of 987 college undergraduates. Utilizing structural equation
modeling techniques, experiential avoidance was found to significantly
mediate the relationship between childhood psychological abuse and
current mental health symptoms, reducing the direct effect by 77%. A
history of childhood psychological abuse was related to increased levels
of experiential avoidance and current mental health symptoms, and experiential
avoidance was also directly related to increased levels of current
mental health symptoms. Implications for treatment following
psychological abuse are discussed.
Betrayal trauma, or trauma perpetrated by someone with whom a victim is close, is strongly associated with a range of negative psychological and physical health outcomes. However, few studies have examined associations between different forms of trauma and emotional and physical symptoms. The present study compared betrayal trauma to other forms of trauma as predictors of young adults' psychological and physical symptoms, and explored potential mediators. A total of 185 university undergraduate students completed the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey, the Trauma Symptom Checklist, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and the Pennebaker Inventory of Limbic Languidness. For each set of symptoms, simultaneous multiple regressions assessed the relative contributions of low versus high betrayal trauma to psychological and physical health reports. Structural equation models examined traumatic stress symptoms and alexithymia as mediators of the relationship between betrayal trauma and physical health symptoms. A total of 151 participants (82%) reported exposure to at least 1 of 11 forms of trauma queried (M = 2.08, SD = 1.94); 96 participants (51.9%) reported at least 1 betrayal trauma. Traumas characterized by high betrayal predicted alexithymia, anxiety, depression, dissociation, physical health complaints, and the number of days students reported being sick during the past month, whereas other traumas did not. Structural equation modeling revealed that traumatic stress symptoms and alexithymia mediated the association between betrayal trauma and physical health complaints. These results indicate that betrayal trauma is associated with young adults' physical and mental health difficulties to a greater extent than are other forms of trauma. Results may inform assessment, intervention, and prevention efforts.
Childhood sexual abuse is a prevalent social and health care problem. The processes by which individuals heal from childhood sexual abuse are not clearly understood. The purpose of this study was to develop a theoretical model to describe how adults heal from childhood sexual abuse. Community recruitment for an ongoing broader project on sexual violence throughout the lifespan, referred to as the Sexual Violence Study, yielded a subsample of 48 women and 47 men who had experienced childhood sexual abuse. During semistructured, open-ended interviews, they were asked to describe their experiences with healing from childhood sexual abuse and other victimization throughout their lives. Constructivist grounded theory methods were used with these data to develop constructs and hypotheses about healing. For the Sexual Violence Study, frameworks were developed to describe the participants' life patterns, parenting experiences, disclosures about sexual violence, spirituality, and altruism. Several analytic techniques were used to synthesize the findings of these frameworks to develop an overarching theoretical model that describes healing from childhood sexual abuse. The model includes four stages of healing, five domains of functioning, and six enabling factors that facilitate movement from one stage to the next. The findings indicate that healing is a complex and dynamic trajectory. The model can be used to alert clinicians to a variety of processes and enabling factors that facilitate healing in several domains and to guide discussions on important issues related to healing from childhood sexual abuse.
Using two waves of the Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS), this research examined the effects of different forms of child victimization on changes in self-concept in a national sample of 11- to 18-year-old youth. Specifically, we (a) assessed the independent effects of past-year sexual victimization, nonsexual child maltreatment, peer victimization, and nonvictimization adversity on changes in mastery and self-esteem, (b) investigated the effects of these stressors on levels of depressive symptoms, and (c) determined the extent to which changes in mastery and/or self-esteem mediate associations between victimization and depression. Results indicate that only sexual victimization independently reduced self-esteem, and there were no significant changes in mastery in response to victimization exposure. Declines in self-esteem partially mediated the association between past-year sexual victimization exposure and levels of depressive symptoms. Strong direct effects of each form of victimization and nonvictimization adversity on depression were also evident. Results suggest that sexual victimization experiences may have uniquely powerful effects on self-esteem that are not apparent for other types of victimization and stress.
Our study sought to explore patterns of disclosure of child sexual abuse (CSA) in a sample of adult men and women.
A telephone survey conducted with a representative sample of adults (n = 804) from Quebec assessed the prevalence of CSA and disclosure patterns. Analyses were carried out to determine whether disclosure groups differed in terms of psychological distress and symptoms of posttraumatic stress, and a logistic regression was used to examine factors associated with prompt disclosure.
Prevalence of CSA was 22.1% for women and 9.7% for men. About 1 survivor out of 5 had never disclosed the abuse, with men more likely not to have told anyone, than women. Only 21.2% of adults reported prompt disclosure (within a month of the first abusive event), while 57.5% delayed disclosure (more than 5 years after the first episode). CSA victims who never disclosed the abuse and those who delayed disclosure were more likely to obtain scores of psychological distress and posttraumatic stress achieving clinical levels, compared with adults without a history of CSA. In the multivariate analysis, experiencing CSA involving a perpetrator outside the immediate family and being female were factors independently associated with prompt disclosure.
A significant number of adult women and men reported experiencing CSA, and most victims attested to either not disclosing or significantly delaying abuse disclosure.
Children's guilt associated with transgressions and their capacity for effortful control are both powerful forces that inhibit disruptive conduct. The authors examined how guilt and effortful control, repeatedly observed from toddlerhood to preschool age, jointly predicted children's disruptive outcomes in 2 multimethod, multitrait longitudinal studies (Ns = 57 and 99). Disruptive outcomes were rated by mothers at 73 months (Study 1) and mothers, fathers, and teachers at 52 and 67 months (Study 2). In both studies, guilt moderated effects of effortful control: For highly guilt-prone children, variations in effortful control were unrelated to future disruptive outcomes, but for children who were less guilt prone, effortful control predicted such outcomes. Guilt may inhibit transgressions through an automatic response due to negative arousal triggered by memories of past wrongdoing, regardless of child capacity for deliberate inhibition. Effortful control that engages a deliberate restraint may offset risk for disruptive conduct conferred by low guilt.
This study examines the usefulness of the Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC-40) in measuring the long-term sequelae of sexual abuse. In a national survey of 2,963 professional women, the TSC-40 was found to be reliable and to display predictive validity with regard to childhood sexual victimization. Women who reported a sexual abuse history scored significantly higher than did women with no history of abuse on each of the six subscales and on the overall TSC-40 score. Various aspects of childhood victimization were associated with the subscale scores, with the Sexual Abuse Trauma Index and Dissociation subscales being more sensitive to the specific components of the abuse.
Research regarding child sexual abuse (CSA) indicates significant gender differences in disclosure rates, with males less likely to disclose their abuse compared to females. CSA can have lasting impact on a children's emotional, physical, and psychological wellbeing. While service providers play an instrumental role in providing care and support for male CSA survivors, little is known about their perceptions and experiences related to disclosure among these men. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore service providers' perceptions and awareness of disclosure-related barriers and facilitators amongst male CSA survivors. Individual interviews were conducted with eleven service providers. Study findings reveal four key themes related to the disclosure process among male CSA survivors: (a) personal characteristics, (b) interpersonal relations, (c) institutional elements, and (d) societal norms. Findings indicate that service providers understand and respond to complex challenges associated with disclosure of CSA among this marginalized population. Study findings demonstrate the need for additional research on the specific issues of gender bias and stigma associated with male sexual abuse. Along with their empirical significance, these findings can be used to develop more tailored public health and social service-related programming for male CSA survivors, their families, and the broader community to promote a safer and more supportive environment in which to discuss these sensitive and important issues. Recommendations to service providers are discussed.
This research explores the complex experiences of survivors of child pornography production. The study was conducted among a convenience sample of child pornography adult survivors (N = 133), using an online survey which included a series of open-ended questions. Nearly half of respondents reported that they felt the production of sexual images caused specific problems that were different from the problems caused by other aspects of the abuse. Nearly half of the sample worried all the time that people would think they were willing participants or that people would recognize them, one-third refused to talk about the images and 22% denied there were images. The qualitative analysis identified three major themes which emerged from the survivor's perspective as adults: Guilt and shame, their ongoing vulnerability and an empowerment dimension the images sometimes brought. Recommendations for further research and additional implications are discussed.
The Child Pornography Offender Risk Tool (CPORT) is a seven-item structured tool to assess the likelihood of future sexual offending over a 5-year fixed follow-up. The current study examined 5-year fixed follow-up data (15% any new sexual offense, 9% any new child pornography offense) for a validation sample of 80 men convicted of child pornography offense(s). Although statistical power was low, results were comparable with the development sample: The CPORT had slightly lower predictive accuracy for sexual recidivism for the overall group (area under the curve [AUC] = .70 vs. .74), but these values were not significantly different. Combining the development and validation samples, the CPORT predicted any sexual recidivism (AUC = .72) and child pornography recidivism specifically (AUC = .74), with similar accuracies. CPORT was also significantly predictive of these outcomes for the child pornography offenders with no known contact offenses. Strengths and weaknesses of incorporating CPORT into applied risk assessments are discussed.
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a general term describing a wide range of events that vary in characteristics such as the victim’s age of onset, relationship to the perpetrator, abuse quantity, degree of contact, and use of force. To investigate correlations and provide information on the clustering of these characteristics, the present meta-analysis included data from 14,494 sexually abused individuals from 62 empirical peer-reviewed studies and doctoral theses. Results showed that victims of intrafamilial abuse were younger than victims of extrafamilial abuse. More force was used in abuse including higher degrees of physical contact. Intrafamilial abuse and early onset of abuse showed no statistically significant associations with either use of force or closer physical contact. Abuse was more frequent and/or committed over a longer time period when it (a) featured more contact or force, (b) involved a relative as a perpetrator, or (c) commenced when the child was younger. The associations
were weak to moderate in strength.
In the present study, our aim was to examine longitudinal posttraumatic stress symptom (PTSS) trajectories in a Norwegian sample of adults who had experienced sexual abuse during childhood, and to identify predictors of PTSS-trajectory belongingness. The sample consisted of 138 adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse (96.4% women, mean age = 42.9 years, mean age at the first abuse = 5.9 years), recruited from support centers for sexual abuse survivors. The majority (78.3%) reported penetrative abuse, and a large proportion of the sample reported that the perpetrator was a biological parent (38.4%) or someone they trusted (76.1%), reflecting a high severity level of the abusive experiences. Latent Profile Analyses revealed the best overall fit for a two PTSS-trajectories model; one trajectory characterized by sub-clinical and decreasing level of PTSS (54.9%), and the other by high and slightly decreasing level of PTSS (45.1%). Increased odds for belonging to the trajectory with clinical level symptoms was found among those who reported higher levels of exposure to other types of childhood maltreatment (OR = 3.69, p = 0.002), sexual abuse enforced by physical violence (OR = 3.04, p = 0.003) or threats (OR = 2.56, p = 0.014), very painful sexual abuse (OR = 2.73, p = 0.007), or who had experienced intense anxiety, helplessness or fear during the abuse (OR = 2.97, p = 0.044). Those in the trajectory with clinical level PTSS reported lower levels of perceived social support and more relational difficulties compared to those in the sub-clinical PTSS trajectory. In conclusion, different longitudinal PTSS trajectories can be found among adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Significant predictors of PTSS-trajectory belongingness are discussed alongside their potential implications for preventive efforts and clinical interventions.
This study seeks to understand and critique the growing online trend of “revenge porn,” or the intentional embarrassment of identifiable individuals through the posting of nude images online. This posting of intimate pictures, often done out of motives of revenge for perceived relational scorn, is enhanced by the varying levels of online anonymity. Using the theoretical framework of John Dewey's pragmatism, this study both analyzes this understudied but complex new problem precipitated by the conditions of the online self and establishes the groundwork for the use of pragmatist ethics in other areas of communication ethics.
This article considers how the United States could fulfill its international treaty obligations to support the full restoration of child pornography victims in the aftermath of the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court in Paroline v. United States. The article details how the United States provided leadership historically in creating a skeletal legal framework domestically and internationally to help combat child pornography and restore victims, and highlights how that framework is failing victims on a near-universal basis in an age dominated by technological innovation and globalization. The article proposes the adoption and implementation of effective domestic and international remedies to ensure that both domestic and foreign victims of child pornography have meaningful access to the support and resources they need to recover fully from their abuse and exploitation.
Little research has examined the developmental course of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in children. The current study aimed to identify developmental trajectories of PTSS in childhood and to examine predictors of symptom presentation in 1,178 children from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) studies, a consortium of studies focusing on the causes and effects of child maltreatment. Most children had a history of documented reports with Child Protective Services (CPS) and all were identified as living in high-risk environments. Using group-based trajectory modeling, 3 unique developmental trajectories were identified: Resilient, Clinical-Improving (PTSS in the clinical range at baseline then declining over time), and Borderline-Stable (chronically subclinical PTSS). Children in the Clinical-Improving group were more likely than children in the Resilient group to have reports of physical abuse (RRR = 1.76), emotional abuse (RRR = 2.55), neglect (RRR = 1.57), and exposure to violence at home and in the community (RRR = 1.04). Children in the Borderline-Stable group were more likely than children in the Resilient group to have a CPS history of neglect (RRR = 2.44) and exposure to violence at home and in the community (RRR = 1.04). Many children living in high-risk environments exhibit resilience to PTSS, but exposure to witnessed violence and neglect appear to put children at chronic risk for poor adjustment. These children may require more intensive, integrated clinical services that attend to multiple adverse experiences.
Although research on sexual assault and its postassault consequences has grown, information on knowledge of postassault experiences for African American women remains limited. A large sample of African American women (N = 495) were surveyed about their sexual assault experiences, attributions of blame, disclosure, and social reactions received following assault. Age, educational attainment, and sexual assault severity were examined in relation to postassault factors. Exploratory analyses were conducted to identify potential differences in sexual assault experiences and postassault outcomes for African American women. Although African American women reported similar sexual assault characteristics, their postassault reactions and experiences differed according to their age and educational attainment.
How can we understand offending and victimisation processes in relation to abuse images and the Internet? This book offers the reader unique and deep insights into innovative ways of thinking about this challenging problem. The chapter authors are amongst the foremost researchers and practitioners in this field. In an area that often attracts unthinking and uncritical media comment, it is important to develop both empirical knowledge and conceptual understanding of the problems presented by abuse images and the Internet. From different perspectives, the chapters in this book provide the foundations for systematic and critical development of knowledge and understanding, and represent a major step forward in understanding of the problems that face us. Within the broader context of child sexual exploitation, the chapters effectively address four important areas of concern: the empirical evidence; legal and law enforcement provision; conceptual and practical understanding of the offending process and the management of offenders; and, victim issues. How are programmes to be developed to address the needs of the offenders? Are they the same as other forms of sex offender, or do they justify the development of different therapeutic interventions? Are we sufficiently addressing preventative measures, rather than responding to events as they arise? How do we reduce and control the quantity of abuse images available, without losing the positive qualities of the Internet? These are just some of the questions explored by the expert contributors from a wide range of disciplines; they report on new research that challenges our understanding, both by comparing it to existing knowledge about offending activity and by broadening the debate to consider its relevance to different age groups and different contexts. For anyone involved in therapy or management of Internet child pornography offenders and victims, this important book will develop professional knowledge and practice, and extend thinking in new directions.
This study investigated the association of several dimensions of relationship to perpetrator of childhood sexual abuse to posttraumatic symptomatology in adulthood. A structured clinical interview, the Impact of Event Scale, and the TSC-40 were administered to 67 women survivors seeking psychotherapy. The t-tests for significant differences indicated that subjects whose perpetrators were not caretakers experienced higher levels of posttraumatic symptomatology (PTS) in adulthood than those abused by caretakers. No significant differences were found in traumatic symptomatology between those whose perpetrators were family members and those whose perpetrators were not or between those abused by someone in the home and those abused by someone outside the household. Implications for future research and clinical practice are explored.
There is increasing evidence that people use the Internet to avoid negative emotional states, such as boredom, anxiety, or depression. This may be of increasing relevance for sex offenders. While the primary function of accessing the Internet for sex offenders is to obtain material that aids sexual arousal, the Internet functions to help people address some of the more immediate feelings of distress or dissatisfaction in their lives. For those with a sexual interest in children, once online offenders can then download child pornography and masturbate to such images, providing a highly rewarding or reinforcing context for further avoidance. The intensity of such behavior often has properties that offenders call ‘addictive’, with high levels of activity associated with the avoidance of unpleasant emotional states. The aim of this paper is to address issues that relate to emotional avoidance. Rather than having to exclude access to computers or the Internet, offenders, in the context of making explicit personal values and goals, might be helped to accept negative emotions and commit themselves to generating behavioral goals that will move them towards what they personally value.
This study examined the role of two aspects of emotion in the psychological distress of individuals with and without a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA). It was hypothesized that experiential avoidance and expressivity would mediate the relationship between CSA status and psychological distress. Ninety-nine participants completed measures that assessed for a CSA history, experiential avoidance, emotional expressivity, and psychological functioning. The results indicated that CSA status, experiential avoidance, and emotional expressivity were significantly related to psychological distress. However, only experiential avoidance mediated the relationship between CSA status and distress. These results contribute to the growing body of literature indicating that experiential avoidance has an influential role in the development of psychological symptoms.
Little is known about factors that distinguish men who act upon their self-identified sexual interest in prepubescent or pubescent children from those who do not. Even less is known about pedophiles or hebephiles who are not involved with the criminal justice system. In this study, a sample of 155 self-referred pedophiles and hebephiles was recruited from the community. All participants met DSM-IV-TR criteria for pedophilia (or paraphilia not otherwise specified for those who were sexually attracted to pubescent children). Two sets of group comparisons were conducted on sociodemographic variables and measures of dynamic risk factors. The first set was based on recent activity and compared men who had committed child pornography only or child sexual abuse offenses in the past six months with men who remained offense-free during the same period. The second set was based on lifetime offense history (excluding the most recent six months) and compared child pornography offenders with child sexual abuse offenders and men who had committed both kinds of offenses. Overall, there were more similarities than differences between groups.
To determine the rate and risk of clinical and personality disorders diagnosed in childhood and adulthood in those known to have been sexually abused during childhood.
Forensic medical records of 2,759 sexually abused children assessed between 1964 and 1995 were linked with a public psychiatric database between 12 and 43 years later. Cases were compared to control subjects matched on gender and age groupings drawn from the general population through a random sample of the national electoral database.
A lifetime record of contact with public mental health services was found in 23.3% of cases compared to 7.7% of controls. The rate of contact among child sexual abuse victims was 3.65 times higher (95% CI, 3.09-4.32, p<0.001). It was estimated that child sexual abuse accounted for approximately 7.83% of mental health contact. Exposure to sexual abuse increased risks for the majority of outcomes including psychosis, affective, anxiety, substance abuse, and personality disorders. Rates of clinical disorders diagnosed in adulthood and childhood remained significantly higher among child sexual abuse cases. Older age at sexual abuse and those exposed to severe abuse involving penetration or multiple offenders were associated with greater risk for psychopathology.
This study confirms that child sexual abuse is a substantial risk factor for a range of mental disorders in both childhood and adulthood.
Those treating victims of sexual abuse must assess not only disorders commonly associated with trauma, but also low prevalence disorders such as psychosis.
Coping has been suggested as an important element in understanding the long-term functioning of individuals with a history of child sexual abuse (CSA). The present review synthesizes the literature on coping with CSA, first by examining theories of coping with trauma, and, second by examining how these theories have been applied to studies of coping in samples of CSA victims. Thirty-nine studies were reviewed, including eleven descriptive studies of the coping strategies employed by individuals with a history of CSA, eighteen correlational studies of the relationship between coping strategies and long-term functioning of CSA victims, and ten investigations in which coping was examined as a mediational factor in relation to long-term outcomes. These studies provide initial information regarding early sexual abuse and subsequent coping processes. However, this literature is limited by several theoretical and methodological issues, including a failure to specify the process of coping as it occurs, a disparity between theory and research, and limited applicability to clinical practice. Future directions of research are discussed and include the need to understand coping as a process, identification of coping in relation to adaptive outcomes, and considerations of more complex mediational and moderational processes in the study of coping with CSA.
The present study examined latent class trajectories of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and associations between demographics, prior trauma, and reason for referral on class membership. Children ages 7-18 (n=201) were recruited for participation in the Navy Family Study following reports to the U.S. Navy's Family Advocacy Program (FAP). Initial interviews were conducted 2-6 weeks following FAP referral, with follow-ups conducted at 9-12, 18-24, and 36-40 months. Growth mixture modeling revealed two latent class trajectories: a resilient class and a persistent symptom class. Relative to youth in the resilient class, participants in the persistent symptom class were more likely to be older and to report exposure to a greater number of trauma experiences at Time 1.
This review examines the psychological impact of adult sexual assault through an ecological theoretical perspective to understand how factors at multiple levels of the social ecology contribute to post-assault sequelae. Using Bronfenbrenner's (1979, 1986, 1995) ecological theory of human development, we examine how individual-level factors (e.g., sociodemographics, biological/genetic factors), assault characteristics (e.g., victim-offender relationship, injury, alcohol use), microsystem factors (e.g., informal support from family and friends), meso/ exosystem factors (e.g., contact with the legal, medical, and mental health systems, and rape crisis centers), macrosystem factors (e.g., societal rape myth acceptance), and chronosystem factors (e.g., sexual revictimization and history of other victimizations) affect adult sexual assault survivors' mental health outcomes (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, suicidality, and substance use). Self-blame is conceptualized as meta-construct that stems from all levels of this ecological model. Implications for curbing and/or preventing the negative mental health effects of sexual assault are discussed.