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Landslide Disaster in Malaysia: An Overview

June 2019
International Journal of Innovative Research and Development 8(6)

DOI:10.24940/ijird/2019/v8/i6/JUN19058

Authors:

Ayesha Akter

Patuakhali Science and Technology University

Megat Johari Megat Mohd Noor

Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT)

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Landslide Disaster in Malaysia: An Overview

1. Introduction

Nowadays, a disaster is a common phenomenon and a great concern all over the world. Large numbers of

causalities, property damages, livelihood deterioration, destructions of habitat and many other destructive events take

place when different kinds of natural and manmade disasters occur. In Malaysia various types of disaster are frequently

striking every year. According to the report (Prevention Web 2014) Malaysia had faced flood (62.5%), storm (12.5%), wild

fire (8.5%), landslides (8.3%), drought (4.2%), earthquake (2.1%) and mass movement (2.1%) during 15-years period

(1990-2014). The report shows that not only flood and storm, but also landslide has great devastating effects on advanced

contemporary societies around the world. This natural disaster causes huge casualties and massive financial losses,

especially, in hilly areas. The United States annually faces economic losses of more than USD 2 billion and about 25 to 50

deaths (Li & Wang 1992) due to landslide. The economic loss in China caused by landslides is estimated to be more than

USD 500 million. Landslides are common in hilly and mountainous areas in Malaysia too. During the period between 1963

and 2014, Malaysia had faced many major and medium landslide disasters which caused up to 500 fatalities in total as well

ISSN 2278

–

0211 (Online)

Ayesha Akter

Assistant Professor, Department of Emergency Management,

Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

Megat Johari Megat Mohd Noor

Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering and Green Technology,

University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia

Masa Goto

Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering and Green Technology,

University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia

Shamsunnahar Khanam

Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Science,

Bangladesh University of Professionals, Bangladesh

Ahmed Parvez

Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Science,

Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

Md. Rasheduzzaman

Lecturer, Department of Emergency Management,

Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

Abstract:

In recent times growing population and accelerative economic condition have led to the construction of high-rise

condominiums and expansion of settlements and lifelines over the hilly areas in Malaysia. Due to these development activities

risk of landslide disaster events with potential of causalities and economic damage greater than before is increasing. Under

such circumstances, number of research efforts conducted in Malaysia has been quickly increasing in recent year, which

indicates that landslide is now being considered not only as natural events or a result of design fault, but as a greater risk for

the society that needs to be managed in a scientific and systematic way rather than in a haphazard way. The focus of this

review is to define knowledge gaps between the current research outcomes and the future research necessities, which are

highly recommended to be focused on in order to establish a sustainable society with rapid development and urbanization in

Malaysia. From the review it can be concluded that a lot of works have been done so far on model development, mapping and

risk zonation but a limited number of researches has been carried out on the causal factor’s analysis, sensitivity analysis and

socioeconomic characterization. Even few studies have been conceded on response and behavioral aspects of the societies and

the crisis management in the events of landslide. It should also be pointed out that, most of the research has been focusing on

the, peninsular Malaysia, but not on Sabah and Sarawak in Borneo Malaysia. The reviewers propose to establish an

integrated data base on landslides occurred in both Peninsular and Borneo Malaysia. A sound collaborative linkage-based

research guideline among the researchers’ the policy makers and the residents must be established for better understanding

of the facts and figures of Malaysian landslide disaster and its risk.

Keywords: Landslide, classifications, factors, disaster phases, knowledge gaps

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as substantial loss of properties, collapsed of multistoried buildings, damage on roads and high-ways, and loss of

environmental resources. The statistics show that 2.8 landslides per year occur on the average, and of which 1.7 cases

result in fatalities and property losses. More than 13.9% of mortalities were caused by landslides during the years of 1990-

2014 (Prevention Web 2014).

The damages and losses by landslide in Malaysia are partially due to the rapid urbanization and economic

development of the country. People have been expanding their economic activities in to the highlands and hilly terrain

areas due to the scarcity of suitable low-lying areas available. Cutting of mountain sides and hilly areas for construction of

high-rise buildings increases the risk of landslide (Jamaludin & Ahmad 2006). In addition, hill slope areas are under the

pressure of human activities such as deforestation and excavation of slopes for road construction, and land-clearing for

agriculture and building construction which are key factors for landslides (Dai et al. 2002). Furthermore, prolonged and

intense rainfall, slope instability, topography and soil characteristics also have considerable effects on landslide

occurrence (Qasim et al. 2013a; Jamaludin 2006). In absence of appropriate data base, lack in appropriate hill slope

technology, cooperation among the organization for establishment of strategies, planning and awareness to reduce

landslide risk, the inhabitants of the terrains are still under a high risk. To understand the landslide trend and associated

risk factors, the causal analysis based on the historical data set, in the context of Malaysian conditions, is in urgent need.

For this reason, this study aims:

 To identify the knowledge gaps for research that need to be addressed immediately by classifying study topics

based on the investigation on landslide disaster analysis.

 To summarize the available secondary data to analyze the frequency, trend and risk factors of landslides in

Malaysia for the future research works.

2. Landslide

Landslide may be defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Cruden (1991) defines

that a landslide is a rapid displacement of rock, residual soil or sediments adjoining a slope and the center of gravity of

moving mass advances in a downward and out-ward directions. Hutchinson defines landslide as a relatively rapid

movement of soil and rock on down slope, which takes place characteristically on, discrete bounding slip of surface that’s

is the moving mass (Hutchinson 1995). Slope movement can occur in five modes; namely fall, topple, slide, spread and

flow. These modes are dependent on the type of geologic materials (bed rock, residual soil, earth and their mixture)

(Cruden & Varnes 1996).

3. Malaysian Experience of Landslides

This literature (Table 1) provides several perspective and interpretations that tend to relate physical, ecological,

social, infrastructure and economic connection.

No.

Location

Date

Toll

Loss of Properties

Cost (M)

Scale

Highland Tower

Dec. 11, 1993

Collapsed of one block of

12-story high apartment

RM 184

Major

Keramat Permai

May 3, 1995

1.3

Medium

Keramat Permai

Aug. 20, 1995

<RM 1

Medium

Ampang Jaya

Aug. 20, 1995

RM 1.3

Medium

Ampang Jaya

June 10, 1996

RM 1.3

Medium

Bukit Antarabangsa

May 14, 1999

Bukit Antarabangsa

May 15, 1999

Access road to the

residential area

RM 5.4

Major

Jln Bukit Antarabangsa

Oct. 5, 2000

Damage of road

Medium

Taman Zooview

Oct. 29, 2001

Taman Zooview

Nov. 8, 2001

RM 1.3

Major

Taman Hillview

Nov. 20, 2002

Damage of 1 unit of

bungalow

RM 17.4

Major

Oakleaf Park Condo,

BukitAntarabangsa

Nov. 2, 2003

Medium

Jalan Bukit Mulia Bukit

Antarabangsa

Nov. 7, 2003

Medium

Jln Tebrau, Dataran Ukay

Feb. 1,2005

Medium

Kampung Pasir

May 31, 2006

Damage of 3 blocks of

longhouses

RM 21

Major

Condo Wangsa Height,

Bukit Antarabangsa

April 24, 2008

Damage of 4 vehicles

Medium

Tmn Bukit Mewah, Bukit

Antarabangsa

Dec. 6, 2008

Damage of 14 units of

bungalows

RM 7.6

Major

Wangsa Height, Bukit

Antarabangsa

Sep.

19, 2009

Medium

Ukay Club Villa

April 2010

RM 1.3

Medium

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No.

Location

Date

Toll

Loss of Properties

Cost (M)

Scale

Bukit Antarabangsa

Aug. 2010

RM 1.3

Medium

Ukay Perdana

Feb. 2011

RM 1.3

Medium

Selangor

21 May 2011

Medium

The Puncak Setiawangsa

29 Dec 2012

Shop houses and double

story terrace houses were

ordered to move

Medium

Putra Heights

04 Jan 2013

Several

vehicles to be

submerged

update

Camerun high land

2013

Damage of infrastructure

RM 3.5

Major

Bukit lajan kualampur

9 May 2014

Blocked the road

Table 1: Recent (From 1993 To 2014) Scenarios of Landslide in Malaysia

The trend of landslide disaster occurrence is gradually increasing (figure 1). The reason of raising number of

landslides is now a matter of research but commonly they are due to slope failure. These seem that mostly slope failure are

triggered by a localized rainfall. But associated inherent weaknesses of the rock or soil combined with human activity like

heavy condominium construction and poor drainage system may have the contributing role. Because hilly and terrain

region are highly vulnerable and sensitive to human alterations (water streams diversions, cut off vegetative coverage)

compare to the plain land. Mostly collapsing condominiums which responsible for both life loss and economic damages.

Figure 1: Trend of Landslide Disaster in Malaysia Showing an

Upward Movement

Figure 2: Month Wise Landslide Occurrence in Malaysia

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Figure 3: Month Wise Landslides Hazard Calendar in Malaysia

A multi-criteria analysis (Figure 3) shows that in the month of February and August all the factors are positively

correlates each other’s. And the month of May and November (Figure 2) have the higher number of landslide experience.

Considering the climatic parameters (Rain fall and temperature) November is the rainy season in Malaysia that may be the

reason of slope failure whereas moth of May are under the dry spell but the highest number of landslide occurred in May,

which indicates presence of other factors that may be a new research scope for landslide disaster impact reduction.

Figure 4: Increasing Trend of Articles Published in the

Different Journal Regarding Malaysian Landslides

Due to massive destruction history of landslides in Malaysian society the university scholars and technical

professionals has already take it in their account to do more research in advanced management aspects. That is why last

few years the scientific articles are assimilation to the web of knowledge base. It is found that (Figure. 4) the rate of

increasing number of published articles is gradually upward. Besides the increasing number of articles on landslide

disaster in Malaysia, the number of diversified journals also increased because of its dynamic scoping characters. Some

geoscience-based journals are mostly covering the research focusing their different angle of scopes.

Name

Journal

. Pub.

Arabian journal of geosciences

Environmental earth sciences

Landslides and engineered slopes: from the past to the future, vols 1 and 2

Natural hazards

Sains Malaysiana

Landslides

Geomatics natural hazards & risk

IEEE transactions on geoscience and remote sensing

International journal of remote sensing

Expert systems with applications

Remote sensing for environmental monitoring, gis applications, and geology

Geomorphology

Landslides and climate change: challenges and solutions

Table 2: Articles Collected from the Journals Used in the Study

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According to the (Sassa et al. 2009) stated in the appropriate topics of landslide about 21 as he proposed in his

articles. Combining this topic in light with phases of disaster management (Salem et al. 2011) this study proposed a

classification of published paper into eight following categories.

Figure 5: Classification of Papers on Landslides Disaster in

Malaysia from Web of Science Records

Classification of papers on landslides disaster

 Fundamental research

 Research on Causal factors identification

 Landslide triggering factors investigation

 Effects of landslide disaster analysis

 Landslide mitigation, management and resilient development research

 Landslide disaster preparedness research

 Response to occurrence of landslide

 Post landslide recovery and rehabilitation study

3. 1. Class 1 (Fundamental Research)

This category of research includes landslide dynamics, mechanism and process. Geology, geomorphology,

geotechnical geo physics of landslide also included under this segment. There are 18% papers have been matched with

this category so far information found from the data base. (Jebur et al. 2015) proposed a user-friendly BSM (Bivariate

Statistical Modeler) for numerous applications, such as, natural hazard, mineral, hydrological and other engineering and

environmental applications. From (Manap et al. 2014) investigated the application of the probabilistic based frequency

ratio (FR) model for mapping ground water potential at Langat basin, Malaysia. He used the frequency ratio coefficients of

the hydrological factor to produce map. On the other hand (Simon et al. 2015) assessed the influence of development on

land slide occurrence using 3 years’ time series, based on two indicators; land use and road density and showed a positive

relationship with each of the factors. (Jebur et al. 2015) who conducted research at Gunung pass, detected a vertical slope

movement, which was highly vegetated tropical area. He used L-band InSAR techniques for detecting vertical

displacement.

Some of the extensive soil-based research also conducted to describe the Malaysian landslides. (Pradhan et al.

2012) who is one of the pioneer researchers observed soil erosion by universal soil loss equation (USLE) method at

Penang Island. He found a correlation between soil erosion and landslide events, which are directly proportional to each

other. The similar kind of study was also done by (Khosrokhani & Pradhan 2013). She observed and assessed soil erosion

with its dynamic characteristics at Kuala Lumpur metropolitan city using universal soil loss equation.

3.1.1. Knowledge Gaps

A lot of work is still need to done for the understanding of Malaysian landslides mechanism. There is some lack of

knowledge in the area of fundamental research regarding debris transportation process; the mechanism of mass change is

an important topic in the study of debris flow, avalanches and sliding of land. Basal erosion is considered as a dynamic

interaction among the moving material and the entrained basal top-soil shearing along with non-slip contact surface can

be an area for new observation. On the other hand, peninsular Malaysia is full of mountainous ridges, how erosion

occurred in that area can be described significantly by emergence of fractal structures in geomorphological phenomena

(Czirók et al. 1997). Besides this thermo-mechanical model can be applied to understand large scale, deep seated

landslides consisting of a coherent mass sliding. In this model the considerable parameter is temperature rising in the slip

zone due to heat produce by the friction. Furthermore, a sliding block model is very much fit in to describe the

mountainous high-speed landslides. It can predict by simulating the soil mass from the onset of the event including travel

speed of mass material and hazard areas. This technique will be more useful for the prediction of landslide events in Sabah

and Sarawak. Finally, more research is necessary to determine sensitivity factors other than both temperature and

precipitation, magnitude, frequency of landslide changes in relation to recent climate and future climate change situations

particularly in tropical forest areas in Malaysia.

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3.2. Class 2 (Causal Factors Identification)

Under this category of research landslide occurring factors, which have at least potentiality to contribute such

happening. There are 4% articles have been related with this category. We can subdivide these causal factors into two:

natural and manmade factors. On the other hand we can divided it in to three sub-categories: Intrinsic factors (which allow

other factors to act more efficiently) includes steep slope, deep weather soil, high clay content and high annual rainfall,

introductory factors (which make the slope vulnerable to slide) includes human activities, deforestation, land use change,

construction of high raise building, high way, poor drainage system, excavations etc., Initiating factors (which finally

initiate the movement) includes earth quake and heavy rainfall.

(Alkhasawneh et al. 2014) specified the importance of 21 factors causing the landslides in his study carried out a

wide area of Penang Island which may represents the peninsular Malaysia. Among all the factors he showed slope angle,

distance from drainage, surface area, slope aspects and cross curvature is the most important factors. (Parasad et al. 2012)

used woody vegetation to observed the growth for providing low cost and environmentally suitable alternative to the

conventional methods of slope stabilization using the finite element software PLAXIS. The result showed that the factors of

safety of the slopes increased significantly by the reinforcement effects of woody vegetation. (Douglas et al 1999)

investigated 10 years at Danum Vally, Sabah and provided a strong evidence of the role of extreme events on the erosion

process in tropical forest areas.

3.2.1. Knowledge Gaps

Regardless of these causal factors some other factors may include sliding belt, disturbed rocks, ancient colluvium,

slope wash, topographic scarp, and elevated ground water table and drainage network for example, dendritic etc.

Moreover, a landslide data base or digital landslide inventories is highly demanded for the better assessment of landslide

and future master plan to reduce the potential risk, in Malaysia. It will be more useful if geo-environmental factors,

triggering factors and elements at risk are added to the information data base. A complete data base gives insights into

landslide location, types, dates, frequency of occurrence, and state of activity, severity, size, failure mechanism, and causal

factors. In line with additional information and complementary data of core attributes like geographical coordinates,

landslide site name along with region and country, last reactivation, state of activity, volume of surface extent may be

included with data base. To make the inventory a creative, information of landslide geometry (surface dimension and

depth of failure surface), geology (structure and material properties), hydrogeology, land coverage, triggering factors,

impact, causalities and damages, remedial measures, surveying methods, surveyor’s name and bibliographical references

will be more appropriate.

From the figure 6 it is clear that contributing factors of world landslides geological and ground conditions are

covering the 43% which indicates the natural control. But for Malaysian cases (figure 7) we found that about 58% are

design errors. The results are also similar with (Gue & Tan 2006); he found that 60% are inadequacy in design. This is

results of lack of understanding and appreciation of the subsoil conditions and geotechnical issues. It also includes the

decision errors comprising with misinterpretation and miscalculation. It indicates that if we minimize these design errors,

we can reduce the risk so a new research may be conducted here to resolve this matter.

3.3. Class 3 (Landslide Triggering Factors Investigation)

According to (Griffiths 1999) Causes of landslides are two groups:

 Preparatory factors

 Triggering factors

Heavy rainfall or snow melt, earthquake shaking, volcanic eruption and erosion are the triggering factors that

created an instantaneous change in the stress-strain associations in the slope resulting in movement. Geological

conditions, groundwater conditions, geo-morphological conditions, climatic factors, seismic activity, weathering, and man-

made factors are the main factors which are called preparatory factor. This category of research includes direct

contributing factors which can cause the disaster. There are 7% papers have been complemented with this category.

Figure 6: Contributing Factors of Landslides

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Figure 7: Contributing Factors of Landslides Based on

Malaysia Case History

National Slope Master Plan Malaysia

Most of the landslides that caused most damaged in Malaysia occurred in man-made slopes. Examples of such

landslides include the Highland Towers in 1993, Bukit Lanjan rockslide in 2003, Taman Zooview in 2006, Bukit

Antarbangsa in 2008. (Komoo et al 2011) interpreted that in Malaysia most of the landslides occur because of slope failure

that is manmade slope of highway and resident. (Qasim et al. 2013b) mention that condition of sub soil, geology, ground

water and underground piping should be considered for investigation the causal factor. (Saadatkhah 2014) demonstrated

that prolonged rainfall has played a vital role for slope failure using spatiotemporal regional modeling coupled with

rainfall induced slope failure. (Matori et al. 2012) reported the effect of monsoonal selected geospatial data in landslide

modeling in Cameron Highlands. They used geographical information system coupled with land surface temperature LST

by developing a model Based map of landslide. (Hassaballa et al. 2014) extract the soil moisture over the areas of Bukit

Antarabangsa using microwave remote sensing to examine the impact of soil moisture content on landslide occurrence.

They stated that 6th December 2008 recorded heavy rain fall resulted in a raise of ground water table causing the

landslide. Frequent and prolong rainfall is a triggering factor of landslide in Malaysia. As a tropical country, Malaysia

enjoys 2400 mm rainfall annually (Li & Wang1992) added that rainfall intensity and slope failure have a good co-relation.

He also mentions that the ground water level also playing important role in triggering the landslide, which is always

overlooks as one of the initial factors of landslide.

Table 3: Rainfall Intensity and Slope Failure Correlation (Li & Wang1992)

(Mukhlisin et al. 2015) analyzed 15 event of rainfall prompted landslides in Ulu Klang, and found that all of the

event were triggered by landslide but some events casual factors were different that was inadequate slope design,

improper design, construction method, poor maintenance of the internal drainage system, off slope and retaining

structural soil type and slope gradient. In Malaysia most slope failure occurred by manmade slope development in hilly

terrain areas, such as highland tower at kualampur in 1993, bukit lanjan rockside in 2003, taman zooview in 2006, and

again bukit lanjan at 2014. In 1993 the landslide event of Ulu Klang reported by (MPJA 1994) mentioned some of the

reasons such as soil movement, surface runoff due to improper drainage facility cut of hill slope. Not only the human factor

but also some natural factor associated with landslide such granite terrain which weathered deeply in geological timescale

that’s why tropical Malaysia experience many landslides. (Chigira et al. 2011) isolated some region of peninsula Malaysia.

Earthquake is the major triggering factor next to the intensive rainfall. The shaking produced by earthquake cause an

increase in the load down the slope and can also decreases the shear strength and both effects can cause the release of

debris flow. One of the landslides evented in Sabah is reported earthquake as the triggering factors. Weathering and

surface fracturing also considered as a vital triggering factors for sliding in some parts of the world (Dragićević 2010).

3.3.1. Knowledge Gaps

A regional basis investigation for understanding the above triggering potentialities and mapping of vulnerable

zone can be a new research arena. In addition to this, application of digital tools, geographical information system, digital

Rainfall

Intensity

Slope

Condition

25mm/day

Show signs of surface erosion

50mm/day

Surface erosion intensify

100mm/day

Stability deteriorate, marginally, stable slope may deform and move

150mm/day

Marginally stable slope may deform or collapse

200mm/day

Marginally stable

slope may deform or collapse. Stable slope may also show signs of instability

250mm/day

Stable and vegetated slope may also deform or collapse.

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image processing, digital photogrammetry, global positioning through using various models for analyzing the contribution

of triggering factors on landslide occurrence can enhance the better research outcomes in Malaysia.

3.4. Class 4 (Impacts Of Landslide Disaster Analysis)

Date

Location

Death

Cost MRM

May 61

Ringlet Cameron highland, Pahang

3.48

Oct 73

KAMPUNG kacag puith ipoh

64.78

Dec 95

Highland ampang selangr, tower,

184.9

Jun 95

Km 39 lebuhraya kl karak

48.3

Dec 96

Keningau, Sabah 302

8.9

Jan 96

Km 303 North

South Expressway Gunung

Tempurung, Perak

6.7

Aug 96

Pos Dipang, perak

Feb 99

Gelam Sandakan, Saba

302

458.9

Jan2

Simunjan, Sarawak

Nov 3

KM 21.8 NKVE Bukit Lanjan, Selangor

Apr 05

Kpg Melayu Bt 11, punching, Selangor

May 06

Taman bukit zooview, hulu klang, Selangor

20.7

Apr 06

KM 33 Jln Simpang pulai Cameron highland

4.6

Table 4: Major Land Slide in Malaysia and Estimated Loss of Cost

This category of research includes the impacts of landslide on socioeconomic system, ecosystems management

and short term or long-term urbanization process. There are 1% papers have been matched with this category so far

information found from the data base. Malaysia has a high concentration of development of express ways, high ways, high

raises condominium, tunnels, and monorail etc. in hilly terrain and peninsular region close proximity to build-environment

and natural environment. Because of the high annual rainfall along with some others induced factors these man-made

environment and natural hillside would pose a risk to public as reported by death tool of 600 and adequate property

damages (Table 4) since 1960 to till date (Azmi et al. 2013).

3.4.1. Knowledge Gaps

The following area of research is proposing by the present study cost-benefit analysis and livelihood analysis.

Under the classification of effects of landslide disaster economic analysis, damage, loss and need assessment, effects on

human society, environmental impact assessment and social impact assessment, risk analysis of building damages induced

by landslide disaster impacts may be the major focusing areas. In spite of frequent deadly landslide in Malaysia, literature

is not available on socio-economic and environmental effects. Very few works have been published in this area except

some of the technical report commissioned by government.

3.5. Class 5 (Landslide Mitigation, Management and Resilient Development Research)

This category of research includes landslide study, which includes the physical, social and institutional

vulnerability of the people as well as scientific clarification and indigenous solution of mitigation measures. There are 12%

papers have been matched with this category so far information found from the data base. (Halim & Normaniza 2015)

showed that plant density was inversely related to the soil saturation level (STL) and erosion rate on the slope. The

redistribution of infiltrated rainwater in the soil mass could be the reason for the slow response of failure mechanism to

rain fall. (Mariappan et al. 2010) has proposed some comprehensive program to reduce the loss of landslide through

creation of early warning and monitoring system better policy and effective implementation, outlining design procedure,

creation of local hazard mapping, land use management, building, grading control etc.

3.5.1. Knowledge Gaps

Social vulnerability index may apply to the landslide hazard prone areas. Variables representing the social

vulnerability of the different states of Malaysia are needed to be selected after application of correlation tests.

Furthermore, a novel risk assessment method measuring the resiliency of landslide disaster of hill slope community need

to be structured for implementation of risk vulnerability analysis, performance of disaster mitigation approaches and

reduction of future life loss and property damages.

3.6. Class 6 (Landslide Disaster Preparedness Research)

This category of research includes all sorts of consideration prior to the landslide need for predicting, forecasting,

hazard mapping, Risk assessment, Emergency preparedness, Real time monitoring, research development and training etc.

There are 50% papers have been matched with this category so far information found from the data base. (Saadatkhan et

al. 2014b) applied transient rainfall infiltration and grid-based regional slope stability analysis method (TRIGRS) for

unsaturated initial conditions is used to complete transient response of pore pressure during rainfall periods and

consequent changes in the safety factors. (Pradhan & Youssef 2010) presented landslide hazard analysis at Cameron area

using geographic information system and remote sensing data and found that frequency ratio model is better in prediction

of landslide than bivariate logistic regression model. (Razak et al. 2013) evaluates the suitability of ALS (Airborne Laser

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Scanning) for generating an optimal DTM (Digital Terrain Model) for mapping land use in the Cameron High land,

Malaysia’s and found that ALS derived DTMs allowed mapping and classifying landslide beneath equatorial mountainous

forests leading to a better understanding of hazardous geomorphological problem in Malaysia as well as tropical region.

(Pradhan et al. 2014) estimate the land subsidence (sinkhole) hazard at the Kinta Valley of Perak, using GIS and RS

techniques and finally prepared probability map. From the above literature it is clear that mapping-based susceptibility

and model analysis has been covered most of the hot spot of landslide occurred areas.

3.6.1. Knowledge Gaps

But a lot of information gaps are still need to be under research. Most of the developed countries use satellite

remote sensing as a tool in disaster management and sustainable development research. Prediction of the spatiotemporal

distribution of landslides using real time satellite rainfall system may be a new scope of research. In relation to this “2006

Tokyo Action Plan” which enhances the risk conscious reconstructions can be the applicable research in city Centre. OR

models applicable for integrated community-based program, Humanitarian logistics in Malaysia, Emergency Medical

Rescue team etc. Considering the disaster readiness aspects this research may extend up to natural hazard and risk

communication strategy among the multi ethnic community and community trauma recovery program after the landslide

occurrence can give a whole shape.

3.7. Class 7 (Response to occurrence of landslide)

This category of research includes warning, evacuation, search and rescue, trauma management, volunteerism

dynamic modification of technology, amendment on the current rules and regulations by the previous landslide

experience, reverse changes in moving to risk prone areas, multistory to single story etc. There are 3% papers have been

harmonized with this category. (Abedin et al. 2005) initiated a study to classify and predict potential erosion induced

landslide locations of occurrence used ROM scale to determine the soil susceptibility for failure in terms of its soil

erodibility index value and rain fall data of both Frasher Hill and Genting Highlands. This result showed that rainfall risk

frequency is at the highest risk in the month of November and September.

3.7.1. Knowledge Gaps

That is why, geo-hydrological risk management and preparedness of Malaysian Civil Protection Authority for

warning and evacuation in response to landslide may be an effective research program. Furthermore, post occurrence of

landslide, reconstruction management using public perception and lesson learned can be added with the research

portfolio.

3.8. Class 8 (Post Landslide Recovery and Rehabilitation Study)

This category of research includes slope management, slope stabilization, Life pole stabilization, debris

management, traffic management, temporary shelter management, insurance management and relief management etc.

There are 5% papers have been accorded with this category. (Ali et al. 2010) studied on the use of vegetation for slope

protection. This was a bioengineering approach to documented root mechanical properties. He studied two para meter

pull-out and tensile strength to select the best root performance of the trees. Finally, he suggested plant using for slope

stabilization work. (Gui et al. 2008) investigated a compilation of site reconnaissance, topography survey, subsurface

investigation, laboratory testing and back analysis to examine the relationship between the landslides and the rainfall. He

confirmed that landslide was indeed related to the long period rainfall.

3.8.1. Knowledge Gaps

Future research under this class like vegetation recovery and landscape change assessment may helpful.

Automated system enables emergency planners to estimate the expected displacement of families for optimizing post-

disaster temporary housing allocations may value the good research scheme also.

4. Conclusion

This study synthesizes the previous landslide history and critically reviews the landslides previous history, causal

factors and research domain. Further, a brief summary of landslide disaster management research scope in Malaysia.

Moreover, limited causes of landslide have been investigated and reported in developing area that had damaged the

property or poses a greater risk to life. Besides this aspect some other issues may appear as a hindrance of the progressive

work, need to be addressed. For sustainable solution of the land slide disaster may broadly cover the socioeconomic and

Ecology centered key areas which are identified throughout the study in different classes are applicable for future

research.

5. Acknowledgement

This work is partially supported by FRGS Research Grant, with Vote No. R.K130000.780. 4F655 under Ministry of

Higher Education (MoHE) and MJIIT Student Incentive Programme.

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Feb 2014
NAT HAZARDS

Land subsidence is one of the frequent geological hazards worldwide. Urban areas and agricultural industries are the entities most affected by the consequences of land subsidence. The main objective of this study was to estimate the land subsidence (sinkhole) hazards at the Kinta Valley of Perak, Malaysia, using geographic information system and remote sensing techniques. To start, land subsidence locations were observed by surveying measurements using GPS and using the tabular data, which were produced as coordinates of each sinkhole incident. Various land subsidence conditioning factors were used such as altitude, slope, aspect, lithology, distance from the fault, distance from the river, nor-malized difference vegetation index, soil type, stream power index, topographic wetness index, and land use/cover. In this article, a data-driven technique of an evidential belief function (EBF), which is in the category of multivariate statistical analysis, was used to map the land subsidence-prone areas. The frequency ratio (FR) was performed as an efficient bivariate statistical analysis method in order compare it with the acquired results from the EBF analysis. The probability maps were acquired and the results of the analysis validated by the area under the (ROC) curve using the testing land subsidence locations. The results indicated that the FR model could produce a 71.16 % prediction rate, while the EBF showed better prediction accuracy with a rate of 73.63 %. Furthermore, the success rate was measured and accuracies of 75.30 and 79.45 % achieved for FR and EBF, respectively. These results can produce an understanding of the nature of land subsidence as well as promulgate public awareness of such geo-hazards to decrease human and economic losses.

Stability of Tropical Residual Soil Slope Reinforced by Live Pole: Experimental and Numerical Investigations

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Apr 2012

The occurrence of numerous shallow slope failures in Malaysia has resulted in the slope stabilization using live poles as a cheaper and eco-friendly measure. Woody vegetations or live poles were used to reinforce the slope of residual tropical soil at three sites to improve stability of slopes as they provide an immediate shear strength enhancement and modify the saturated soil water regime (mechanical and hydrological effects). The branches of 11 trees/shrubs were tested for root and stem growth in containers under shade-house conditions and three species (Dillenia indica, Dillenia suffruticosa and Hibiscus tiliaceus) were shortlisted based on root growth, diameter and length of root, and survival rate for further evaluating their mechanical strength. Based on the results of the mechanical tests (bending, shear and tensile strength), two species (D. suffruticosa and H. tiliaceus) were finally selected for planting on the slopes. Laboratory tests were also carried out on these root and soil matrix for the determination of its shear strength parameters. The live poles from these two selected trees were planted on three slopes to be monitored for 12 months to observe their growth for the purpose of providing low-cost and environmentally suitable alternative to the conventional methods of slope stabilization. Finally, the stability analysis of the slopes was carried out using finite element software PLAXIS. It was observed that Dillenia suffruticosa and Hibiscus tiliaceus can be used to stabilize slopes against failure. The results obtained from PLAXIS showed that the factor of safety of the slopes increased significantly by the reinforcing effects of the live poles.

Generating an optimal DTM from airborne laser scanning data for landslide mapping in a tropical forest environment

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May 2013
GEOMORPHOLOGY

Landslide inventory maps are fundamental for assessing landslide susceptibility, hazard, and risk. In tropical mountainous environments, mapping landslides is difficult as rapid and dense vegetation growth obscures landslides soon after their occurrence. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) data have been used to construct the digital terrain model (DTM) under dense vegetation, but its reliability for landslide recognition in the tropics remains surprisingly unknown. This study evaluates the suitability of ALS for generating an optimal DTM for mapping landslides in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. For the bare-earth extraction, we used hierarchical robust filtering algorithm and a parameterization with three sequential filtering steps. After each filtering step, four interpolations techniques were applied, namely: (i) the linear prediction derived from the SCOP++ (SCP), (ii) the inverse distance weighting (IDW), (iii) the natural neighbor (NEN) and (iv) the topo-to-raster (T2R). We assessed the quality of 12 DTMs in two ways: (1) with respect to 448 field-measured terrain heights and (2) based on the interpretability of landslides. The lowest root-mean-square error (RMSE) was 0.89 m across the landscape using three filtering steps and linear prediction as interpolation method. However, we found that a less stringent DTM filtering unveiled more diagnostic micro-morphological features, but also retained some of vegetation. Hence, a combination of filtering steps is required for optimal landslide interpretation, especially in forested mountainous areas. IDW was favored as the interpolation technique because it combined computational times more reasonably without adding artifacts to the DTM than T2R and NEN, which performed relatively well in the first and second filtering steps, respectively. The laser point density and the resulting ground point density after filtering are key parameters for producing a DTM applicable to landslide identification. The results showed that the ALS-derived DTMs allowed mapping and classifying landslides beneath equatorial mountainous forests, leading to a better understanding of hazardous geomorphic problems in tropical regions.

Application of Airborne LiDAR-Derived Parameters and Probabilistic-Based Frequency Ratio Model in Landslide Susceptibility Mapping

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Nov 2012

The escalating number of occurrences of natural hazards such as landslides has raised a great interest among the geoscientists. Due to the extremely high number of point’s returns, airborne LiDAR permits the formation of more accurate DEM compared to other space borne and airborne remote sensing techniques. This study aims to assess the capability of LiDAR derived parameters in landslide susceptibility mapping. Due to frequent occurrence of landslides, Ulu Klang in Selangor state in Malaysia has been considered as application site. A high resolution of airborne LiDAR DEM was constructed to produce topographic attributes such as slope, curvature and aspect. These data were utilized to derive secondary deliverables of landslide parameters such as topographic wetness index (TWI), surface area ratio (SAR) and stream power index (SPI). A probabilistic based frequency ratio model was applied to establish the spatial relationship between the landslide locations and each landslide related factors. Subsequently, factor ratings were summed up to yield Landslide Susceptibility Index (LSI) and finally a landslide susceptibility map was prepared. To test the model performance, receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve was carried out together with area under curve (AUC) analysis. The produced landslide susceptibility map demonstrated that high resolution airborne LiDAR data has huge potential in landslide susceptibility mapping.

Study of regional monsoonal effects on landslide hazard zonation in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia

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Sep 2011

In general, landslides in Malaysia mostly occurred during northeast and southwest periods, two monsoonal systems that bring heavy rain. As the consequence, most landslide occurrences were induced by rainfall. This paper reports the effect of monsoonal-related geospatial data in landslide hazard modeling in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, using Geographic Information System (GIS). Land surface temperature (LST) data was selected as the monsoonal rainfall footprints on the land surface. Four LST maps were derived from Landsat 7 thermal band acquired at peaks of dry and rainy seasons in 2001. The landslide factors chosen from topography map were slope, slope aspect, curvature, elevation, land use, proximity to road, and river/lake; while from geology map were lithology and proximity to lineament. Landslide characteristics were extracted by crossing between the landslide sites of Cameron Highlands and landslide factors. Using which, the weighting system was derived. Each landslide factors were divided into five subcategories. The highest weight values were assigned to those having the highest number of landslide occurrences. Weighted overlay was used as GIS operator to generate landslide hazard maps. GIS analysis was performed in two modes: (1) static mode, using all factors except LST data; (2) dynamic mode, using all factors including multi-temporal LST data. The effect of addition of LST maps was evaluated. The final landslide hazard maps were divided into five categories: very high risk, high risk, moderate, low risk, and very low risk. From verification process using landslide map, the landslide model can predict back about 13–16% very high risk sites and 70–93% of very high risk and high risk combined together. It was observed however that inclusion of LST maps does not necessarily increase the accuracy of the landslide model to predict landslide sites. KeywordsMonsoonal effect–Land surface temperatures–Landslide–GIS–Remote sensing–Cameron highlands–Malaysia

Soil erosion assessment and its correlation with landslide events using remote sensing data and GIS: A case study at Penang Island, Malaysia

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Apr 2011
ENVIRON MONIT ASSESS

In this paper, an attempt has been made to assess, prognosis and observe dynamism of soil erosion by universal soil loss equation (USLE) method at Penang Island, Malaysia. Multi-source (map-, space- and ground-based) datasets were used to obtain both static and dynamic factors of USLE, and an integrated analysis was carried out in raster format of GIS. A landslide location map was generated on the basis of image elements interpretation from aerial photos, satellite data and field observations and was used to validate soil erosion intensity in the study area. Further, a statistical-based frequency ratio analysis was carried out in the study area for correlation purposes. The results of the statistical correlation showed a satisfactory agreement between the prepared USLE-based soil erosion map and landslide events/locations, and are directly proportional to each other. Prognosis analysis on soil erosion helps the user agencies/decision makers to design proper conservation planning program to reduce soil erosion. Temporal statistics on soil erosion in these dynamic and rapid developments in Penang Island indicate the co-existence and balance of ecosystem.