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The impact of lighting and table linen as ambient factors on meal intake and taste perception
Abstract
Many ambient variables appear to impact amount and duration of food intake as well as taste perception. Two studies were conducted to determine whether changing light intensity has an impact on meal duration and volume as well as sensory and qualitative aspects of tomato soup in an experimental setting. Using a randomized crossover design in study 1, 66 participants were served tomato soup twice, under dimmed and bright light. In study 2, 159 participants were assigned to one of four randomization groups. A 2 × 2 design as a group setting was chosen adding a tablecloth as another ambient component. In both studies, participants assessed the soups’ appearance, sensory attributes, and the overall taste, quality and consistency on 100 mm visual analog scales. Meal duration and amount were also assessed. In study 1, there were no significant differences in amount, duration and sensory attributes between lighting conditions, except for the saltiness of the soup which was perceived as saltier under the low light condition (p = 0.019). In study 2, participants ate more, longer and rated sensory attributes and quality higher when seated with tablecloth. The longest duration, highest amount and quality were observed in the dimmed light condition with tablecloth. The tablecloth seemed to have a higher impact on food amount, meal duration and overall taste perception than lighting condition. The results suggest that single ambience factors such as lighting might only play a role in food intake and perception in combination with other ambient factors, such as decorative aspects.
... A further 13 studies found mixed or limited evidence of the influence of extrinsic colour on flavour perception (Bschaden, Dörsam, Cvetko, Kalamala, & Stroebele-Benschop, 2020;, 2021Chen, Huang, Faber, Makransky, & Perez-Cueto, 2020;Harrar, Piqueras-Fiszman, & Spence, 2011;Harrar & Spence, 2013;Mielby et al., 2018;Risso et al., 2015;Sakarya & Taylan, 2022;Sugrue & Dando, 2018;Tijssen et al., 2017;Van Doorn et al., 2014). Virtual environments containing reddish and round elements increased sweetness perception of grenadine syrup diluted with water compared with those environments with black and angular cues, while the virtual environments did not significantly alter the perception of bitterness (Chen et al., 2020). ...
... Virtual environments containing reddish and round elements increased sweetness perception of grenadine syrup diluted with water compared with those environments with black and angular cues, while the virtual environments did not significantly alter the perception of bitterness (Chen et al., 2020). The results of a study by Bschaden et al. (2020) demonstrate that bright (vs. dim) ambient illumination increase the perceived saltiness of tomato soup (Study 1). ...
... dim) ambient illumination increase the perceived saltiness of tomato soup (Study 1). However, no evidence was found for other tastes (sourness, sweetness) in the same study, nor in all taste perception measures (saltiness, sourness, sweetness) investigated in Study 2 (Bschaden et al., 2020). Here it is relevant to note that different lighting manipulation (35 lx vs. 300 lx in Study 1; 145 lx vs. 415 lx in Study 2) might help to explain these seemingly-inconsistent findings (Bschaden et al., 2020). ...
A multitude of crossmodal correspondences have now been documented between taste (gustation) and visual features (such as hue). In the present study, new analytical methods are used to investigate taste-colour correspondences in a more fine-grained manner while also investigating potential underlying mechanisms. In Experiment 1, image processing analysis is used to evaluate whether searching online for visual images associated with specific taste words (e.g., bitter, sweet) generates outcomes with colour proportions similar to those that have been documented in the literature on taste-colour correspondences. Colour-taste matching tasks incorporating a much wider colour space than tested in previous studies, were assessed in Experiments 2 and 3. Experiments 3 and 4 assessed the extent to which the statistical regularities of the environment, as captured by food object categories, might help to explain the aforementioned correspondences and to what extent the correspondences are present in online content associated to specific tastes, respectively. Experiment 5 evaluated the role of statistical regularities in underpinning colour-taste correspondences related to the stage of ripening of fruit. Overall, the findings revealed consistent associations between specific colours and tastes, in a more nuanced manner than demonstrated in previous studies, while showing that both food object categories and the stage of fruit ripening significantly influenced colour and taste perceptions. This, in turn, suggests that people might base these correspondences on both the foods present in their environments, as well as the natural changes that they undergo as they ripe. The results are discussed in light of the different accounts suggested to explain colour-taste correspondences.
... A further 13 studies found mixed or limited evidence of the influence of extrinsic colour on flavour perception (Bschaden, Dörsam, Cvetko, Kalamala, & Stroebele-Benschop, 2020;, 2021Chen, Huang, Faber, Makransky, & Perez-Cueto, 2020;Harrar, Piqueras-Fiszman, & Spence, 2011;Harrar & Spence, 2013;Mielby et al., 2018;Risso et al., 2015;Sakarya & Taylan, 2022;Sugrue & Dando, 2018;Tijssen et al., 2017;Van Doorn et al., 2014). Virtual environments containing reddish and round elements increased sweetness perception of grenadine syrup diluted with water compared with those environments with black and angular cues, while the virtual environments did not significantly alter the perception of bitterness (Chen et al., 2020). ...
... Virtual environments containing reddish and round elements increased sweetness perception of grenadine syrup diluted with water compared with those environments with black and angular cues, while the virtual environments did not significantly alter the perception of bitterness (Chen et al., 2020). The results of a study by Bschaden et al. (2020) demonstrate that bright (vs. dim) ambient illumination increase the perceived saltiness of tomato soup (Study 1). ...
... dim) ambient illumination increase the perceived saltiness of tomato soup (Study 1). However, no evidence was found for other tastes (sourness, sweetness) in the same study, nor in all taste perception measures (saltiness, sourness, sweetness) investigated in Study 2 (Bschaden et al., 2020). Here it is relevant to note that different lighting manipulation (35 lx vs. 300 lx in Study 1; 145 lx vs. 415 lx in Study 2) might help to explain these seemingly-inconsistent findings (Bschaden et al., 2020). ...
There has been a noticeable increase of interest in research on multisensory flavour perception in recent years. Humans are visually dominant creatures and a growing body of research has investigated how visual cues influence taste/flavour perception. At the same time, however, several null or limited findings have also been published recently; that is, studies showing either partial demonstrations or else failing to find any evidence in their data for the influence of specific visual cues on taste/flavour perception. By performing a systematic review and a critical evaluation of the literature that has been published to date, the present paper reveals whether and when visual cues (e.g., colour and shape) affect taste/flavour perception: The reviewed research demonstrates that visual cues can significantly affect taste/flavour perception under certain conditions, but that mixed, limited, and/or null results have also been reported in a number of other studies. We discuss potential moderators (the salience/attentional capture of visual cues, the strength of association between visual cues and taste/flavour, the perceived diagnosticity of visual cues regarding the signalling of taste/flavour, the evaluative malleability of food judgments) that might help to explain a number of the inconsistent findings that have appeared in the literature since 2011. Several important areas of future research in this area of inquiry are also identified.
... Of these dimensions, luminescence is commonly adjusted because of the ease at which managers may control the brightness in a room (Biswas et al., 2017). Measured in lumens per square meter (i.e., lux; Thimijan and Heins, 1983), luminescence has been shown to influence food preferences, perceptions, and consumption (Bschaden et al., 2020;Biswas et al., 2017;Xu and Labroo, 2014). Research has identified that inhibiting one's vision influences the quantity of food consumed and the amount spent on a dining experience (Wansink and van Ittersum, 2012). ...
... For instance, van der Heijden et al. (2021) found taste intensity of a four-course meal was rated stronger under bright lighting compared to dim lighting. In contrast, Bschaden et al. (2020) found no difference in overall taste of tomato soup, yet it was perceived as saltier in dim lighting compared to bright lighting. These contradicting results found related to ambient lighting and taste perceptions highlights the need to untangle the effect and factors that may alter the relationship. ...
... These contradicting results found related to ambient lighting and taste perceptions highlights the need to untangle the effect and factors that may alter the relationship. For instance, Bschaden et al. (2020) used tomato soup as their stimuli, which consists of savory and salty taste dimensions, while van der Heijden et al. (2021) describe the dish provided to customers as containing sweet, sour, salty and bitter taste dimensions, while also consisting of crispy and creamy textures. Since the use of multiple taste dimensions increases the sensory information provided to a customer through the gustatory and olfactory senses (Crolic and Janiszewski, 2016), the number of taste dimensions a food consists of may aid in explaining the inconsistent results found in previous research. ...
Atmospheric factors within a retail environment provide efficient and effective methods for influencing customer behavior. Drawing on the concept of sensory compensation, this research investigates how ambient lighting influences taste perceptions. Three studies demonstrate that dim lighting enhances taste perceptions. The results of Studies 1a and 1b provide support that low lighting positively influences consumers' perceived taste of single taste dimension foods (e.g., sweet). Study 2 shows the number of taste dimensions (e.g., sweet vs. sweet and salty) stimulated serves as a boundary condition, attenuating the significant effect of dim lighting on taste perceptions.
... The effect of illuminance on the consumption experience is an important topic of research. While some studies focused on the impact of changing the hue of lighting (e.g., Spence, Velasco, & Knoeferle, 2014), several other studies have examined how the level of illuminance (i.e., brightness or dimness) affects food preferences and intake (e.g., Biswas et al., 2017;Bschaden et al., 2020;Gal, Wheeler, & Shiv, 2007;Xu & Labroo, 2014). For example, it was found that ambient brightness increases people's desire for spicier (Xu & Labroo, 2014) and healthier (Biswas et al., 2017) food. ...
... Other research focused on the impact of illuminance on basic taste intensity perceptions (i.e., saltiness in Bschaden et al., 2020, study 1; sweetness, saltiness and sourness in Rebollar et al., 2017; see also Wilson & Gregson, 1967 for other early research in this area). However, this line of research led to mixed results. ...
... dim) levels of illuminance. In contrast, Bschaden et al. (2020) asked participants to sample a tomato soup on two separate days under different illuminance conditions (bright vs. dim) and-amongst other variables-to evaluate a number of basic tastes (i.e., sweetness, saltiness, and sourness). Their results showed that the tomato soup was perceived as saltier under low (vs. ...
Ambient light luminance (i.e., brightness or dimness) is a frequently used tool by managers to enhance the overall ambience in their restaurants. The current research explores how a change in a restaurant’s ambient brightness influences the overall taste intensity perception of the food that is being served there. We conducted a between-group experiment in a field setting (i.e., a fine-dining restaurant), where we manipulated the illuminance level of the ambient light (dim vs. bright). Guests were served a dish—tailored to our research question—and asked to evaluate its overall taste intensity. The results demonstrate that guests exposed to the bright ambient light perceived the overall taste of the dish as more intense as opposed to guests exposed to the dim ambient light. The results thus show that modifying the ambient illuminance level in a restaurant does not only affect the overall ambience but also changes the overall taste experience of the food being served. This finding is not only theoretically relevant for research on multisensory integration, but it also provides tools for taste modulation, and—as such—for strategies to decrease salt and sugar consumption among diners.
... A suitable example is presented in Bschaden et al. (2020), where authors found a positive impact of ambient variables (light intensity, temperature and scent) on consumer perception towards quantity and duration of food intake and taste. Another factor influencing consumer perception is personal desires. ...
... Ambient conditions include environmental aspects such as temperature, lighting, noise, music, and scent. As a rule, these conditions affect the five senses and can strongly impact satisfaction level; an intelligent manager must be aware of it (Bschaden et al., 2020). Further, a clean environment represents the safety of the food. ...
This study identifies, prioritizes and ranks a list of critical factors that impact consumers’ perception of the restaurant industry from a restaurant managers’ perspective. A mixture of the modified-Delphi method and multi-criteria decision-making method, the best-worst method (BWM), is adopted to achieve the study aim. The integrated approach has been employed with the help of seven experts from different units working under Hyderabad Restaurant Industry, India. The study identifies five main and twenty-five sub-categorical factors impacting consumers’ perception of restaurants. In particular, the study offers insights into the restaurant business after implementing a new taxation system (i.e., GST). The ranks showed that 66% of restaurants success depends on two critical factors, that is, ‘food quality’ and ‘cleanness and ambience’. The top choices can be improved by emphasizing the ‘use of fresh ingredient’ and ‘use of regular cleaning and sanitization’. The findings provide managerial and policy insights to direct efforts and resources more efficiently.
... Taste perception can also be increased by changing the lighting conditions of the environment where the food is eaten. Although it is generally thought that dim lighting is more successful than bright light in terms of food intake and taste perception, more research is needed on this phenomenon (Bschaden et al., 2020). Based on this, it can be said that the colour and degree of illumination of the VR and AR environment can change the perceived taste (Cornelio et al., 2022). ...
... In addition to these, atmosphere is used to meet various different terms in the literature. These can be listed as follows: "physical environment" (Baker, 1986;Han and Ryu, 2009;Hendriyani, 2018;Helmefalk and Hulten, 2017); "service extensions" (Bitner, 1992); "ambience" (Bschaden et al., 2020;Chiguvi, 2015;Stroebele and Castro, 2004); "physical evidence" (Sherry, 1998), "marketing environment" (Turley and Milliman, 2000); "economic environment" (Arnold, Handelman, and Tigert, 1996); "interactive space" (Mathwick, Malhotra and Rigdon, 2001); "environmental psychology" (Weinrach, 2000;Horng, Chou, Liu, and Tsai, 2013); "social work domain" (Tombs and McColl-Kennedy, 2003). Of these concepts, while the physical environment, physical evidence and service extensions express abstract background features, ambiance represents abstract background features that tend to affect nonvisual senses (Ryu and Jang, 2008a). ...
The concept of atmosphere, which refers to the design of the purchasing environment, aims to create certain emotions that increase the consumer's purchase intention. The atmosphere of any business in question can be effective in consumers' restaurant preferences. In order to gain an advantage in a competitive environment, businesses can provide customer satisfaction by conducting studies on the atmosphere. Therefore, controlling consumer behavior has become extremely important. At this point, the concept of behavioral intention formation, which is the output of consumers' purchasing process, emerges. Behavioral intention can be estimated by consumer behavior, consumers' attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms regarding behavior, and perceived control over performing the behavior. Examining the effect of restaurant atmosphere on behavioral intention after purchase is one of the factors of strategic importance for businesses. In this context, the purpose of the research is to reveal the effect of restaurant atmosphere on behavioral intention after purchasing the service. The survey form, which was created as a result of the literature review, was used as the data collection tool in the research. The research population consists of customers of Tourism Operation Certificated Restaurants operating in Ankara. Descriptive statistics CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis) and SEM (Structural Equation Model) analyses were used in the evaluation of data and hypotheses. According to the findings obtained as a result of the analysis, all hypotheses created for the restaurant atmosphere dimensions (facility aesthetics, ambiance, lighting, layout and employees/personnel) were supported according to the research results. When the effect coefficients of the sub-dimensions of the restaurant atmosphere scale are examined, it is seen that the highest effect is in the "layout" dimension and the lowest effect is in the "facility aesthetics" dimension. It was determined that the restaurant atmosphere has a significant and positive effect on behavioral intention.
... Measuring soups can be complicated due to their varying properties, such as significant differences in viscosity, ingredient composition, and portion sizes, which make accurate comparisons across different meals and schools challenging. It should also be taken into account that soup consumption could be highly variable among students due to personal preferences [146][147][148]. ...
Food waste (FW) threatens food security, environmental sustainability, and economic efficiency, with about one-third of global food production lost or wasted. Schools play a crucial role in addressing FW, representing lost resources and missed educational opportunities. The present research assessed three interventions to reduce plate waste (PW) in Rezekne City schools, namely (S1) a plate waste tracker, (S2) an awareness and educational campaign, and (S3) organizational changes, including larger plates, extended lunch breaks, and teacher supervision. Implemented in three schools with a fourth as a control, PW was measured at three intervals, at pre-intervention, short-term, and long-term post-intervention. The PW data analysis utilized two models (day view and class view) and a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. While the plate waste tracker initially reduced PW, sustained impact required continuous reinforcement. The awareness and educational campaign alone proved insufficient, highlighting the need for complex strategies. The organizational changes unexpectedly increased PW, underscoring FW’s complexity. The research has concluded that reducing FW requires tailored and multi-faceted approaches. According to the MOA framework, the school catering model in Rezekne City lacks essential “Opportunities” for effective FW reduction, as students have limited flexibility in portion sizes and food choices, which hinders the interventions’ effectiveness. Future research should explore adaptable FW-reducing interventions suited to specific school contexts.
... The independent indicators have different effects on well-being. For instance, perceived physical responses (such as feeling strong, active, and healthy), relaxation, and happiness from the dining atmosphere (Bschaden et al., 2020) and artfully prepared healthy foods contribute to psychological effects that enhance individual well-being. Happiness derived from family affiliation, a sense of belonging, adherence to family cultural traditions, and a sense of community resonance contribute to social well-being. ...
Food well-being is critical in food marketing and sustainability, yet identifying its key sources and validating them against overall well-being remains challenging. Food marketers struggle to assess contributable factors in strategic decisions. Enhancing Food well-being boosts consumer happiness and sustainability, but lacks a standardized evaluation method. This study introduces a novel Food Well-Being Index (FWBI) embedded in a nomological net using composite-based structural equation modeling to identify key sources of consumer happiness and compare performance across composite variables to promote healthier and more sustainable eating habits.
Data from 401 participants are analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling. Participants provide ratings on 56 statements in the questionnaire, forming the basis for the indicators. An importance-performance matrix analysis is applied to capture important indicators and their performances.
Results reveal individual and environmental well-being as the most salient drivers of food-related happiness, while social well-being demonstrates higher performance. These dimensions are underpinned by motivations for health and environmental responsibility and moderating food well-being to encourage sustainable consumption behaviors.
This empirical study contributes to marketing research and practice in three ways. First, it calibrates the FWBI and identifies key indicators of food well-being. Second, it validates the relevance of food well-being and its impact on overall well-being. Third, it conducts an importance-performance matrix analysis, illustrating how managers in different sectors can use the FWBI to identify essential aspects in food production, design, and retailing, and improve products and services. Therefore, this study has significant implications for sustainability-oriented marketing strategies.
... In particular, under the simulated audiovisual contextual conditions (nature and urban) of Experiment 2, ratings of the aroma, flavour intensity, sweetness, freshness, fruitiness, pleasantness ratings and purchase intent for the orange juice samples were all affected by the shape of the glass in which it was served. It has long been known that ambient stimulation (e.g., soundscape, lighting, background noise) can influence consumers' product selection, purchase behaviour and taste/flavour perception (e.g., Biswas et al., 2019;Bschaden et al., 2020;Ikeda et al., 2023;Istiani et al., 2022;Spence, 2017;Velasco et al., 2016). Ambient sound and music impact people's taste experiences and their mood (Krishna, 2012;Krishna and Elder, 2021;Spence et al., 2019, for a review). ...
The latest research demonstrates that people’s perception of orange juice can be influenced by the shape/type of receptacle in which it happens to be served. Two studies are reported that were designed to investigate the impact, if any, that the shape/type of glass might exert over the perception of the contents, the emotions induced on tasting the juice and the consumer’s intention to purchase orange juice. The same quantity of orange juice (100 ml) was presented and evaluated in three different glasses: a straight-sided, a curved and a tapered glass. Questionnaires were used to assess taste (aroma, flavour intensity, sweetness, freshness and fruitiness), pleasantness and intention to buy orange juice. Study 2 assessed the impact of the same three glasses in two digitally rendered atmospheric conditions (nature vs urban). In Study 1, the perceived sweetness and pleasantness of the orange juice was significantly influenced by the shape/type of the glass in which it was presented. Study 2 reported significant interactions between condition (nature vs urban) and glass shape (tapered, straight-sided and curved). Perceived aroma, flavour intensity and pleasantness were all significantly affected by the simulated audiovisual context or atmosphere. Compared to the urban condition, perceived aroma, freshness, fruitiness and pleasantness were rated significantly higher in the nature condition. On the other hand, flavour intensity and sweetness were rated significantly higher in the urban condition than in the natural condition. These results are likely to be relevant for those interested in providing food services, or company managers offering beverages to their customers.
... This is not, note, "Psychology meets science" as Shaw(2020) puts it in the title of her article about the strategy of designing commercial aircraft design, given that experimental psychology is considered a hard science these days! ...
Air travel has undoubtedly become a more stressful activity for many passengers in recent years, in part as a result of the global Covid pandemic. Consequently, there has been a growing focus on how to optimize the psychological wellbeing of passengers while in the air. This narrative historical review considers how the passenger experience can potentially be hacked through the more intelligent stimulation of the travellers’ senses. In particular, the focus is on promoting passenger comfort, enhancing the provision of healthy food and beverage options/experiences, facilitating relaxation and sleep and, when appropriate, boosting passengers’ arousal/alertness as well (e.g., prior to arrival). A number of concrete suggestions concerning how to sensehack passenger wellbeing at the various stages while in the air are made.
... Knowing which environmental variables influence consumers' evaluation and behavior is a major challenge when studying foods in the context of a meal [3]. Within these variables, the color of the room [33], the temperature and light [34,35], the decoration [36,37], the presence or absence of music [38], of odors [39,40], of external distractions, or of the social interaction [41,42] have been confirmed to modulate consumers' behavior and then the evaluation of foods and beverages. ...
Studying foods and beverages in the meal context is needed to better understand consumers’ behaviors toward products. Since Meiselman in 1992, who advocated for the study of real foods in real contexts with real people, researchers try to move beyond the lab. Nevertheless, moving towards more ecological studies is challenging and still needs further investigation due to the hidden variety behind the concept of meal. The present chapter describes the concept and components of a meal, the variables (related to the serving size, food and beverage combinations, and context) that may affect consumers’ evaluations, the current methods to be applied (contextual approaches and measurements), and the main aspects to consider when conducting consumer research on this field.Key wordsMeal evaluationsContextContextual variablesFoodstuffs
... Research shows that the relationship between lighting and meals is limited. However, warm lighting makes people feel more comfortable and relaxed, resulting in more food intake, while dimmer lighting reduces the time people spend at a restaurant (Bschaden et al., 2020;. Bright lighting in fast-food restaurants may encourage faster food intake, while home-based food combined with dimmer lamps will likely encourage more and less energy consumption (Cummings et al., 2021;Folkyord, 2020). ...
The study delves into the intricate relationship between cafe operations and politics and how it influences the overall dining experience of university students. This research aims to explore the influence of cafe operations on the satisfaction and behaviour of university students and its effect on their dining frequency. The data were gathered through a survey of 201 students, employing a convenient sampling technique. The results suggest that the quality of food, ambience, value for money, food and beverage options, and service quality significantly impact students' overall satisfaction with the campus meal service operation and their dining frequency. These findings emphasize the importance of food service operators focusing on food quality, ambience, value for money, food and beverage options, and service quality to attain student satisfaction. These factors could positively impact the university's reputation, student retention, and marketability to potential students. This study is significant for university food service operators as it provides valuable insights into the various elements of the food service experience that influence student satisfaction and dining frequency. This research contributes to the existing literature by filling the gap in knowledge regarding the impact of cafe operations on student behaviour and satisfaction. Moreover, this study provides a robust framework for future research. Ultimately, this research aims to enhance university students' dining experience, thereby improving their overall academic performance and well-being.
... Over the past few decades, researchers from diverse disciplines have endeavoured to devise interventions to rectify the common phenomenon of overeating [3][4][5]. One promising approach is to manipulate environmental factors, such as lighting [6,7], sound [8,9], and tableware dimensions [10,11], to alter food perception and correspondingly facilitate healthier eating. However, to date, most studies have solely focused on assessing these effects for within-meal behaviour, and rarely consider food intake subsequent to the test meal-termed 'downstream food consumption' [12] in this paper. ...
Recent studies show that visual exposure to different portion sizes can lead to portion alterations in subsequent meals, suggesting that manipulations of tableware sizes may also modify portion size perception and downstream eating behaviour. The present study aims to address this novel question by testing 61 male participants (20–40 years; 19.7–41.5 kg·m−2) over three breakfast sessions in a controlled laboratory. In each session, the participant was served a pre-determined breakfast portion in either medium (control; CT), small (SC), or large (LC) jars. Participants were asked to rate post-meal satiety, and then recorded food intake for the rest of the day using Food Records. Our results indicated significant changes in post-meal satiety following the SC or LC condition, compared to CT (SC: 55.3 ± 10.8, LC: 31.0 ± 8.4, CT: 42.1 ± 9.6, F(2, 108) = 25.22, p < 0.001). SC led to a reduction in post-breakfast energy intake (F(2, 108) = 61.28, p < 0.001), but was counteracted by a substantial increase in downstream intake at the following meal (F(2, 108) = 47.79, p < 0.001), resulting in an overall increase in total daily energy intake (F(2, 108) = 11.45, p < 0.001). This study provides the first evidence that small tableware may not be a long-term solution for addressing overeating and related health issues (e.g., obesity), reinforcing the importance of considering downstream intake in eating-related intervention.
... The research that has been reviewed in this section shows that the background against which food is presented (both in terms of background colour and context) can exert a significant influence over the eye-appeal of the food. Optimising the lighting and visual background are, of course, also important when it comes to maximising people's appreciation of food in the context of fine dining (e.g., Bschaden, Dörsam, Cvetko, Kalamala, & Stroebele-Benschop, 2020; see Spence, 2017a, for a review). In the next section, we will take a closer look at some of the latest digital means of manipulating food imagery in order to enhance a food's visual deliciousness/attractiveness. ...
In recent years, a growing number of academic researchers, as well as many marketing and design practitioners, have uncovered a variety of factors that would appear to enhance the visual attractiveness, or deliciousness, of food images to the typical consumer. This review, which contains both narrative and systematic elements, critically evaluates the literature concerning the various factors influencing the eye appeal of food images, no matter whether there is an edible food stimulus physically present in front of the viewer or not. We start by summarizing the evidence concerning the human brain’s ability to rapidly determine energy-density in a visual scene and pay attention accordingly. Next, we focus on the importance of embodied mental simulation when it comes to enhancing visual deliciousness. Thereafter, we review the literature on the importance of visual aesthetic features in eye-appeal. The wide range of visual attributes that help to enhance food attractiveness include symmetry, shape, freshness, glossiness, dynamic-presentation, etc. The review concludes with sections on the importance of background/ambient lighting/colour, and the tricks used by those who digitally manipulate images. Taken together, therefore, many different factors ultimately influence the visual deliciousness of food images.
... For instance, Gal et al. reported that people who liked strong coffee drank more of the hot beverage under bright lighting, while Xu and LaBroo reported that people tended to order spicier chicken wings under brighter lighting. However, just as for the ambient temperature example mentioned a moment ago, the ubiquity of indoor lighting may well serve to minimize any such daily environmental effects on our food behaviours (though see also Bschaden, Dörsam, Cvetko, Kalamala, & Stroebele-Benschop, 2020). Interestingly, De Castro (2004, p. 110) has also brought an evolutionary consideration to the impact of diurnal changes in ambient light levels on people's consumption of food, noting that: "Intake late in the day does not appear to be particularly satiating. ...
When questioned, people typically report that different foods are appropriate at different times of day. What is more, patterns of food consumption tend to exhibit marked diurnal/circadian variations in many parts of the world too. The question addressed in this review is what factors help to explain these temporal differences in food consumption. While it has been suggested that our nutritional needs may differ somewhat over the course of the day, cultural conventions, marketing-led interventions, atmospheric (e.g., think only of changes in ambient temperature and/or daily light levels), perceptual (i.e., threshold) and/or hedonic changes, as well as psychological factors have also been suggested to play a role. Taken together, though, the evidence reviewed here would appear to support the view that cultural and psychological factors, not to mention the ubiquitous influence of food marketing, may be the most important factors in terms of helping to explain why it is that so many of us choose to eat different foods at different times of the day. Relevant psychological factors here include everything from the purported depletion of self-restraint resources over the course of the day through to the fulfilment of different psychological needs (e.g., functional or hedonic) associated with different mealtimes. Given the unhealthy foods typically associated with breakfast in many western countries (e.g., think only of sugar-laden breakfast cereals), gaining a better understanding of the factors underpinning current temporal patterns of food consumption may potentially help those wanting to nudge consumers toward making healthier food choices in the future.
... Ambient lighting has also been shown to impact food choice and food consumption (Biswas et al., 2017;Bschaden et al., 2020). Across laboratory studies and field studies, Biswas et al. (2017) show that lighting directly impacts ambiance within consumption contexts. ...
Food has a daily impact on all consumers, requiring frequent evaluations and decisions pre‐consumption, during, and post‐consumption. Given the number of consumer interactions and the complexity of the food consumption process, researchers have increasingly studied food from both a sensory standpoint and cognitive standpoint. In this review, we create a framework for this existing research. Specifically, we discuss research addressing the key sensory drivers of taste perceptions and consumption, including all five senses: vision, olfaction, audition, haptic, and/or taste. We also identify key cognitive contextual drivers of taste perception and consumption within a marketing context, including social cues, atmospherics, branding, and advertising. Building from the extant literature, we generate and propose areas for future food‐related research.
... Moreover, the lighting conditions are very important for the sensory evaluation of foods. Bschaden et al. [32] found that the lighting conditions of the testing environment can affect the saltiness perception of tomato soups. Moreover, consumers tend to choose less healthy food options when the ambient lighting is dim [33]. ...
Wine tasting is a multidimensional experience that includes contextual information from tasting environments. Formal sensory tastings are limited by the use of booths that lack ecological validity and engagement. Virtual reality (VR) can overcome this limitation by simulating different environmental contexts. Perception, sensory acceptability, and emotional responses of a Cabernet Sauvignon wine under traditional sensory booths, contextual environments, and VR simulations were evaluated and compared. Participants (N=53) performed evaluations under five conditions: (1) traditional-booths, (2) bright-restaurant [real environment with bright lights], (3) dark-restaurant [real environment with dimly candles], (4) bright-VR [VR restaurant with bright lights], and (5) dark-VR [VR restaurant with dimly candles]. Participants rated the acceptability of aroma, sweetness, acidity, astringency, mouthfeel, aftertaste and overall liking (9-point hedonic scale), and intensities of sweetness, acidity, and astringency (15-cm unstructured line-scale). Results showed that context (booths, real, or VR) affected the perception of wine’s floral aroma (dark-VR=8.6 vs. booths=7.5). Liking of the sensory attributes did not change under different environmental conditions. Emotional responses under bright-VR were associated with “free,” “glad,” and “enthusiastic”; however, under traditional booths, they were related to “polite” and “secure.” “Nostalgic” and “daring” were associated with dark-VR. VR can be used to understand contextual effects on consumer perceptions.
Ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel ve çevresel anlamda her alanda etkili bir sektör olarak turizm sektörünün önemi her geçen gün daha da artmaktadır. Etki alanının ve öneminin artması turizm alanındaki araştırmaları da önemli kılmaktadır. Bu kitabın temel amacı, turizm alanında gerçekleştirilecek araştırmalar sayesinde farklı bir bakış açısıyla sektörün ele alınmasına olanak sağlamak ve tüm paydaşlar için verimli bir turizm gelişiminin gerçekleştirilmesine katkı sağlamaktır.
The consumption of food and drink are amongst life’s most multisensory experiences, and go beyond the sensory stimulation taking place in the mouth. The latest research reveals the complex multisensory interactions that influence consumers’ sensory and hedonic judgments, as well as their food preferences and choices. This chapter explores the concept of crossmodal correspondences in order to understand the means by which anticipatory food cues can affect the perceptual outcome of a flavor for the consumer. It also reviews the procedures and techniques that have been most commonly used to investigate multisensory stimulation and how anticipatory sensory cues ultimately affect the overall consumption experience. The remainder of this chapter summarizes a couple of recently conducted studies that were designed to assess crossmodal effects on consumers’ sensory and hedonic responses to coffee under realistic tasting conditions (i.e., real-life settings). The use of contexts that are sufficiently realistic and thus relevant to the consumer is of great utility in consumer research.Key wordsMultisensory perceptionCrossmodalityExtrinsic cuesConsumptionFood
Generally, people prefer to dine in beautiful environments. Previous studies have reported that environmental factors affect an individual's perception of food; however, little is known about the effect of environmental aesthetics on food perception. In Experiment 1, we used photographs of restaurant (1a) or non-restaurant (1b) environments with high or low aesthetic value, paired with images of foods, and participants were asked to rate the visual, olfactory, and gustatory aesthetic value of the food. Results showed significantly higher ratings for food perception in all three sensory modalities in the high aesthetic value environment, together with positive emotion and the desire to eat, compared with the low aesthetic environment. Experiment 2 extended the study to two real-world environments (one high and one low aesthetic value) and actual food consumption. The results also found higher aesthetic ratings in the olfactory and gustatory systems and greater desire to eat again in an environment with high aesthetic value than in an environment with low aesthetic value. This research also explored the mediating role of emotion in the relationship between environmental aesthetics and food perception and found a significant mediating relationship. In conclusion, environmental aesthetics play an important role in food perception, and these findings provide insights into increasing positive food perception in daily life.
Store atmospheres are inherently multisensory and constitute an important driver of consumer behaviour. The research suggests that background music (as one element of the multisensory atmosphere) can influence consumer preference and choice. However, the findings have been inconsistent as far as how background music influences people’s preferences for healthy vs. indulgent foods is concerned. By considering different music genres, food types, and tastes/flavours, we aimed to disentangle the mixed results that have been reported previously. Across two experiments (including one pre-registered replication), the participants rated their preferences for each of several options (healthy savoury, indulgent savoury, healthy sweet, indulgent sweet) while listening to one of four music genres (Jazz, Classical, Rock/Metal, and Hip-hop). The results of the two experiments consistently demonstrated that the effects of background music on food preferences were dependent on the interaction between music genre, food type (healthy vs. indulgent), and taste/flavour (sweet vs. savoury). Crucially, listening to Jazz and Classical music increased people’s preferences for healthy savoury foods (e.g., vegetable sandwich) as compared with Rock/Metal music. Listening to Rock/Metal, Hip-hop, and Jazz music increased people’s preferences for indulgent savoury foods (e.g., a beef sandwich) as compared with Classical music. Additionally, listening to Classical music increased people’s preferences for both healthier (e.g., low-fat milk) and indulgent (e.g., milk chocolate) sweet foods as compared with the other musical genres. The mediating role of emotions was also documented in these experiments. Specifically, positive valence mediated the relationship between music genre and sweet as well as healthier savoury foods, while the feeling of arousal mediated the relationship between music genre and indulgent savoury foods. These findings suggest that auditory atmospherics may influence consumers’ food preferences. Practical implications for store managers concerning when to select and use specific types of background music are made.
Coffee is one of the world’s most frequently consumed beverages, and coffee culture is an increasingly popular phenomenon across the world. Atmospheric elements are especially important for the design of coffee shops. However, it is still unclear how the visual atmospherics (e.g., colour scheme, lightness) of coffee shop interiors influence the consumer’s evaluations of coffee shops and their expectations concerning the coffee beverages they serve. The present research was designed to understand the role of one aspect of the visual atmosphere, namely the colour parameters of the interiors of coffee shop, on the consumer evaluation of the coffee shops themselves and on the expected sensory properties of the coffees served there. Ratings of taste expectations, likelihood of visiting, and emotions were evaluated for each of 50 coffee shop images and averaged across 65 participants. The color parameters (L*, a*, b*, saturation) of the coffee shop interior were calculated using digital image analysis. The results demonstrate that more reddish and lighter coloured coffee shop images were associated with the expectation that the coffee shop would serve a sweeter coffee, while more greenish and darker coloured coffee shop images were associated with more sour/bitter/tastier coffee expectations as well as a higher likelihood of visiting. Moreover, emotions, specifically feelings of calmness, mediated the relation between color parameters and taste expectations/likelihood of visiting. Taken together, these results provide evidence on the role of visual atmospherics of coffee shops on consumer evaluations and provide a number of practical implications for the coffee outlets/cafes.
Situational factors affect human behavior, among which dishonesty. Previous studies linked darkness to an increase in immoral behavior. Simultaneously, ‘dark mode’ is increasingly offered in software. Accordingly it is important to investigate the moral behavioral effects of dark mode. In a high-powered, pre-registered, and economically incentivized experiment, users of ‘dark’ and ‘light’ user interfaces were compared on honesty. Results showed no effect of dark mode on honesty. However, dark mode promoted honesty in users that were awake for a longer period of time. As such, implementation of dark mode is safe and may even be encouraged.
Purpose
Meat consumption causes a large amount of global greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental problems. Studies showed that consumers underestimate the environmental impact of meat consumption compared to other food-related behaviours. A video intervention was conducted to investigate the effect of information on consumers' perception and behaviour.
Design/methodology/approach
Two didactically different videos about meat and the environment and a control video were shown to 189 participants. Ratings about the environmental impact of different food-related behaviours as well as participants' meat consumption frequency were obtained directly before, one week later and one year after the screening by self-report questionnaires.
Findings
Mean rating of the environmental impact of meat consumption was second to the least important of the different food consumption patterns. In the first intervention group, the rating increased significantly ( p = 0.001) after having watched the video. There was no such effect in the second intervention or the control group. Self-reported meat consumption frequency did not change significantly in any of the groups. No long-term differences between the groups could be found.
Research limitations/implications
The results suggest that there is still a lack of knowledge concerning the environmental impact of meat consumption. Providing information can affect awareness, depending on the type of information delivery. The circumstances under which information encourages behaviour change need to be further explored.
Originality/value
This is the first study that investigated the impact of different videos about environmental impacts of meat consumption on consumer perceptions and behaviour.
Many consumers perceive the bitter taste or other sensory characteristic of vegetables as unpleasant, posing a challenge to dietary recommendations aiming to increase vegetable consumption. Food experience is multisensory, with complex interactions between the senses and individual differences in sensory perception. This review focuses on the factors affecting sensory properties of vegetables and sensory perception of vegetables among adults. Topical examples of sensory quality and evaluation of vegetable samples are presented. Cultivar and growing conditions are related to the internal sensory quality of vegetables. The effects of different processing methods, such as freezing and cooking, on the sensory properties of vegetables are also reviewed. Flavor modification of vegetables with seasonings may be used to improve palatability and incorporating vegetables to meals may increase the intake of vegetables. Recently, external factors (e.g. visual and odor stimuli) have been tested in multisensory research in the context of vegetable perception and choice. These options to achieve better sensory quality, more palatable meals and pleasant eating context may be used to promote vegetable intake among adults.
Retail atmospherics Is emerging as a major competitive tool, and It Is especially notable in the restaurant industry, where lighting is used to create the overall ambience and influence consumer experience. In addition to influencing overall experience, can ambient light luminance have unintended consequences in terms of influencing what diners order? The results of a field study at multiple locations of a major restaurant chain and a series of lab studies robustly show that consumers tend to choose less healthy food options when ambient lighting is dim (vs. bright). Process evidence suggests that this phenomenon occurs because ambient light luminance influences mental alertness, which in turn influences food choices. While restaurant and grocery store managers can use these insights and their ambient light switches to nudge consumers toward targeted food choices, such as healthy or high-margin signature items, health-conscious consumers can opt for dining environments with bright ambient lighting.
Inadequate regulation of food intake plays an important role in the development of overweight and obesity, and is under the influence of both the internal appetite control system and external environmental cues. Especially in environments where food is overly available, external cues seem to override and/or undermine internal signals, which put severe challenges on the accurate regulation of food intake. By structuring these external cues around five different phases in the food consumption process this paper aims to provide an overview of the wide range of external cues that potentially facilitate or hamper internal signals and with that influence food intake. For each of the five phases of the food consumption process, meal initiation, meal planning, consumption phase, end of eating episode and time till next meal, the most relevant internal signals are discussed and it is explained how specific external cues exert their influence.
Introduction:
Bright light exposure can alter circulating serotonin levels, and alteration of available serotonin by acute selective serotonin reuptake inhibition significantly lowers sweet but not salt taste recognition thresholds. We tested the hypothesis that bright light exposure would increase sweet but not salt taste sensitivity in healthy adults.
Methods:
Fourteen healthy volunteers were exposed to bright (10,000 lux) and dim (<20 lux) light for 30 min each, in counterbalanced order. Measures of taste perception (salt and sweet) and mood were determined at baseline, and before and after each light exposure period.
Results:
Recognition thresholds for sucrose were significantly lower after bright but not dim light exposure. Thresholds for salt were unaffected by either condition. There were no significant changes in taste acuity, intensity or pleasantness for both the taste modalities and on visual analogue scales (VASs) for mood, anxiety, sleepiness and alertness, under either light condition.
Conclusion:
Brief bright light exposure reduces sweet but not salt taste recognition thresholds in healthy humans.
The advantage of the LEDs illumination in general household lighting was proposed. High efficiency white LED as the light source was provided the energy saving illumination of the general household lightings. Different spaces in general household with different standards of average illuminance were designed and simulated by LightTools and DIALux software. The power consumptions and efficiency of traditional illuminated light sources and LED light source in lighting the household environment were analyzed and compared with each other at the same standard of average illuminance. Finally, it provided the advantage of using white LEDs in different spaces of the general household lighting.
This paper reviews some of the evidence that dietary behaviours are, in large part, the consequence of automatic responses to contextual food cues, many of which lead to increased caloric consumption and poor dietary choices. We describe studies that illustrate how these automatic mechanisms underlie eating behaviours, as well as evidence that individuals are subject to inherent cognitive limitations, and mostly lack the capacity to consistently recognize, ignore or resist contextual cues that encourage eating.
Restaurants and grocery stores are the primary settings from which people obtain food. These settings are often designed to maximize sales of food by strategically placing and promoting items to encourage impulse purchases. Although a great deal of marketing research is proprietary, this paper describes some of the published studies that indicate that changes in superficial characteristics of food products, including packaging and portion sizes, design, salience, health claims and labelling, strongly influence food choices and consumption in ways for which people generally lack insight. We discuss whether contextual influences might be considered environmental risk factors from which individuals may need the kinds of protections that fall under the mission of public health.
The regulation of nutrient supply connotes a scientific interest in the control of food consumption since eating is the means through which the body (and brain) receives its supply of nutrients. In turn, the nutrient value of food is clearly one factor which plays a role in the pattern of food consumption. Therefore, investigations of the processes underlying appetite control should give some priority to the nutritional characteristics of the foods consumed. For approximately the last 20 years the study of the brain and appetite control has been driven, in part, by the need to understand the problem of human obesity and to develop strategies to treat or prevent the condition. In this context the regulation of nutrient supply assumes particular significance since a number of studies have indicated a positive relationship between the proportion of fat in the diet and the prevalence of overweight or obesity (e.g. Dreon et al. 1988; Romieu et al. 1988; Klesges et al. 1992; Tucker & Kano, 1992). Consequently, there is an urgent need to examine neural mechanisms for the control of appetite with reference to the regulation of intake of dietary fat and the control of body weight.
A well-resourced, comprehensive, population-based set of strategies is needed to attenuate and eventually reverse the current trends of increasing obesity prevalence now apparent in most countries. The Epidemiological Triad (host, vector, environment) has proven to be a robust model for other epidemics and is applied to obesity. Host-based strategies are primarily educational and these tend to be most effective among people with higher incomes and higher educational attainment. The main vectors for a high-energy intake are energy-dense foods and drinks and large portion sizes and, for low energy expenditure, machines that promote physical inactivity. Vector-based strategies that alter food formulation can have a significant impact, particularly through influencing common, high-volume foods. The increasingly 'obesogenic' environments are probably the main driving forces for the obesity epidemic. There are many environmental strategies that can influence the physical, economic, policy or socio-cultural environments, but the evidence base for these potentially powerful interventions is small. Children should be the priority population for interventions, and improving the general socio-economic conditions for disadvantaged, marginalized or poor population sectors is also a central strategy for obesity prevention. The key settings for interventions are schools, homes, neighbourhoods, primary health care services and communities. The key macroenvironments for interventions are the transport and infrastructure sector, the media and the food sector.
Package size, plate shape, lighting, socializing, and variety are only a few of the environmental factors that can influence the consumption volume of food far more than most people realize. Although such environmental factors appear unrelated, they generally influence consumption volume by inhibiting consumption monitoring and by suggesting alternative consumption norms. For researchers, this review suggests that redirecting the focus of investigations to the psychological mechanisms behind consumption will raise the profile and impact of research. For health professionals, this review underscores how small structural changes in personal environments can reduce the unknowing overconsumption of food.
This paper explores the major changes in diet and physical activity patterns around the world and focuses on shifts in obesity.
Review of results focusing on large-scale surveys and nationally representative studies of diet, activity, and obesity among adults and children.
Youth and adults from a range of countries around the world.
The International Obesity Task Force guidelines for defining overweight and obesity are used for youth and the body mass index > or =25 kg/m(2) and 30 cutoffs are used, respectively, for adults.
The nutrition transition patterns are examined from the time period termed the receding famine pattern to one dominated by nutrition-related noncommunicable diseases (NR-NCDs). The speed of dietary and activity pattern shifts is great, particularly in the developing world, resulting in major shifts in obesity on a worldwide basis. Data limitations force us to examine data on obesity trends in adults to provide a broader sense of changes in obesity over time, and then to examine the relatively fewer studies on youth. Specifically, this work provides a sense of change both in the United States, Europe, and the lower- and middle-income countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America.
The paper shows that changes are occurring at great speed and at earlier stages of the economic and social development of each country. The burden of obesity is shifting towards the poor.
This paper analyses the influence of the illuminance level of a light source on how consumers evaluated certain attributes of sweetened natural yoghurt and on their willingness to buy during product tasting. It also seeks to identify whether or not gender differences played a role in these evaluations. To do this, we conducted an independent within-subjects experiment (N = 69) where illuminance level (low versus high) was studied. Participants had to assess one sensory attribute (‘Sweet’), three non-sensory attributes (‘Healthy’, ‘Natural’ and ‘Quality’) and willingness to buy for sweetened natural yoghurt. The results show that illuminance level influences the evaluation of some attributes and that there are discernible gender differences. In general, the consumers perceived the yoghurt to be healthier under low illuminance conditions and women perceived the yoghurt to be sweeter under high illuminance. Although the effects identified were not numerous, these findings suggest that illuminance level can influence consumers’ tasting experiences as well as their willingness to buy. The limitations of this research are discussed as well as their possible practical implications.
This study investigated restaurants’ response to the aging population’s preferences. Gaps between previously identified preferences and current restaurant design were examined. The observational survey assessed: parking and outside accessibility, comfort and inside accessibility, menu readability, and restrooms. Occasional gaps were found even though restaurants were generally well-designed. Casual dining restaurants were more likely to meet consumer preferences as to the exterior, seating, and service. Limited-service restaurants better met preferences for the bathrooms, lighting, and sound. This information may be helpful when building or remodeling restaurants and may help restaurants to attract older customers.
Aging is often accompanied by lower intakes of food energy and consequent negative effects on health. To some extent this is due to declines in physiological ability, including the sensory responsiveness to regulate food intake. Fortunately, environmental factors may still influence food intake in older adults. Factors such as social facilitation, modeling, and nutrition knowledge and skills have been shown to stimulate their food intake. While environmental factors such as the eating location, portion size, food presentation, and labeling are known to influence eating behavior, their effectiveness in stimulating food intake in older persons is not well delineated. It is suggested that improving the environmental stimuli that promote food intake is a viable strategy to overcome age-related declines in nutrient intakes. This strategy is so promising that further research is warranted.
Changes in ambient light have been reported to affect taste intensity perception. In an experiment designed to clarify the nature of this effect 48 Ss each tasted 27 pairs of citric acid samples, judging the intensity of the second sample relative to the first. Four sets of acid stimuli varying in discriminability were used, and three conditions of ambient illumination change. Half the Ss received systematic reinforcement of their responses, the others did not. Results suggest that Ss use hetero-modal cues as an alternative response basis when the primary discrimination task is relatively difficult.
Recent research shows that environmental cues such as lighting and music strongly bias the eating behavior of diners in laboratory situations. This study examines whether changing the atmosphere of a fast food restaurant would change how much patrons ate. The results indicated that softening the lighting and music led people to eat less, to rate the food as more enjoyable, and to spend just as much. In contrast to hypothesized U-shaped curves (people who spend longer eat more), this suggests a more relaxed environment increases satisfaction and decreases consumption.
The measurement of intersensory facilitation, arising when ambient light modifies the subjective estimation of gustatory intensity differences, was attempted. Artificial light at two intensities and citric acid at concentrations of ·00115, ·00100 and ·00085 gm/ml in tap water were used with 24 Ss, mean age 20·9 years. Mean relative intensity ratings fitted a linear trace decay model almost exactly, leaving a very small superimposed intersensory effect. Examination of significant heteroscedasity (p<.00001) in results related to changes in illumination showed large intersubject differences; some Ss showed consistent facilitation and others a consistent opposite effect with increased illumination. The intersensory effect is probably multiplicative on perceived intensities, and not consistent with a simple absolute threshold shift effect.
How important are visual cues for determining satiation? To find out, 64 participants were served lunch in a "dark" restaurant where they ate in complete darkness. Half the participants unknowingly received considerably larger "super-size" portions which subsequently led them to eat 36% more food. Despite this difference, participants' appetite for dessert and their subjective satiety were largely unaffected by how much they had consumed. Consistent with expectations, participants were also less accurate in estimating their actual consumption quantity than a control group who ate the same meal in the light.
The control of food intake has been studied using reductionism; by separately investigating environmental, physiological, and genetic variables. The general model of intake regulation attempts to reassemble the pieces into an organized whole. It postulates that intake is influenced by sets of both physiological factors which have negative feedback loops to intake and environmental factors which do not. Data and behavioral genetic analysis on a number of environmental, psychological, dietary, and social variables demonstrate that they have large impacts on the intake of free-living humans in their everyday environments and their magnitude and impact on intake are influenced by heredity. Recent evidence of built environment influences on activity and intake further indicate the profound influence of environmental circumstances on both intake and expenditure. A computer simulation of the general model of intake regulation demonstrates that the model predicts different maintained levels of intake and body weight depending upon the external environment and that change in the environment can produce new sustained levels. It is suggested that eating is influenced by a myriad of physiological and non-physiological factors and that total intake results from the integral of their influences. It is concluded that recombining the components broken down in the reductionistic process results in a functional whole that can well describe human behavior in natural environments. The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.
Eating takes place in a context of environmental stimuli known as ambience. Various external factors such as social and physical surroundings, including the presence of other people and sound, temperature, smell, color, time, and distraction affect food intake and food choice. Food variables such as the temperature, smell, and color of the food also influence food intake and choice differently. However, the influence of ambience on nutritional health is not fully understood. This review summarizes the research on ambient influences on food intake and food choice. The literature suggests that there are major influences of ambience on eating behavior and that the magnitude of the effect of ambience may be underestimated. Changes in intake can be detected with different levels of the number of people present, food accessibility, eating locations, food color, ambient temperatures and lighting, and temperature of foods, smell of food, time of consumption, and ambient sounds. It is suggested that the manipulation of these ambient factors as a whole or individually may be used therapeutically to alter food intake and that more attention needs to be paid to ambience in nutrition-related research.
This article presents our recent studies on the effects of color temperature on the taste sense and the influence of color temperature on bright light exposure during night rest period. Ten male Japanese and ten male Chinese were exposed to four illumination conditions (200, 1500 lx x 3000, 7500 K). Their taste threshold of four common tastes and amount of saliva were measured. It was found in both Japanese and Chinese subjects that sensitivities to sweet and bitter taste were decreased under the lower illuminance condition. Under the lower color temperature condition, sensitivity to bitter taste in Japanese and sweet taste in Chinese were decreased. Secretion of saliva increased under the lower illuminance condition in both Japanese and Chinese. Only in Chinese subjects, secretion of saliva increased under the lower color temperature condition. In a separate experiment, six male Japanese students were subjected to bright light exposure during a night rest period. They performed a mental task from 23:00 h till 02:00 h, and took a rest from 00:00 h to 01:00 h. During the rest period they were exposed to bright light (3000 lx) of three different color temperatures: 3000 K, 5000 K, and 7000 K. After exposure to bright light of 3000 K but not at other color temperatures, the EEG alpha1 band ratio and the beta band ratio at 02:00 h were higher and lower, respectively, than that at 01:00 h. These findings indicated that lower color temperature bright light exposure during a night rest break led to a reduction of subjects' arousal level during the subsequent work. Herein, we discuss these results from the viewpoint of physiological anthropology.
Pleasure from foods can stimulate "non-homoeostatic" eating, and might therefore also potentially contribute toward obesity. However, obesity is not reliably associated with heightened hedonic responses to foods. This apparent discrepancy may reflect the differentiation between "liking" and "wanting". Supporting this, behavioural and neurophysiological data on responsiveness to food-related cues indicate that obesity may be associated with increased motivation for food consumption, without necessarily any greater explicit pleasure derived from the orosensory experience of eating. This distinction may have important implications for further research, and applications in commercial and public health approaches to modifying energy intakes.
Obesity represents the most prevalent nutritional problem worldwide which in the long run predisposes to development of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, endometrial carcinoma, osteoarthritis, gall stones and cardiovascular diseases. Despite significant reductions in dietary fat consumption, the prevalence of obesity is on a rise and is taking on pandemic proportions. Obesity develops when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure over time. Recently, a close evolutionary relationship between the peripheral and hypothalamic neuropeptides has become apparent. The hypothalamus being the central feeding organ mediates regulation of short-term and long-term dietary intake via synthesis of various orexigenic and anorectic neuropeptides. The structure and function of many hypothalamic peptides (neuropeptide Y (NPY), melanocortins, agouti-related peptide (AGRP), cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART), melanin concentrating hormone (MCH), orexins have been characterized in rodent models The peripheral neuropeptides such as cholecystokinin (CCK), ghrelin, peptide YY (PYY3-36), amylin, bombesin regulate important gastrointestinal functions such as motility, secretion, absorption, provide feedback to the central nervous system on availability of nutrients and may play a part in regulating food intake. The pharmacological potential of several endogenous peripheral peptides released prior to, during and/or after feeding are being explored. Long-term regulation is provided by the main circulating hormones leptin and insulin. These systems implicated in hypothalamic appetite regulation provide potential targets for treatment of obesity which could potentially pass into clinical development in the next 5 years. This review summarizes various effects and interrelationship of these central and peripheral neuropeptides in metabolism, obesity and their potential role as targets for treatment of obesity.
An electrogastrogram (EGG) is considered to be an index to the autonomic nervous system of the digestive organs. In the present study, we attempted to clarify whether or not an EGG can be used to evaluate the influence of illumination, and what kinds of effect taste stimuli and illumination have on the autonomic nervous system. In this study, we used the ratio of the normal wave component of the EGG (EGG-NR: 2-4.5 cpm power/1-10 cpm power) and the amplitude of a normal wave (EGG-NI: integrated EGG of 2-4.5 cpm). Thirteen healthy males participated in 16 experimental conditions (4 lighting conditionsx4 taste stimuli). The four lighting conditions were set by combinations of illuminance levels of 200 and 1500 lx and color temperatures of 3000 and 7500 K. The four taste stimuli were sweet (glucose), salty (salt), sour (acetic acid), and bitter (quinine). The changes in EGG-NR and EGG-NI were compared for different taste conditions. The results showed that EGG-NI was not significantly affected by the different taste conditions. However, the main effect of taste on EGG-NR was significant: sweet and salty tastes were significantly higher than the bitter taste. EGG-NR and EGG-NI in different lighting conditions were also compared. The main effect of different color temperatures was also significant, but the illuminance level did not affect EGG-NR. EGG-NR increased significantly at the lower color temperature. On the other hand, EGG-NI significantly increased at the lower illuminance. These results suggest that parasympathetic nervous activity has a predominant effect on gastric activity in different lighting environments. Therefore, EGG measurements may be useful indicators for illumination environment studies.
An increasing number of people report concerns about the amount of stress in their life. At the same time obesity is an escalating health problem worldwide. Evidence is accumulating rapidly that stress related chronic stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and resulting excess glucocorticoid exposure may play a potential role in the development of visceral obesity. Since adequate regulation of energy and food intake under stress is important for survival, it is not surprising that the HPA axis is not only the 'conductor' of an appropriate stress response, but is also tightly intertwined with the endocrine regulation of appetite. Here we attempt to link animal and human literatures to tease apart how different types of psychological stress affect eating. We propose a theoretical model of Reward Based Stress Eating. This model emphasizes the role of cortisol and reward circuitry on motivating calorically dense food intake, and elucidating potential neuroendocrine mediators in the relationship between stress and eating. The addiction literature suggests that the brain reward circuitry may be a key player in stress-induced food intake. Stress as well as palatable food can stimulate endogenous opioid release. In turn, opioid release appears to be part of an organisms' powerful defense mechanism protecting from the detrimental effects of stress by decreasing activity of the HPA axis and thus attenuating the stress response. Repeated stimulation of the reward pathways through either stress induced HPA stimulation, intake of highly palatable food or both, may lead to neurobiological adaptations that promote the compulsive nature of overeating. Cortisol may influence the reward value of food via neuroendocrine/peptide mediators such as leptin, insulin and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Whereas glucocorticoids are antagonized by insulin and leptin acutely, under chronic stress, that finely balanced system is dysregulated, possibly contributing to increased food intake and visceral fat accumulation. While these mechanisms are only starting to be elucidated in humans, it appears the obesity epidemic may be exacerbated by the preponderance of chronic stress, unsuccessful attempts at food restriction, and their independent and possibly synergistic effects on increasing the reward value of highly palatable food.
Effects of manipulating salience of food upon consumption by obese and normal eaters
- L Ross
Ross, L. (1974). Effects of manipulating salience of food upon consumption by obese and
normal eaters. In S. Schachter, & J. Rodin (Eds.). Obese humans and rats (pp. 43-52).
London: Routledge.
- A Bschaden
A. Bschaden, et al.
Food Quality and Preference 79 (2020) 103797