The effects of plant-based diets on the body and the brain: a systematic review

Abstract

Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-based eating patterns such as vegetarian and vegan, yet potential effects on the body and brain are a matter of debate. Therefore, we systematically reviewed existing human interventional studies on putative effects of a plant-based diet on the metabolism and cognition, and what is known about the underlying mechanisms. Using the search terms “plant-based OR vegan OR vegetarian AND diet AND intervention” in PubMed filtered for clinical trials in humans retrieved 205 studies out of which 27, plus an additional search extending the selection to another five studies, were eligible for inclusion based on three independent ratings. We found robust evidence for short- to moderate-term beneficial effects of plant-based diets versus conventional diets (duration ≤ 24 months) on weight status, energy metabolism and systemic inflammation in healthy participants, obese and type-2 diabetes patients. Initial experimental studies proposed novel microbiome-related pathways, by which plant-based diets modulate the gut microbiome towards a favorable diversity of bacteria species, yet a functional “bottom up” signaling of plant-based diet-induced microbial changes remains highly speculative. In addition, little is known, based on interventional studies about cognitive effects linked to plant-based diets. Thus, a causal impact of plant-based diets on cognitive functions, mental and neurological health and respective underlying mechanisms has yet to be demonstrated. In sum, the increasing interest for plant-based diets raises the opportunity for developing novel preventive and therapeutic strategies against obesity, eating disorders and related comorbidities. Still, putative effects of plant-based diets on brain health and cognitive functions as well as the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored and new studies need to address these questions.

Full text

Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-019-0552-0
T
ranslational Psychiatry
REVIEW ARTICLE Open Access
The effects of plant-based diets on the body
and the brain: a systematic review
Evelyn Medawar
1,2,3
, Sebastian Huhn
4
, Arno Villringer
1,2,3
and A. Veronica Witte
1
Abstract
Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-based eating patterns such as vegetarian and vegan, yet
potential effects on the body and brain are a matter of debate. Therefore, we systematically reviewed existing human
interventional studies on putative effects of a plant-based diet on the metabolism and cognition, and what is known
about the underlying mechanisms. Using the search terms “plant-based OR vegan OR vegetarian AND diet AND
intervention”in PubMed filtered for clinical trials in humans retrieved 205 studies out of which 27, plus an additional
search extending the selection to another five studies, were eligible for inclusion based on three independent ratings.
We found robust evidence for short- to moderate-term beneficial effects of plant-based diets versus conventional diets
(duration ≤24 months) on weight status, energy metabolism and systemic inflammation in healthy participants, obese
and type-2 diabetes patients. Initial experimental studies proposed novel microbiome-related pathways, by which
plant-based diets modulate the gut microbiome towards a favorable diversity of bacteria species, yet a functional
“bottom up”signaling of plant-based diet-induced microbial changes remains highly speculative. In addition, little is
known, based on interventional studies about cognitive effects linked to plant-based diets. Thus, a causal impact of
plant-based diets on cognitive functions, mental and neurological health and respective underlying mechanisms has
yet to be demonstrated. In sum, the increasing interest for plant-based diets raises the opportunity for developing
novel preventive and therapeutic strategies against obesity, eating disorders and related comorbidities. Still, putative
effects of plant-based diets on brain health and cognitive functions as well as the underlying mechanisms remain
largely unexplored and new studies need to address these questions.
Introduction
Background
Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-
based eating patterns such as avoiding meat or fish or fully
excluding animal products (vegetarian or vegan, see
Fig. 1). In 2015, around 0.4−3.4% US adults, 1−2% British
adults, and 5−10% of German adults were reported to eat
largely plant-based diets
1–4
, due to various reasons
(reviewed in ref.
5
). Likewise, the number of scientific
publications on PubMed (Fig. 2) and the public popularity
as depicted by Google Trends (Fig. 3) underscore the
increased interest in plant-based diets. This increasing
awareness calls for a better scientific understanding of
how plant-based diets affect human health, in particular
with regard to potentially relevant effects on mental
health and cognitive functions.
Study aims
A potential effect of plant-based diets on mortality rate
remains controversial: large epidemiological studies like
the Adventist studies (n=22,000−96,000) show a link
between plant-based diets, lower all-cause mortality and
cardiovascular diseases
6,7
, while other studies like the
EPIC-Oxford study and the “45 and Up Study”(n=
64,000−267,000) show none
8,9
. Yet, many, but not all,
epidemiological and interventional human studies in the
last decades have suggested that plant-based diets exert
beneficial health effects with regard to obesity-related
© The Author(s) 2019
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Correspondence: Evelyn Medawar (medawar@cbs.mpg.de)
1
Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and
Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
2
Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin,
Germany
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article.
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metabolic dysfunction, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
and chronic low-grade inflammation (e.g. refs.
6,7,10,11
, for
reviews, see refs.
12–18
). However, while a putative link
between such metabolic alterations and brain health
through pathways which might include diet-related neu-
rotransmitter precursors, inflammatory pathways and the
gut microbiome
19
becomes increasingly recognized, the
notion that plant-based diets exert influence on mental
health and cognitive functions appears less documented
and controversial
20–24
. We therefore systematically
reviewed the current evidence based on available
controlled interventional trials, regarded as the gold
standard to assess causality, on potential effects of plant-
based diets on (a) metabolic factors including the
microbiome and (b) neurological or psychiatric health and
brain functions. In addition, we aimed to evaluate
potential underlying mechanisms and related implications
for cognition.
Methods
We performed a systematic PubMed search with the
following search terms “plant-based OR vegan OR
vegetarian AND diet AND intervention”with the filter
“clinical trial”and “humans”, preregistered at
PROSPERO (CRD42018111856; https://www.crd.york.ac.
uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=111856)
(Suppl. Fig. 1). PubMed was used as search engine
because it was esteemed to yield the majority of relevant
human clinical trials from a medical perspective. Exclu-
sion criteria were insufficient design quality (such as lack
of a control group), interventions without a plant-based
or vegetarian or vegan diet condition, intervention with
multiple factors (such as exercise and diet), and the
exclusive report of main outcomes of no interest, such as
dietary compliance, nutrient intake (such as vitamins or
fiber intake), or nonmetabolic (i.e., not concerning glu-
cose metabolism, lipid profile, gastrointestinal hormones
or inflammatory markers) or non-neurological/psychia-
tric disease outcomes (e.g. cancer, caries).
Studies were independently rated for eligibility into the
systematic review by three authors based on reading the
abstract and, if needed, methods or other parts of the
publication. If opinions differed, a consensus was reached
Fig. 1 The spectrum of diets including all or only certain types of
animal-based products. From left to right: including all food items
(omnivore), including all except for meat (pesco-vegetarian) or meat
and fish (ovo-lacto-vegetarian) to including only plant-based items
(vegan)
Fig. 2 Frequency of publications on PubMed including the search terms “vegan”(in light green), vegetarian (in orange) and plant-based (dark green)
—accessed on 19 April 2019
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 2 of 17

through discussion of the individual study. This yielded 27
eligible out of 205 publications; see Table 1for details. To
increase the search radius for studies dealing with
microbial and neurological/psychiatric outcomes, we
deleted the search term “intervention”, which increased
the number of studies by around one third, and checked
for studies with “microbiome/microbiota”,“mental”,
“cognitive/cognition”or “psychological/psychology”in the
resulting records. Through this, we retrieved another five
studies included in Table 1. Further related studies were
reviewed based on additional nonsystematic literature
search.
Section I: Effects of plant-based diets on body and
brain outcomes
Results based on interventional studies on metabolism,
microbiota and brain function
Overall, the vast majority of studies included in this
systematic review reported a short-term beneficial effect
of plant-based dietary interventions (study duration 3
−24 months) on weight status, glucose, insulin and/or
plasma lipids and inflammatory markers, whereas studies
investigating whether plant-based diets affect microbial or
neurological/psychiatric disease status and other brain
functions were scarce and rather inconclusive (Table 1).
More specifically, 19 out of 32 studies dealing with
T2DM and/or obese subjects and seven out of 32 dealing
with healthy subjects observed a more pronounced weight
loss and metabolic improvements, such as lowering of
glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c)—a long-term marker for
glucose levels—decreased serum levels of low-density
(LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and total
cholesterol (TC), after a plant-based diet compared to an
omnivore diet. This is largely in line with recent meta-
analyses indicating beneficial metabolic changes after a
plant-based diet
25–27
.
For example, Lee et al. found a significantly larger
reduction of HbA1c and lower waist circumference after
vegan compared to conventional dieting
28
. Jenkins et al.
found a disease-attenuating effect in hyperlipidemic
patients after 6 months adopting a low-carbohydrate
plant-based diet compared to a high-carbohydrate lacto-
ovo-vegetarian diet
29,30
. However, lower energy intake in
the vegan dieters might have contributed to these effects.
Yet, while a plant-based diet per se might lead to lower
caloric intake, other studies observed nonsignificant
trends toward higher effect sizes on metabolic parameters
after a vegan diet, even when caloric intake was com-
parable: two studies in T2DM patients
31,32
compared
calorie-unrestricted vegan or vegetarian to calorie-
Fig. 3 Google Trends Search for search term hits for “vegan”,“vegetarian”and “meat”in Germany (adapted to “vegetarisch”,“vegan”and
“fleisch”), the USA and the UK from 2004 to present. Note indicates technical improvements implemented by Google Trends. Data source:
Google Trends. Search performed on 18 April 2019
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 3 of 17

Table 1 Intervention studies on the effect of plant-based diets
Author Year Study design npatients nhealthy Nature of intervention, and
if calorie-restricted
Duration of
intervention
Measures Effect of intervention Favoring
vegan diet
Weight loss, blood-based metabolic markers
Turner-McGrievy
et al. (2007)
139
RCT; overweight postmenopausal
women: low-fat vegan vs. National
Cholesterol Education Program diet
two replications
62; first run 28 (14
vs. 14), second
run 34 (17 vs. 17)
Low-fat vegan diet
(unrestricted):
−fruits, vegetables,
legumes, grains
−animal products proscribed
−limit high-fat plant foods
vs. National Cholesterol
Education Program diet
(unrestricted):
−see guidelines
14 weeks
(24 months
follow-up)
Body weight −weight loss higher in vegan
group at year 1 and year 2
+
Burke et al. (2008)
140
RCT; obese subjects; four groups:
freely chosen vegetarian vs. freely
chosen conventional vs. assigned
vegetarian vs. assigned conventional
178 (48 vs. 35 vs.
48 vs. 45)
Vegetarian (restricted):
−no meat, poultry, fish
vs. Standard behavioral
therapy, group sessions led by
dietician/physiologist/nurse/
behavioral scientist
−monitoring of physical
activity and calorie/fat content
of foods
−cooking magazines
provided
18 months Body weight −weight loss higher in both
groups that were assigned to a
certain diet
−trend to higher weight loss in
both vegetarian groups
−all groups showed significant
weight loss
+
Barnard et al.
(2009)
141
RCT; T2DM patients;
two groups:
Vegan vs. conventional restrictive diet
99 (49
vs. 50)
Vegan (unrestricted):
−10% fat, 15% protein, 75%
carbohydrates
−daily cholesterol intake <
50 mg
−vegetables, fruit, grains,
legumes
−no animal products, fatty
foods and high-glycaemic
index foods
vs. Conventional:
−<7% fat, 15−20% protein, 60
−70% carbohydrates
−meal plan with dietician, 3-
day dietary record
74 weeks Body weight, blood
measures
−significant weight loss in both
groups (trend towards stronger
effect in vegan group)
−lower HbA1C, total-/LDL-/ and
non-HDL-cholesterol after
intervention in both groups, trend
towards lower HbA1C in
vegan group
−controlling for medication
changes led to significantly
greater reductions in HbA1C,
total- and LDL-cholesterol in
vegan group
+
Elkan et al. (2008)
40
Rheumatoid arthritis patients 66 (38
vs. 28)
Gluten-free vegan diet
(protein energy level was 10%
of the total energy intake, the
carbohydrates 60%, and fat
30%; contained vegetables,
root vegetables, nuts, fruits)
vs. well-balanced non-vegan
(contained 10 to 15% protein,
55 to 60% carbohydrate, no
more than 30% fat)
12 months Body weight, blood
measures
−lower BMI, LDL, TC and higher
anti-PC IgM in the vegan
diet group
+
Marniemi et al.
(1990)
142
Moderately obese subjects 110 in total (31 vs.
37 vs. 42)
Lactoovo (1200 kcal/day)
vs. mixed diet (1200 kcal/day)
vs. control (no intervention)
12 months Body weight, blood
measures
−Weight-reduction, improved
lipid metabolism in both
intervention groups, stronger
effects in mixed diet compared to
lactovegetarian diet
−
Acharya et al.
(2013)
143
Pilot study for RCT; overweight and
obese subject
143 in total (79
vs. 64)
Standard calorie- and fat-
restricted diet vs. calorie- and
6 months Body weight −no significant effect on weight
dependent on diet
o
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 4 of 17

Table 1 continued
Author Year Study design npatients nhealthy Nature of intervention, and
if calorie-restricted
Duration of
intervention
Measures Effect of intervention Favoring
vegan diet
fat-restricted lacto-ovo-
vegetarian diet
Wright et al. (2017)
144
RCT; mid-age to old T2DM and
overweight patients;
whole food plant-based unrestricted
vs. usual care
65 (32
vs. 33)
Low-fat plant-based:
−7−15% fat
−whole grains, legumes,
vegetables, fruits
−calorie-unrestricted
−avoid animal products and
refined oils, high-fat plant
foods, sugar, salt, caffeine
−50 μg/day vitamin B12
6 months Body weight, blood
measures
−reduced BMI and mean
cholesterol in plant-based group
+
Jenkins et al. (2014)
29
RCT; overweight hyperlipidemic
patients; low-carb vegan vs. high-carb
lacto-ovo
39 (19
vs. 20)
−caloric restriction to 60% of
estimated caloric
requirements
low-carb vegan:
−26% carbohydrates, 31%
plant protein, 43% fat
vs. high-carb lacto-ovo-
vegetarian:
−58% carbohydrates, 16%
protein, 25% fat
6 months Body weight, blood
measures
−higher weight loss and lower
LDL and TG for low-carb
vegan group
after 1 month
31
:
−weight loss reduced in both
groups (about 4.0 kg) (n.s.
difference across groups)
−more reduced LDL, TC,
apolipoproteins for plant-
based group
+
Turner-McGrievy
et al. (2015)
33,161
RCT; healthy overweight subjects 25-
49.9 kg/m
2
; calorie-unrestricted
50 (12 vs. 13 vs.
13 vs. 12)
−avoid fast foods and
processed foods; self-
based diets
−all groups received weekly
dietary sessions except for the
omnivore group (kept
following their usual diet)
vegan:
−no animal products, focus
on plant-based foods
vs. vegetarian:
−no meat, fish, poultry, but
eggs and dairy
vs. pesco-vegetarian:
−no meat, poultry, but fish,
shellfish, eggs, dairy
vs. semi-vegetarian:
−all foods, red meat limited
to 1/week and poultry limited
to <5/week
6 months Body weight, blood
measures
−higher weight loss in vegan
group (particularly decreased fat
and saturated fat)
+
Turner-McGrievy
et al. (2014)
145
RCT; overweight subjects with
polycystic syndrome:
vegan vs. low-calorie diet
18 (9 vs. 9) Vegan:
−exclude all animal products,
limit high glycaemic-
index foods
vs. Low-calorie:
−restricted to 1200
−1500 kcal/day depending on
body weight
−assessed by weekly
24 h recall
6 months Body weight,
polycystic syndrome
−higher weight loss at 3 months
for vegan group (not after
6 months)
−lower energy intake after
6 months for vegan group (lower
fat, lower protein)
−no changes for polycystic
syndrome
+/o
Kahleova et al.
(2011)
146
RCT; T2DM patients;
two groups:
vegetarian vs. conventional
diabetic diet
74 (37
vs. 37)
Vegetarian (restricted)
vs. Conventional (restricted)
−all meals provided
6 months Body weight,
polycystic syndrome
−reduced medication, higher
weight loss, increased insulin
sensitivity, reduced visceral and
subcutaneous fat, increase in
+
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 5 of 17

Table 1 continued
Author Year Study design npatients nhealthy Nature of intervention, and
if calorie-restricted
Duration of
intervention
Measures Effect of intervention Favoring
vegan diet
−after 12 weeks physical
exercise added
plasma adiponectin, decrease in
leptin in the vegan group
Ferdowsian et al.
(2010)
147
RCT; overweight and/or T2DM
patients: low-fat vegan diet vs.
control; onsite
113 Low-fat vegan:
−no meat, poultry, fish, dairy,
eggs, <5% saturated fat, <25%
total fat, < 50 mg
cholesterol daily
−multivitamin supplement
(incl. B12)
vs. control:
−usual diet
5,5 months Body weight −reduced body weight and waist
circumference in
intervention group
+
Mishra et al. (2013)
(same sample as
Agarwal et al. (2015)
and partly overlapping
with Ferdowsian et al.
(2010))
147–149
RCT; overweight and/or T2DM
patients; multicomponent worksite
intervention; low-fat vegan vs.
usual diet
291 at
4 sites; (142
vs. 149)
low-fat vegan (unrestricted):
−avoid all animal products,
minimize added oils, favor
whole grains
−vitamin B12 and
multivitamin supplements
vs. Control:
−usual diet; no instruction
18 weeks Blood measures −lower total cholesterol in
vegan group
+
Kahleova et al.
(2018)
150
RCT; T2DM patients 74 (37
vs. 37)
vegetarian diet (−500 kcal/
day)
vs. control isocaloric
conventional anti-diabetic diet
(−500 kcal/day)
16 weeks Anthropo-metric
measures
−greater reduction in total leg
area for thigh adipose tissue
distribution after vegetarian diet
+
Lee et al. (2016)
28
RCT; healthy Korean subjects;
two groups:
Vegan vs. conventional restrictive diet
106 (46 vs. 47) Vegan (unrestricted):
(1) ingest unpolished rice
(brown rice); (2) avoid
polished rice (white rice); (3)
avoid processed food made of
rice flour or wheat flour; (4)
avoid all animal food products
(i.e., meat, poultry, fish, daily
goods, and eggs); and (5) favor
low-glycemic index foods (e.g.,
legumes, legumes-based
foods, green vegetables, and
seaweed)
vs. Conventional (restricted)
(1) restrict their individualized
daily energy intake based on
body weight, physical activity,
need for weight control, and
compliance; (2) total calorie
intake comprised 50–60%
carbohydrate, 15–20% protein
(if renal function is normal),
<25% fat, <7% saturated fat,
minimal trans-fat intake, and
≤200 mg/day cholesterol
12 weeks Body weight, blood
measures
−significantly larger reduction of
HbA1C levels, trends towards
lower BMI and lower waist
circumference in the vegan
intervention group
+
Barnard et al.
(2000)
151
RCT; premenopausal women 51 (35) low-fat vegetarian (10% fat)
vs. normal diet incl. a
placebo pill
3 months Blood measures −decreased LDL, HDL, TC after
10% fat-vegetarian diet
+
Rauma et al.
39
Rheumatoid arthritis patients 43 (22
vs. 21)
vegan vs. control (usual diet) 3 months Body weight, urine
measures
−9% reduction of body weight in
the vegan group
+
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 6 of 17

Table 1 continued
Author Year Study design npatients nhealthy Nature of intervention, and
if calorie-restricted
Duration of
intervention
Measures Effect of intervention Favoring
vegan diet
Gardner et al.
(2005)
152
RCT; hypercholesterolemic
outpatients 30−65 years
120 (59
vs. 61)
low-fat diet (incl. animal
products)
vs. low-fat plus diet (more
veggie, legumes, whole
grains)
1 month Blood measures −lower TC, LDL for low-fat plus
(plant-based) diet
+
Macknin et al.
(2015)
153
Randomized; obese
hypercholesterolemic children and
their parents
30 (16
vs. 14)
plant-based no added fat
diet (PB)
vs. American Heart Association
Diet (AHA)
1 month Body weight, blood
measures
−lower BMI and hsCRP levels as
well as higher waist
circumference in the plant-based
and no-added fat diet condition
in children,
−lower cholesterol, LDL and
HbA1c in the plant-based and no-
added fat diet condition in
parents
+/o
Sciarrone et al.
(1993)
154
Parallel randomized trial, healthy men 20 (10 vs. 10) lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet
vs. omnivorous diet
−initial 2 weeks under caloric
restriction, afterwards
unrestricted
6 weeks Body weight, blood
measures
−no significant differences in
body weight, glucose, insulin or
catecholamines between groups
o
Alleman et al.
(2013)
155
Interventional study, healthy subjects 29 (16 vs. 13) traditional (vegan)
vs. modified Daniel Fast diet
(incl. daily meat and dairy)
3 weeks Body weight, blood
measures
−no significant weight changes
after dietary intervention for
neither condition
−both diets show improvement
of blood lipids, inflammation
markers
o
Neacsu et al.
(2014)
156
Within-subject cross-over design;
obese men
20 in total meat-based high-protein diet
vs. vegetarian soy high-protein
diet (both diets: 30% protein,
30% fat, 40% carbohydrate)
2 weeks Body weight, blood
measures
−n. s. differences between
weight loss and gut hormone
profile
o
Koebnick et al.
(2004)
157
RCT; healthy subjects; site-based study 32 in total low-fat plant-based (20% fat)
vs. control
1 week Blood measures −reduced TC, LDL, TG in
vegan diet
+
Microbiome
David et al. (2014)
35
Within-subject cross-over design,
healthy, young volunteers
10 exclusively plant-based diet
(unrestricted)
vs. nearly exclusively animal-
based diet (unrestricted)
5 days 16S rRNA gene
sequencing (stool
samples)
Higher abundance of bile-tolerant
microorganisms (Alistipes,
Bilophila, Bacteroides)
and decreased levels of Firmicutes
(Roseburia,
Eubacterium rectale,
Ruminococcus bromii).
?
Neurological/psychiatric disease outcomes and brain functions
Karlsson et al.
(1994)
41
RCT; moderately obese women 60 1300 kcal lacto-vegetarian diet
vs. 1300 kcal conventional
weight-reducing diet
3, 8, 24 months Psychological
measures incl. mental
well-being, functional
status; body weight
−no significant differences
between groups on psychological
measures and BMI
o
Kjeldsen-Kragh et al.
(1994)
158
RCT; rheumatoid arthritis patients,
vegetarian vs. omnivorous diet
53 (27
vs. 26)
−vegetarian diet (fasting 7
−10 days, gluten free vegan
diets for 3.5 months,
afterwards lacto-
vegetarian diet
vs. - normal omnivorous diet
13 months General Health
Questionnaire
−improvements in psychological
distress including depression and
anxiety subscores in the
vegetarian group
+
Yadav et al. (2016)
38
RCT; multiple sclerosis patients 61 (32
vs. 29)
very low-fat plant-based diet:
−starchy plant foods, 10% fat,
12 months Brain MRI,
fatigue,
−no clear effect on brain MRI
outcomes; improvement of
o/+
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 7 of 17

Table 1 continued
Author Year Study design npatients nhealthy Nature of intervention, and
if calorie-restricted
Duration of
intervention
Measures Effect of intervention Favoring
vegan diet
14% protein, 76%
carbohydrates
(no meat, fish, eggs, dairy
products or vegetable oils)
vs. control:
−usual diet
−assessed by FFQ and
meetings with dietician
body weight,
blood sample
fatigue, weight status and
metabolic markers in the
vegan group
Bunner et al.
(2014)
159
RCT; cross-over trial
migraine patients;
Low-fat vegan vs. placebo
42 in total Vegan diet:
Favored intake of whole
grains, lentils, certain
vegetables; avoidance of all
animal products, nuts and
seeds, alcohol, coffee
vs. Placebo:
10 mcg alpha-linolenic acid
and 10 mcg vitamin E/day
9 months Headache pain
measured with The
Patient’s Global
Impression of Change
−improvement of migraine
during last 2 weeks in the
vegan group
+
Kahleova et al.
(2013)
160
Randomized, open, parallel design,
T2DM patients, vegetarian vs.
control group
74 (37
vs. 37)
vegetarian diet (−500 kcal/
day)
vs. control isocaloric
conventional anti-diabetic diet
(−500 kcal/day)
24 weeks Quality of life,
depressive symptoms,
eating behavior
−improved quality of life, dietary
restraint and disinhibition and
lower depression scores in the
vegetarian group
+
Agarwal et al.
(2015)
23
RCT; overweight and/or T2DM
patients; multicomponent worksite
intervention; low-fat vegan vs.
usual diet
291 at
4 sites; (142
vs. 149)
low-fat vegan (unrestricted):
−avoid all animal products,
minimize added oils, favor
whole grains
−vitamin B12 and
multivitamin supplements
vs. Control:
−usual diet; no instruction
18 weeks Depression, anxiety,
fatigue, emotional
well-being
−all measures significantly
improved in the vegan group
+
Kaartinen et al.
(2000)
37
Non-randomized; fibromyalgia
patients
32 (18
vs. 15)
low-salt, raw vegan diet
vs. omnivorous diet
3 months Disease improvement,
urine and blood
measures
−less pain, improved joint
stiffness and quality of sleep,
decreased weight, TC, and urine
sodium in the vegan diet group
+
Beezhold et al.
(2012)
42
Healthy subjects; omnivorous 39 (in locks at 3,
i.e. 13 in
each group)
control group consuming
meat, fish, and poultry
daily (OMN)
vs. a group consuming fish 3
−4 times weekly but avoiding
meat and poultry (FISH)
vs. a vegetarian group
avoiding meat, fish, and
poultry (VEG)
2 weeks Stress, depression,
mood, anxiety,
blood levels
−decrease in stress, anxiety and
improved mood in vegan group
−decreased fatty acids, increased
n−6ton−3 ratio and decrease in
alpha-linoleic acid in the VEG
compared to OMN group
+
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 8 of 17

restricted conventional diets over periods of 6 months and
1.5 years, respectively, in moderate sample sizes (n~75
−99) with similar caloric intake achieved in both diet
groups. Both studies indicated stronger effects of plant-
based diets on disease status, such as reduced medication,
improved weight status and increased glucose/insulin
sensitivity, proposing a diabetes-preventive potential of
plant-based diets. Further, a five-arm study comparing
four types of plant-based diets (vegan, vegetarian, pesco-
vegetarian, semi-vegetarian) to an omnivore diet (total
n=63) in obese participants found the most pronounced
effect on weight loss for a vegan diet (−7.5 ± 4.5% of total
body weight)
33
. Here, inflammation markers con-
ceptualized as the dietary inflammatory index were also
found to be lower in vegan, vegetarian and pesco-
vegetarian compared to semi-vegetarian overweight to
obese dieters
33
.
Intriguingly, these results
28–33
cohesively suggest that
although caloric intake was similar across groups, parti-
cipants who had followed a vegan diet showed higher
weight loss and improved metabolic status.
As a limitation, all of the reviewed intervention studies
were carried out in moderate sample sizes and over a
period of less than 2 years, disregarding that long-term
success of dietary interventions stabilizes after 2−5 years
only
34
. Future studies with larger sample sizes and tight
control of dietary intake need to confirm these results.
Through our systematic review we retrieved only one
study that added the gut microbiome as novel outcome
for clinical trials investigating the effects of animal-based
diets compared to plant-based diets. While the sample
size was relatively low (n=10, cross-over within subject
design), it showed that changing animal- to plant based
diet changed gut microbial activity towards a trade-off
between carbohydrate and protein fermentation processes
within only 5 days
35
. This is in line with another
controlled-feeding study where microbial composition
changes already occurred 24 h after changing diet (not
exclusively plant-based)
36
. However, future studies
incorporating larger sample sizes and a uniform analysis
approach of microbial features need to further confirm
the hypothesis that a plant-based diet ameliorates
microbial diversity and health-related bacteria species.
Considering neurological or psychiatric diseases and
brain functions, the systematic review yielded in six
clinical trials of diverse clinical groups, i.e. migraine,
multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis.
Here, mild to moderate improvement, e.g. measured by
antibody levels, symptom improvement or pain frequency,
was reported in five out of six studies, sometimes
accompanied by weight loss
37–40
(Table 1). However,
given the pilot character of these studies, indicated by
small sample sizes (n=32−66), lack of randomization
37
,
or that the plant-based diet was additionally free of
gluten
40
, the evidence is largely anecdotal. One study in
moderately obese women showed no effects on psycho-
logical outcomes
41
, two studies with obese and nonobese
healthy adults indicated improvements in anxiety, stress
and depressive symptom scores
23,24
. Taken together, the
current evidence based on interventional trials regarding
improvements of cognitive and emotional markers and in
disease treatment for central nervous system disorders
such as multiple sclerosis or fibromyalgia remains con-
siderably fragmentary for plant-based diets.
Among observational studies, a recent large cross-
sectional study showed a higher occurrence of depressive
symptoms for vegetarian dieters compared to non-
vegetarians
20
. Conversely, another observational study
with a sample of about 80% women found a beneficial
association between a vegan diet and mood disturbance
24
.
Overall, the relationship between mental health (i.e.
depression) and restrictive eating patterns has been the
focus of recent research
20–22,24,42
; however, causal rela-
tionships remain uninvestigated due to the observational
design.
Underlying mechanisms linking macronutrient intake to
metabolic processes
On the one hand, nutrient sources as well as their intake
ratios considerably differ between plant-based and
omnivore diets (Suppl. Table 1), and on the other hand,
dietary micro- and macromolecules as well as their
metabolic substrates affect a diversity of physiological
functions, pointing to complex interdependencies. Thus,
it seems difficult to nail down the proposed beneficial
effects of a plant-based diet on metabolic status to one
specific component or characteristic, and it seems unlikely
that the usually low amount of calories in plant-based
diets could explain all observed effects. Rather, plant-
based diets might act through multiple pathways,
including better glycemic control
43
, lower inflammatory
activity
44
and altered neurotransmitter metabolism via
dietary intake
45
or intestinal activity
46
(Fig. 4).
On the macronutrient level, plant-based diets feature
different types of fatty acids (mono- and poly-unsaturated
versus saturated and trans) and sugars (complex and
unrefined versus simple and refined), which might both be
important players for mediating beneficial health effects
18
.
On the micronutrient level, the EPIC-Oxford study pro-
vided the largest sample of vegan dieters worldwide (n
(vegan) =2396, n(total) =65,429) and showed on the one
hand lower intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA), retinol,
vitamin B12 and D, calcium, zinc and protein, and on the
other hand higher intake of fiber, magnesium, iron, folic
acid, vitamin B1, C and E in vegan compared to omnivore
dieters
47
. Other studies confirmed the variance of nutrient
intake across dietary groups, i.e. omnivores, vegetarians
and vegans, showing the occurrence of critical nutrients
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 9 of 17

for each group
48,49
. Not only the amount of SFA but also
its source and profile might be important factors reg-
ulating metabolic control (reviewed in ref.
14
), for example
through contributing to systemic hyperlipidemia and
subsequent cardiovascular risk. Recently, it has been
shown in a 4-week intervention trial that short-term
dietary changes favoring a diet high in animal-based
protein may lead to an increased risk for cardiovascular
derangements mediated by higher levels of trimethyla-
mine N-oxide (TMAO), which is a metabolite of gut
bacteria-driven metabolic pathways
50
.
Secondly, high fiber intake from legumes, grains, vege-
tables and fruits is a prominent feature of plant-based
diets (Table 1), which could induce beneficial metabolic
processes like upregulated carbohydrate fermentation and
downregulated protein fermentation
35
, improved gut
hormonal-driven appetite regulation
51–55
, and might
prevent chronic diseases such as obesity and T2DM by
slowing down digestion and improving lipid control
56
.A
comprehensive review including evidence from 185 pro-
spective studies and 58 clinical trials concluded that risk
reduction for a myriad of diseases (incl. CVD, T2DM,
stroke incidence) was greatest for daily fiber intake
between 25 and 29 g
57
. Precise evidence for underlying
mechanisms is missing; however, more recently it has
been suggested that high fiber intake induces changes on
the microbial level leading to lower long-term weight
gain
58
, a mechanism discussed below.
The reason for lower systemic inflammation in plant-
based dieters could be due to the abundance of antiin-
flammatory molecule intake and/or avoidance of proin-
flammatory animal-derived molecules. Assessing systemic
inflammation is particularly relevant for medical condi-
tions such as obesity, where it has been proposed to
increase the risk for cardiovascular disease
59,60
. In addi-
tion, higher C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6
(IL-6) levels have been linked with measures of brain
microstructure, such as microstructural integrity and
white matter lesions
61–63
and higher risk of dementia
64
,
and recent studies point out that a diet-related low
inflammatory index might also directly affect healthy
brain ageing
65,66
.
Fig. 4 The effects of a plant-based diet on the microbiome−gut−brain axis including the here reviewed effects on overall health,
microbial composition and activity, behavior and cognition. BMI body-mass-index, HbA1c hemoglobin A1c, LDL-cholesterol low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol, Trp tryptophan, Tyr tyrosine. Images from commons.wikimedia.org,“Brain human sagittal section”by Lynch 2006 and
“Complete GI tract”by Häggström 2008, “Anatomy Figure Vector Clipart”by http://moziru.com
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 10 of 17

Interventional studies that focus on plant- versus meat-
based proteins or micronutrients and potential effects on
the body and brain are lacking. A meta-analysis including
seven RCTs and one cross-sectional studies on physical
performance and dietary habits concluded that a vege-
tarian diet did not adversely influence physical perfor-
mance compared to an omnivore diet
67
.An
epidemiological study by Song et al.
11
estimated that
statistically replacing 3% of animal protein, especially
from red meat or eggs, with plant protein would sig-
nificantly improve mortality rates. This beneficial effect
might however not be explained by the protein source
itself, but possibly by detrimental components found in
meat (e.g. heme-iron or nitrosamines, antibiotics, see
below).
Some studies further hypothesized that health benefits
observed in a plant-based diet stem from higher levels of
fruits and vegetables providing phytochemicals or vitamin
C that might boost immune function and eventually
prevent certain types of cancer
68–70
. A meta-analysis on
the effect of phytochemical intake concluded a beneficial
effect on CVD, cancer, overweight, body composition,
glucose tolerance, digestion and mental health
71
. Looking
further on the impact of micronutrients and single dietary
compounds, there is room for speculation that molecules,
that are commonly avoided in plant-based diets, might
affect metabolic status and overall health, such as opioid-
peptides derived from casein
72
, pre- and probiotics
73,74
,
carry-over antibiotics found in animal products
75,76
or
food-related carcinogenic toxins, such as dioxin found in
eggs or nitrosamines found in red and processed
meat
77,78
. Although conclusive evidence is missing, these
findings propose indirect beneficial effects on health
deriving from plant-based compared to animal-based
foods, with a potential role for nonprotein substances in
mediating those effects
18
. While data regarding chemical
contaminant levels (such as crop pesticides, herbicides or
heavy metals) in different food items are fragmentary
only, certain potentially harmful compounds may be more
(or less) frequently consumed in plant-based diets com-
pared to more animal-based diets
79
. Whether these dif-
ferences lead to systematic health effects need to be
explored.
Taken together, the reviewed studies indicating effects
of plant-based diets through macro- and micronutrient
intake reveal both the potential of single ingredients or
food groups (low SFA, high fiber) and the immense
complexity of diet-related mechanisms for metabolic
health. As proposed by several authors, benefits on health
related to diet can probably not be viewed in isolation for
the intake (or nonintake) of specific foods, but rather by
additive or even synergistic effects between them
(reviewed in refs.
12,80
). Even if it remains a challenging
task to design long-term RCTs that control macro- and
micronutrient levels across dietary intervention groups,
technological advancements such as more fine-tuned
diagnostic measurements and automated self-monitoring
tools, e.g. automatic food recognition systems
81
and
urine-related measures of dietary intake
82
, could help to
push the field forward.
Nutrients of particular interest in plant-based diets
As described above, plant-based diets have been shown
to convey nutritional benefits
48,49
, in particular increased
fiber, beta carotene, vitamin K and C, folate, magnesium,
and potassium intake and an improved dietary health
index
83
. However, a major criticism of plant-based diets is
the risk of nutrient deficiencies for specific micro-
nutrients, especially vitamin B12, a mainly animal-derived
nutrient, which is missing entirely in vegan diets unless
supplemented or provided in B12-fortified products, and
which seems detrimental for neurological and cognitive
health when intake is low. In the EPIC-Oxford study
about 50% of the vegan dieters showed serum levels
indicating vitamin B12 deficiency
84
. Along other risk
factors such as age
85
, diet, and plant-based diets in par-
ticular, seem to be the main risk factor for vitamin B12
deficiency (reviewed in ref.
86
), and therefore supple-
menting vitamin B12 for these risk groups is highly
recommended
87
. Vitamin B12 is a crucial component
involved in early brain development, in maintaining nor-
mal central nervous system function
88
and suggested to
be neuroprotective, particularly for memory performance
and hippocampal microstructure
89
. One hypothesis is that
high levels of homocysteine, that is associated with vita-
min B12 deficiency, might be harmful to the body. Vita-
min B12 is the essential cofactor required for the
conversion of homocysteine into nonharmful components
and serves as a cofactor in different enzymatic reactions.
A person suffering from vitamin B12 insufficiency accu-
mulates homocysteine, lastly promoting the formation of
plaques in arteries and thereby increasing athero-
thrombotic risk
90
, possibly facilitating symptoms in
patients of Alzheimer’s disease
91
. A meta-analysis found
that vitamin B12 deficiency was associated with stroke,
Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, Parkinson’s dis-
ease and in even lower concentrations with cognitive
impairment
92
, supporting the claim of its high potential
for disease prevention when avoided or treated
93
. Further
investigations and longitudinal studies are needed, possi-
bly measuring holotranscobalamin (the active form of
vitamin B12) as a more specific and sensitive marker for
vitamin B12 status
94
, to examine in how far non-
supplementing vegan dieters could be at risk for cardio-
vascular and cognitive impairment.
Similar health dangers can stem from iron deficiency,
another commonly assumed risk for plant-based dieters
and other risk groups such as young women. A meta-
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 11 of 17

analysis on 24 studies proposes that although serum fer-
ritin levels were lower in vegetarians on average, it is
recommended to sustain an optimal ferritin level (neither
too low nor too high), calling for well-monitored sup-
plementation strategies
95
. Iron deficiency is not only
dependent on iron intake as such but also on compli-
mentary dietary factors influencing its bioavailability
(discussed in ref.
95
). The picture remains complex: on the
one hand iron deficiency may lead to detrimental health
effects, such as impairments in early brain development
and cognitive functions in adults and in children carried
by iron-deficient mothers
96
and a possible role for iron
overload in the brain on cognitive impairment on the
other hand
97
. One study showed that attention, memory
and learning were impaired in iron-deficient compared to
iron-sufficient women, which could be restored after a 4-
month oral iron supplementation (n=118)
98
. Iron
deficiency-related impairments could be attributed to
anemia as an underlying cause, possibly leading to fatigue,
or an undersupply of blood to the brain or alterations in
neurobiological and neuronal systems
99
provoking
impaired cognitive functioning.
This leads to the general recommendation to monitor
health status by frequent blood tests, to consult a dietician
to live healthily on a plant-based diet and to consider
supplements to avoid nutrient deficiencies or nutrient-
overdose-related toxicity. All in all, organizations such as
the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
100
and the Ger-
man Nutrition Society do not judge iron as a major risk
factor for plant-based dieters
101
.
Section II: Effects of diet on the gut microbiome
The link between diet and microbial diversity
Another putative mechanistic pathway of how plant-
based diets can affect health may involve the gut micro-
biome which has increasingly received scientific and
popular interest, lastly not only through initiatives such as
the Human Microbiome Project
102
. A common measure
for characterizing the gut community is enterotyping,
which is a way to stratify individuals according to their gut
bacterial diversity, by calculating the ratio between bac-
terial genera, such as Prevotella and Bacteroides
103
. While
interventional controlled trials are still scarce, this ratio
has been shown to be conclusive for differentiating plant-
based from animal-based microbial profiles
36
. Specifically,
in a sample of 98 individuals, Wu et al.
36
found that a diet
high in protein and animal fats was related to more
Bacteroides, whereas a diet high in carbohydrates, repre-
senting a plant-based one, was associated with more
Prevotella. Moreover, the authors showed that a change in
diet to high-fat/low-fiber or to low-fat/high-fiber in ten
individuals elicited a change in gut microbial enterotype
with a time delay of 24 h only and remained stable over
10 days, however not being able to switch completely to
another enterotype
36
. Another strictly controlled 30-day
cross-over interventional study showed that a change in
diet to either an exclusively animal-based or plant-based
diet promoted gut microbiota diversity and genetic
expression to change within 5 days
35
. Particularly, in
response to adopting an animal-based diet, microbial
diversity increased rapidly, even overshadowing individual
microbial gene expression. Beyond large shifts in overall
diet, already modest dietary modifications such as the
daily consumption of 43 g of walnuts, were able to pro-
mote probiotic- and butyric acid-producing bacterial
species in two RCTs, after 3 and 8 weeks respec-
tively
104,105
, highlighting the high adaptability of the gut
microbiome to dietary components. The Prevotella to
Bacteroides ratio (P/B) has been shown to be involved in
the success of dietary interventions targeting weight loss,
with larger weight loss in high P/B compared to low P/B
in a 6-month whole-grain diet compared to a conven-
tional diet
106
. Only recently, other microbial commu-
nities, such as the salivary microbiome, have been shown
to be different between omnivores and vegan dieters
107
,
opening new avenues for research on adaptable
mechanisms related to dietary intake.
A continuum in microbial diversity dependent on diet
Plant-based diets are supposed to be linked to a specific
microbial profile, with a vegan profile being most different
from an omnivore, but not always different from a vege-
tarian profile (reviewed in ref.
15
). Some specifically vegan
gut microbial characteristics have also been found in a
small sample of six obese subjects after 1 month following
a vegetarian diet, namely less pathobionts, more protec-
tive bacterial species improving lipid metabolism and a
reduced level of intestinal inflammation
108
. Investigating
long-term dietary patterns a study found a dose-
dependent effect for altered gut microbiota in vegetar-
ians and vegans compared to omnivores depending on the
quantity of animal products
109
. The authors showed that
gut microbial profiles of plant-based diets feature the
same total number but lower counts of Bacteroides,
Bifidobacterium, E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae compared
to omnivores, with the biggest difference to vegans. Still
today it remains unclear, what this shift in bacterial
composition means in functional terms, prompting the
field to develop more functional analyses.
In a 30-day intervention study, David et al. found that
fermentation processes linked to fat and carbohydrate
decomposition were related to the abundance of certain
microbial species
35
. They found a strong correlation
between fiber intake and Prevotella abundance in the
microbial gut. More recently, Prevotella has been asso-
ciated with plant-based diets
110
that are comparable to
low-fat/high-fiber diets
111
and might be linked to the
increased synthesis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA)
112
.
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 12 of 17

SCFAs are discussed as putative signaling molecules
between the gut microbiome and the receptors, i.e. free
fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2)
51
, found in host cells across
different tissues
113
and could therefore be one potential
mechanism of microbiome−host communication.
The underlying mechanisms of nutrient decomposition
by Prevotella and whether abundant Prevotella popula-
tions in the gut are beneficial for overall health remain
unknown. Yet it seems possible that an increased fiber
intake and therefore higher Prevotella abundance such as
associated with plant-based diets is beneficial for reg-
ulating glycemic control and keeping inflammatory pro-
cesses within normal levels, possibly due to reduced
appetite and lower energy intake mediated by a higher
fiber content
114
. Moreover, it has been brought forward
that the microbiome might influence bodily homeostatic
control, suggesting a role for the gut microbiota in whole-
body control mechanisms on the systemic level. Novel
strategies aim to develop gut-microbiota-based therapies
to improve bodily states, e.g. glycemic control
115
, based on
inducing microbial changes and thereby eliciting higher-
level changes in homeostasis. While highly speculative,
such strategies could in theory also exert changes on the
brain level, which will be discussed next in the light of a
bi-directional feedback between the gut and the brain.
Effects on cognition and behavior linking diet and
cognition via the microbiome−gut−brain axis
While the number of interventional studies focusing on
cognitive and mental health outcomes after adopting
plant-based diets overall is very limited (see Section I
above), one underlying mechanism of how plant-based
diets may affect mood could involve signaling pathways
on the microbiome−gut−brain axis
116–119
. A recent 4-
week intervention RCT showed that probiotic adminis-
tration compared to placebo and no intervention modu-
lated brain activity during emotional decision-making and
emotional recognition tasks
117
. In chronic depression it
has been proposed that immunoglobulin A and M anti-
bodies are synthesized by the host in response to gut
commensals and are linked to depressive symptoms
120
.
Whether the identified gram-negative bacteria might also
play a role in plant-based diets remains to be explored. A
meta-analysis on five studies concluded that probiotics
may mediate an alleviating effect on depression sympto-
matic
121
—however, sample sizes remained rather small
(n< 100) and no long-term effects were tested (up to
8 weeks).
Currently, several studies aim to identify microbial
profiles in relation to disease and how microbial data can
be used on a multimodal way to improve functional
resolution, e.g. characterizing microbial profiles of indi-
viduals suffering from type-1 diabetes
122
. Yet, evidence for
specific effects of diet on cognitive functions and behavior
through changes in the microbiome remains scarce. A
recent study indicated the possibility that our food choices
determine the quantity and quality of neurotransmitter-
precursor levels that we ingest, which in turn might
influence behavior, as shown by lower fairness during a
money-redistribution task, called the ultimatum game,
after a high-carbohydrate/protein ratio breakfast than
after a low-ratio breakfast
123
. Strang et al. found that
precursor forms of serotonin and dopamine, measured in
blood serum, predicted behavior in this task, and pre-
cursor concentrations were dependent on the nutrient
profile of the consumed meal before the task. Also on a
cross-sectional level tryptophan metabolites from fecal
samples have been associated with amygdala-reward
network functional connectivity
124
. On top of the diet-
ary composition per se, the microbiota largely contributes
to neurotransmitter precursor concentrations; thus, in
addition to measuring neurotransmitter precursors in the
serum, metabolomics on fecal samples would be helpful
to further understand the functional role of the gut
microbiota in neurotransmitter biosynthesis and
regulation
125
.
Indicating the relevance of gut microbiota for cogni-
tion, a first human study assessing cognitive tests and
brain imaging could distinguish obese from nonobese
individuals using a microbial profile
126
.Theauthors
found a specific microbiotic profile, particularly defined
by Actinobacteria phylum abundance, that was asso-
ciated with microstructural properties in the hypotha-
lamus and in the caudate nucleus. Further, a preclinical
study tested whether probiotics could enhance cognitive
function in healthy subjects, showing small effects on
improved memory performance and reduced stress
levels
127
.
A recent study could show that microbial composition
influences cerebral amyloidogenesis in a mouse model for
Alzheimer’s disease
128
. Health status of the donor mouse
seemingly mattered: fecal transplants from transgenic
mice had a larger impact on amyloid beta proliferation in
the brain compared to wild-type feces. Translational
interpretations to humans should be done with caution if
at all—yet the results remain elucidative for showing a
link between the gut microbiome and brain metabolism.
The evidence for effects of strictly plant-based diets on
cognition is very limited. For other plant-based diets such
as the Mediterranean diet or DASH diet, there are more
available studies that indicate protective effects on cardi-
ovascular and brain health in the aging population
(reviewed in refs.
129,130
). Several attempts have been
made to clarify potential underlying mechanisms, for
example using supplementary plant polyphenols, fish/
fish-oil consumption or whole dietary pattern change in
RCTs
131–137
, yet results are not always equivocal and
large-scale intervention studies have yet to be completed.
Medawar et al. Translational Psychiatry (2019) 9:226 Page 13 of 17

The overall findings of this paragraph add to the evi-
dence that microbial diversity may be associated with
brain health, although underlying mechanisms and can-
didate signaling molecules remain unknown.
Conclusion
Based on this systematic review of randomized clinical
trials, there is an overall robust support for beneficial
effects of a plant-based diet on metabolic measures in
health and disease. However, the evidence for cognitive
and mental effects of a plant-based diet is still incon-
clusive. Also, it is not clear whether putative effects are
due to the diet per se, certain nutrients of the diet (or the
avoidance of certain animal-based nutrients) or other
factors associated with vegetarian/vegan diets. Evolving
concepts argue that emotional distress and mental ill-
nesses are linked to the role of microbiota in neurological
function and can be potentially treated via microbial
intervention strategies
19
. Moreover, it has been claimed
that certain diseases, such as obesity, are caused by a
specific microbial composition
138
, and that a balanced gut
microbiome is related to healthy ageing
111
. In this light, it
seems possible that a plant-based diet is able to influence
brain function by still unclear underlying mechanisms of
an altered microbial status and systemic metabolic
alterations. However, to our knowledge there are no
studies linking plant-based diets and cognitive abilities on
a neural level, which are urgently needed, due to the
hidden potential as a dietary therapeutic tool. Also, fur-
ther studies are needed to disentangle motivational beliefs
on a psychological level that lead to a change in diet from
causal effects on the body and the brain mediated e.g., by
metabolic alterations or a change in the gut microbiome.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a scholarship (E.M.) by the German Federal
Environmental Foundation and by the grants of the German Research
Foundation contract grant number CRC 1052 “Obesity mechanisms”Project A1
(AV) and WI 3342/3-1 (A.V.W.).
Author details
1
Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and
Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.
2
Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-
Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
3
Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin,
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
4
Helmholtz Centre for
Environmental Research GmbH—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
Authors’contributions
E.M., A.V. and A.V.W. designed research; E.M. conducted research; E.M., S.H. and
A.V.W. analyzed data; E.M. and A.V.W. wrote the paper; E.M., A.V. and A.V.W. had
primary responsibility for final content. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information accompanies this paper at (https://doi.org/
10.1038/s41398-019-0552-0).
Received: 20 February 2019 Revised: 22 June 2019 Accepted: 17 July 2019
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