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Structural discrimination and social stigma among individuals incarcerated for sexual offenses: Reentry across the rural–urban continuum
Abstract
The stigma associated with a felony conviction can impede the reentry process, and emerging research findings indicate that one's community can amplify or temper the mark of a criminal record. Researchers examining criminal stigma have focused on individuals living in urban areas, overlooking the experiences of persons outside these communities. Using qualitative data collected from a sample of men and women paroled for sexual offenses in Missouri, we contrast how social and structural stigma alter the reentry experiences for participants living in communities along the rural and urban continuum. The results show that the stigma of a sex offense conviction was a near‐universal experience and residence restrictions stymied efforts to find housing. Residents of urban areas and some large cities felt that the community offered relative anonymity from stigma but the stress of their status being discovered was omnipresent. Participants in rural areas and small cities had less social privacy and reported being shunned in the community, although strong social ties did mitigate some of the consequences of stigma. The results highlight the importance of considering place when studying reentry and have implications for designing correctional policies to address the needs of residents returning to non–metropolitan locations.
... Levenson and colleagues' (2007b) sample reported experiencing negative affect as a result of collateral consequences, such as depression, shame, and hopelessness. In addition, as discussed above, the process of re-entry in rural areas also comes with unique challenges to re-entry, such as difficulties finding housing because of the limited availability of parcels of land to occupy when compared to land available for agricultural purposes (e.g., Chajewski & Mercado, 2009;Huebner et al., 2019;Navarro & Rabe-Hemp, 2018;Zandbergen & Hart, 2006). ...
... Further, in rural communities, sex offenders often face issues with social privacy and being shamed by other community members (e.g., Huebner et al., 2019). Thus, it can be difficult to establish social support and trusting intimate relationships, because of their "sex offender" label (Huebner et al., 2019;Tewksbury, 2005). ...
... Further, in rural communities, sex offenders often face issues with social privacy and being shamed by other community members (e.g., Huebner et al., 2019). Thus, it can be difficult to establish social support and trusting intimate relationships, because of their "sex offender" label (Huebner et al., 2019;Tewksbury, 2005). Similarly, Rose (2020) qualitatively examined the impact of sex offender registration laws on the effectiveness of reintegration into the community. ...
Public perceptions regarding a sex offender’s likelihood to reoffend and the efficacy of sex offender policies and practices is often inconsistent with the extant literature in academia. Thus, there is a critical need to better understand what influences those beliefs regarding sex offender policies and practices. We collected data from 284 residents from government defined rural counties and sought to examine: (1) the sources that were most influential in shaping their beliefs regarding sex offender policies and practices; (2) what characteristics the ‘influential sources’ had; and (3) the residents’ emotional response when they think about ‘sex offenders’. The majority of participants were supportive of registration, community notification, and use of the polygraph. Further, the results suggest that ‘academics and peer review articles’ rarely influence beliefs. Rather, ‘personal experiences’ and the emotions ‘rage’ and ‘sadness’ (but not anger or disgust) may be important in influencing rural residents’ beliefs regarding sex offender treatment, castration, execution, and misconceptions regarding juveniles with a sex offense. We conclude by discussing: (1) potential factors that may affect why academics are not perceived as influential sources; and (2) possibilities for how scientists can influence rural residents’ beliefs by utilizing personal experiences and anecdotal information that may spark emotion.
... Coupled with the rise in the new penology that replaced individual consideration with categorizing based on perceived dangerousness, punishment has been extended to exclude individuals in this group from social networks and community places (Feeley & Simon, 1992;Simon, 1998). The sex offense label becomes a stigmatizing attribute that cannot be shed, namely because of public perceptions and ever-growing constraints on reentering community life (Harris, 2014;Huebner et al., 2019;Leverentz & Williams, 2017;Pickett et al., 2013). Individuals convicted of sexual offenses face several unique correctional controls, many of which are associated with requisite fees, and all of which further label and separate this group from the community and engender hidden and often long-term costs of compliance (Kras et al., 2018). ...
... Research has suggested that residence restrictions often force people to live farther away from work and social services and often preclude residence with supportive family members (Huebner et al., 2021;Levenson & Hern, 2007) as most of the available housing in major metropolitan communities is within a restricted zone (Hughes & Burchfield, 2008). This forced displacement also further intensifies the stigma associated with the criminal label (Huebner et al., 2019), essentially banishing a group of people from places (Burchfield & Mingus, 2008). ...
... All authors conducted an additional round of focused coding, this time comparing those convicted of sexual offenses (CSO) and those not convicted of sexual offenses (NCSO). We further compared and contrasted themes for both groups by race and place of residence as these factors have been shown to influence the likelihood of contact with the criminal justice system, monetary sanctions, and the reentry experience (Harris et al., 2010;Huebner et al., 2019;Pettit, 2012). We debriefed about the new analytic memos produced, further engaging in abductive logic to make sense of surprising findings and develop links between emerging concepts (Charmaz, 2006;Miles & Huberman, 1993). ...
Monetary sanctions can expand the scope and depth of punishment. Most research on monetary sanctions has centered on fines and fees assessed by the court, but they are also routinely imposed as part of the probation and parole sentence. In this article, we draw on in‐depth interview data from a sample of individuals under correctional supervision to document the often hidden costs of correctional control. We further consider a subsample of participants convicted of sexual offenses to illustrate the unique way that monetary sanctions are levied on groups of people who are considered more morally culpable and worthy of carceral control. We find that monetary sanctions are regularly assessed and challenging for most participants. The stigma of a sexual offense conviction and economic precarity, particularly among Black members of the sample, further the costs of punishment. We contend that costs associated with a sexual offense are unique because they can continue in perpetuity, govern normative behavior, and are centered on an assumption of continued guilt. We argue that the monetary sanctions levied against convicted persons, especially individuals with sexual offenses, demonstrate the often hidden and expansive nature of carceral control for other marginalized groups.
... So far, research has not demonstrated any significant positive impact of SORN laws on recidivism rates (Zgoba et al., 2018). Rather, researchers have identified several negative impacts of public exposure and restrictions on housing and employment as structural barriers to successful reintegration (Huebner et al., 2019;Levenson et al., 2007;Schultz, 2014;Tewksbury, 2005). The social exclusion, fear, and shame experienced by those "on the list" negatively affect their psychological well-being and may increase their risk for reoffending (Bailey & Klein, 2018;Harris & Levenson, 2021). ...
... The social exclusion, fear, and shame experienced by those "on the list" negatively affect their psychological well-being and may increase their risk for reoffending (Bailey & Klein, 2018;Harris & Levenson, 2021). The growing body of sexual offense reentry research has thus far largely focused on how social stigma intensifies in the wake of increased structural stigma (Huebner et al., 2019). What we still need to investigate is how social stigma affects the process of returning to society with a sex offense conviction in a context such as Norway that lacks the structural stigma represented by SORN laws. ...
... Social stigma, which results from interpersonal interactions and experiences, originates in the social context and is reinforced through social exclusion and "othering" by others (Major & O'Brien, 2005;Pratt, 2016). Structural stigma, in contrast, depends on discrimination by institutions (such as the criminal justice system) that exert power over individuals (Huebner et al., 2019;Link & Phelan, 2001). Structural stigma likely worsens or amplifies social stigma, meaning that the implementation of restrictive policies that limit a group's opportunities usually lead to more stigmatization and discrimination (Huebner et al., 2019;Link & Phelan, 2001). ...
Reentering society after serving a prison sentence involves many challenges and particularly so for one of the most stigmatized groups in modern society: people who have sexually offended. While most research on their reentry has been conducted in countries with Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN) laws, this study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to qualitatively investigate the accounts and experiences of men released from prison after serving a sex offense conviction in Norway ( n = 8). Results showed that despite less restrictive policies and a total absence of SORN laws, the social stigma linked to being convicted of such crimes severely affected the men. To some degree, they all experienced feelings of stress or anxiousness and they withdrew and isolated more. Their narratives highlight a need for increased social support and recognition from others in the reentry process. Subjective and societal consequences as well as practical implications are discussed.
... Researchers have found that social support is critical in helping formerly incarcerated individuals adapt to life after prison (Berg & Huebner, 2011;Fahmy & Wallace, 2019;Huebner et al., 2019;Kras, 2014Kras, , 2016Panuccio et al., 2012;Panuccio & Christian, 2019). Social support involves instrumental forms of assistance, such as access to housing, financial resources, and transportation, but also expressive forms of support, which include encouragement, 'checking in', and giving advice. ...
... Families are often cited as important sources of reentry support, particularly right after release, as returning citizens often have no other choice but to reside with loved ones (Bahr et al., 2010;Herman-Stahl et al., 2008;La Vigne et al., 2004;Martinez & Christian, 2009;Naser & Visher, 2006;Nelson et al., 1999). Studies indicate that friends and romantic partners also provide much needed access to support, and those with stable romantic partnerships experience better outcomes compared to those with unstable relationships (Abrams & Tam, 2018;Huebner et al., 2019;Kras, 2014;Panuccio & Christian, 2019;Sampson & Laub, 1993). ...
In this paper we draw on 26 in-depth interviews to explore the strategies and resources utilized by wrongfully convicted people to transition from prison to communities. Our findings suggest a multi-layered approach is necessary to address the challenges of reentry and reintegration for this sample. For some wrongfully convicted people, their adjustment to the community was affected by their experiences while incarcerated. Those who had more resources in prison were able to develop advantages making post-release hurdles more manageable. In the period directly after release, instrumental needs were critically important and typically supported by family members, friends and/or innocence organizations. Following this period, exonerees worked towards achieving sustainable routines, which usually involved obtaining employment to become financially secure. Many exonerees actively sought out opportunities to repair damages done through either mental health professionals or other exonerees/innocence support agencies; however, this process rarely resulted in feelings of closure. Nevertheless, many of the people interviewed in this project were successful after release but sometimes required services and support networks to build meaningful, healthy lives after prison. Study limitations and other policy implications are also discussed.
... This was lauded as a potential strength in the correctional centre's activities. On the contrary, the parole activities of the centre have been found to be marred by setbacks such as the stigmatisation of ex-offenders in the community, a lack of resources for parole officers, and drug abuse among parolees, thereby increasing the chances of negatively affecting the activities of the rehabilitation process (Huebner et al. 2019; IvyPanda 2020) ...
Unless the views of parole officials are unpacked and understood with regard to rehabilitating offenders in correctional centres with limited resources in South Africa, there will be less effort devoted towards ensuring the effectiveness of the parole system. This paper captures the working experiences of the parole officials at Brits Community Corrections in South Africa with regard to the use of parole in the rehabilitation of offenders. Using a qualitative approach and an exploratory descriptive design, the study employed total population purposive sampling to ensure the inclusion of all parole officials in the study to provide their working experience. In-depth interviews that provided data saturation with four parole officials were analysed thematically, critically discussed and compared to existing literature. The major findings were that the challenges faced by parolees in the communities were the main problems preventing the successful implementation of parole services. This led to endemic frustrations among the parole officials in the execution of parole services in the Brits area. This paper recommends relevant holistic approaches as interventions to improve the parole systems in the area and improve the working experiences of parole officials.
... In addition to local norms and cultures, structural variations of communities and court systems result in distinct constraints in fiscal resources, time, and personnel that impact how justice is performed and enacted (Cebulak 2004;Pruitt et al. 2018;Statz 2021). For example, relative to court systems in large cities, courts in rural and suburban areas tend to have fewer employees, more limited resources, such as fewer public defenders, probation and supervision services, and less programming such as diversion or specialty courts (Huebner, Kras, and Pleggenkuhle 2019;McDonald, Wood, and Pflüg 1996;Pruitt and Colgan 2010;Weisheit, Falcone, and Wells 1999;Statz 2021). We add to this growing scholarship by exploring the influence of these structural and organizational features on monetary sanctions. ...
Monetary sanctions are a ubiquitous part of court systems. Previous studies have focused largely on these sanctions at the state level or solely on large urban jurisdictions. However, court systems differ considerably across communities of varying population size, composition, and density. This article examines how differences in court structure and organizational dynamics in communities across the rural-urban continuum lead to differences in how court actors consider the role of monetary sanctions. Using interviews with court actors and ethnographic observations in communities across four states, we find that the practical and symbolic nature of monetary sanctions varied by the acquaintanceship density of the court and community. These interpersonal dynamics influenced courtroom considerations, monetary sanctions’ relationship to local finances, and actors’ positioning toward state-level policy. These findings emphasize the importance of court and community context and structure in assessing the law-in-action both when conducting research and designing reform.
... Of the 21 studies that included participants in the community (i.e., not currently incarcerated), 15 (71.4%) drew from urban locations. The focus on urban locales for data collection may limit generalizability of findings, as qualitative research has indicated that experiences of stigma vary depending on whether an individual is returning to a rural versus urban location postincarceration (Beichner & Rabe-Hemp, 2014;Huebner et al., 2019). ...
Individuals who have been incarcerated experience unparalleled health and economic disparities. Stigma, defined as a social phenomenon in which labeling, separation, and discrimination occur together in a power situation that allows them (Link & Phelan, 2001), may be a central cause of the social inequalities that formerly incarcerated persons face (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2013; Tyler & Brockmann, 2017). Researchers have yet to systematically review what is known about stigma related to criminal legal involvement as experienced by individuals with a history of incarceration. In the present study, the quantitative literature regarding criminal stigma was reviewed and an organizational framework from the broader stigma literature (e.g., Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009; Fox et al., 2018) was applied to research findings. Of the 31 articles included in the review, 16 (52%) included a measure of enacted stigma (i.e., direct experiences of discrimination), whereas only six (19%) assessed internalized stigma (i.e., application of the public’s negative beliefs/attitudes about the group toward oneself). Findings were mixed regarding sociodemographic variables associated with stigma mechanisms. Various behavioral/health factors (e.g., reoffending, mental health symptoms) were associated with stigma mechanisms, though most evidence was cross-sectional. Ultimately, findings may aid in the development of policy and clinical interventions to reduce the impact of incarceration-related stigma and lessen health disparities experienced by individuals with a history of criminal legal involvement.
... If a specific group in society is disadvantaged and not well represented in science, such as the female population, the LGBT community, or persons with disabilities, the market of ideas will not function effectively (Hadorn, 1992;Gibney, 2019;Nature, 2020). In this sense, the abundance of theoretical equality of opportunity is not sufficient, as historical injustice and structural racism may recreate barriers to equal participation in practice (Dirth, & ranscombe, 2017;Huebner, Kras, & Pleggenkuhle, 2019). However, while this is a fundamental problem for science, it is not a problem to be solved by the domain of science. ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) offers previously unimaginable possibilities, solving problems faster and more creatively than before, representing and inviting hope and change, but also fear and resistance. Unfortunately, while the pace of technology development and application dramatically accelerates, the understanding of its implications does not follow suit. Moreover, while mechanisms to anticipate, control, and steer AI development to prevent adverse consequences seem necessary, the current power dynamics on which society should frame such development is causing much confusion. In this article we ask whether AI advances should be restricted, modified, or adjusted based on their potential legal, ethical, societal consequences. We examine four possible arguments in favor of subjecting scientific activity to stricter ethical and political control and critically analyze them in light of the perspective that science, ethics, and politics should strive for a division of labor and balance of power rather than a conflation. We argue that the domains of science, ethics, and politics should not conflate if we are to retain the ability to adequately assess the adequate course of action in light of AI‘s implications. We do so because such conflation could lead to uncertain and questionable outcomes, such as politicized science or ethics washing, ethics constrained by corporate or scientific interests, insufficient regulation, and political activity due to a misplaced belief in industry self-regulation. As such, we argue that the different functions of science, ethics, and politics must be respected to ensure AI development serves the interests of society.
... If a specific group in society is disadvantaged and not well represented in science, such as the female population, the LGBT community, or persons with disabilities, the market of ideas will not function effectively (Hadorn, 1992;Gibney, 2019;Nature, 2020). In this sense, the abundance of theoretical equality of opportunity is not sufficient, as historical injustice and structural racism may recreate barriers to equal participation in practice (Dirth, & ranscombe, 2017;Huebner, Kras, & Pleggenkuhle, 2019). However, while this is a fundamental problem for science, it is not a problem to be solved by the domain of science. ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) offers previously unimaginable possibilities, solving problems faster and more creatively than before, representing and inviting hope and change, but also fear and resistance. Unfortunately, while the pace of technology development and application dramatically accelerates, the understanding of its implications does not follow suit. Moreover, while mechanisms to anticipate, control, and steer AI development to prevent adverse consequences seem necessary, the current power dynamics on which society should frame such development is causing much confusion. In this article we ask whether AI advances should be restricted, modified, or adjusted based on their potential legal, ethical, societal consequences. We examine four possible arguments in favor of subjecting scientific activity to stricter ethical and political control and critically analyze them in light of the perspective that science, ethics, and politics should strive for a division of labor and balance of power rather than a conflation. We argue that the domains of science, ethics, and politics should not conflate if we are to retain the ability to adequately assess the adequate course of action in light of AI‘s implications. We do so because such conflation could lead to uncertain and questionable outcomes, such as politicized science or ethics washing, ethics constrained by corporate or scientific interests, insufficient regulation, and political activity due to a misplaced belief in industry self-regulation. As such, we argue that the different functions of science, ethics, and politics must be respected to ensure AI development serves the interests of society.
Individuals convicted of a sexual offense are subject to considerable levels of stigmatization that should lead to internalization of the criminal label according to some versions of labeling theory (Becker, 1963). Recent research has begun to explore how individuals resist and otherwise negotiate their identities in response to stigma, although this research has not yet been applied to the study of stigma associated with the "sex offender" label. Such research is significant because a noncriminal identity is important to facilitating and maintaining desistance from crime. Using in-depth interviews with 20 individuals previously convicted of a sexual offense in a southern U.S. state, this paper investigates the strategies individuals have used to resist stigma associated with the "sex offender" label and how these strategies may help to interrupt the process of self-stigmatization. Results suggest these individuals employ a variety of resistance strategies, which may serve as another tool for managing a "spoiled identity."
The present study unites and builds on existing research about gendered reentry experiences and gender-responsive approaches in prison through its analysis of 74 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with people on parole. Taking a gender-responsive approach, the project’s twofold research question asked how rural people conceptualized men’s and women’s prisons as gendered institutions and the various ways in which they understand their individual experiences in prison as gendered. Analysis resulted in three primary themes: [1] structural and institutional gender discrimination; [2] solidarity as supportive for women versus solidarity as protective for men; and [3] emotional regulation in peer relationships. Taken together, our findings add nuance to understandings of the profound impact of gender on incarceration and reentry and offer support for the expansion of gender-responsive approaches to both men’s and women’s institutions.
System-impacted individuals often rely on others to provide financial support, which aids in the payment of legal-financial obligations (LFOs). LFOs comprise the fines, fees, restitution, surcharges, and assessments imposed on individuals who come into contact with the criminal legal system. Limited evidence suggests that this support can prompt stress and negative emotions for system-impacted individuals and their families. This study examines the process by which a matched sample of 125 men convicted of sexual offenses and nonsexual offenses in Missouri obtain financial support from others and how that process impacts their relationships. Secondary qualitative analysis of interviews with these men reveals that financial support may be governed by resource-sharing norms and LFOs can burden those who cannot pay by indebting them to others and adding “relational work” to their lives.
It is widely understood that stable housing is a key element in the transition from prison to the community. However, many persons under correctional supervision face substantial barriers in securing and maintaining housing, a fact that is heightened among individuals with a sexual offense conviction. Although frequent movement is commonplace among people on parole, it is unclear how housing changes affect recidivism outcomes and whether such mobility uniquely impacts individuals with a sexual offense conviction. In the present study, we use a quasi-experimental propensity score weighting design to compare a sample of individuals paroled from prison in Michigan for sexual and non-sexual crimes ( N = 3930) to consider the role of housing mobility on the likelihood of rearrests and technical revocation, with attention to disaggregating sexual crimes against adults and children. Results suggest that increased movement was distinctly associated with a higher hazard of rearrest for individuals with a sexual offense conviction, and a strong predictor of technical return hazard for both individuals with sexual and non-sexual convictions.
In 2004, the General Conference of the United Methodist Church (UMC) first instructed local churches as well as US Annual Conferences to consider existing recommendations and publish their own policies regarding the participation of people convicted of sex offenses. 19 of 54 US Annual Conferences and some General Conference websites have provided related public-facing statements, policies, and recommendations. This project asks, how and why do the policies and outward-facing statements put forth by the UMC General Conference and other US Annual Conferences stigmatize and harm people convicted of sex offenses? Rooted in feminist standpoint theory, this endeavor is based on deep inductive qualitative coding of 42 public-facing institutional policies and statements. The analysis relies on previous research that highlights the lived experiences of those who are, or who have been, on the public sex offender registry. Analysis reveals that policies and statements stigmatize and harm people convicted of sex offenses by making false and unfounded claims, using inaccurate and harmful language, failing to consider circumstances of individuals convicted, making the offense status public, and limiting leadership experiences in congregations. It is through both harmful practices and harmful statements that the United Methodist Church in the US, as a religious institution, is contributing to structural stigma for people convicted of sex offenses. These documents are stigmatizing in nature because they exclude the situated knowledges of those convicted of sex offenses. Furthermore, they rely on pervasive myths and harmful ideologies perpetuated by US society and policy, as well as by some theological literature and journalism. Understanding how and why certain claims and practices are stigmatizing gives leaders in the UMC and other religious traditions the opportunity to craft better documents moving forward.
Objectives:
We examine the impacts of adolescent arrest on friendship networks. In particular, we extend labeling theory by testing hypotheses for three potential mechanisms of interpersonal exclusion related to the stigma of arrest: rejection, withdrawal, and homophily.
Method:
We use longitudinal data on 48 peer networks from PROSPER, a study of rural youth followed through middle and high school. We test our hypotheses using stochastic actor-based models.
Results:
Our findings suggest that arrested youth are less likely to receive friendship ties from school peers, and are also less likely to extend them. Moreover, these negative associations are attenuated by higher levels of risky behaviors among peers, suggesting that results are driven by exclusion from normative rather than non-normative friendships. We find evidence of homophily on arrest but it appears to be driven by other selection mechanisms rather than a direct preference for similarity on arrest.
Conclusions:
Overall, our findings speak to how arrest may foster social exclusion in rural schools, thereby limiting social capital for already disadvantaged youth.
Desistance from sexual offending is of great import to scholars, practitioners, and the public. Despite theoretical advances in life course theories generally, the same work is only beginning for subgroups, like individuals convicted of sexual offenses, who may have a different desistance process than other types of offense categories due to the nature of the crime, structural disadvantage, and mandated treatment contexts. The current study considers the applicability of narrative identity theory, particularly the expression of condemnation and redemption scripts, among a sample of men convicted of sexual offenses. Using narrative analysis of in-depth interviews from a longitudinal qualitative dataset, cognitive scripts emerged in ways that uniquely apply to sex offending behavior and the experience of being labeled a ‘sex offender.’ Participants uniformly express condemnation scripts related to the labeling and structural experience of constant supervision by an array of entities, but seek and find redemption through the experiences offered in treatment. Findings from this study contribute to the growing literature on desistance from sexual offending and have implications for new theoretical developments within life course criminology.
There is considerable research on the efficacy of sex offense registries, but less is known about individual compliance with registration. Recent research and subsequent policy have highlighted the importance of understanding technical violations as a hidden driver of mass incarceration, and there is emerging evidence that suggests that agency violation practices vary widely. We analyzed administrative data from a large sample of individuals on the sex offense registry in Missouri to identify the factors associated with risk for noncompliance, including a technical violation and reincarceration. Both stable and dynamic factors contribute to our understanding of compliance and incarceration. Findings also suggest that living in a county with few registrants contributes to lowered odds of noncompliance. Alternatively, high caseloads contribute to greater odds of incarceration only. More generally, we find a sizeable portion of jurisdictional variation remains for both noncompliance and incarceration, a finding that suggests different enforcement practices across place.
Returning from prison to the community is rife with challenges. For individuals with health care, mental health, or substance abuse treatment needs, the reentry period can be especially vulnerable. Furthermore, these services are not evenly distributed across communities. This study explores barriers to health care and treatment among individuals convicted of sexual offenses who are returning from prison to urban and rural communities. Using data from in-depth interviews and geographic data, our analysis highlights the needs of this population that is often mandated to treatment. Access to treatment and health care is a challenge for many participants and is exacerbated in rural areas because of a dearth of providers and the long distance to treatment offices. The results highlight the deficiency of treatment services across the urban–rural continuum and support new innovations in service provisions.
Legal financial obligations (LFOs) are routinely assessed by the courts and corrections agencies. Yet, little is known about how individuals under correctional supervision experience and perceive legal debt. Understanding perceptions of LFOs is critical as research suggests that individuals who believe that criminal justice sanctions are fair and just are more likely to perceive the system as legitimate and comply. The current study examines in-depth interview data with individuals on probation or parole to understand perspectives of LFOs and what factors may condition these views. The results suggest that participants’ views are quite varied—expressing that they deserve some level of financial punishment, particularly in restitution cases, but they question additional costs that are not directly linked to the circumstances of the case, such as supervision fees, that exacerbate a perceived experience of double jeopardy or contradict the perceived purpose of the monetary assessment. Subgroup analyses suggest that individuals with a conviction for a sexual offense have secondary financial sanctions that deepen perceptions of inequities in the system.
Public attention to sexual harassment has increased sharply with the rise of the #MeToo movement, although the phenomenon has sustained strong scientific and policy interest for almost 50 years. A large and impressive interdisciplinary scholarly literature has emerged over this period, yet the criminology of sexual harassment has been slow to develop. This review considers how criminological theory and research can advance knowledge on sexual harassment—and how theory and research on sexual harassment can advance criminological knowledge. We review classic and contemporary studies and highlight points of engagement in these literatures, particularly regarding life-course research and violence against women. After outlining prospects for a criminology of sexual harassment that more squarely addresses perpetrators as well as victims, we discuss how criminological insights might contribute to policy efforts directed toward prevention and control.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Criminology, Volume 4 is January 13, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
America’s rural-urban divide seemingly has never been greater, a point reinforced by large geographic disparities in support for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. But it is also the case that big cities and rural communities are more tightly integrated than ever and are increasingly interdependent, both economically and socially. This new rural-urban interface is highlighted in this collection of articles, which are organized and developed around the general concept of changing symbolic and social boundaries. Rural-urban boundaries—how rural and urban people and places are defined and evaluated—reflect and reinforce institutional forces that maintain spatial inequality and existing social, economic, and political hierarchies. This volume makes clear that rural-urban boundaries are highly fluid and that this should be better reflected in research programs, in the topics that we choose to study, and in the way that public policy is implemented.
Cultural sociologists and other social scientists have increasingly used the concept of narrative as a theoretical tool to understand how individuals make sense of the links between their past, present, and future; how individuals construct social identities from cultural building blocks; and how culture shapes social action and individual behavior. Despite its richness, we contend that the narratives literature has yet to grapple with narrative change and stability when structural constraints or barriers challenge personal narratives and narrative identities. Particularly for marginalized groups, the potential incompatibility of personal narratives with daily experiences raises questions about the capacity of narratives to influence behavior and decision-making. In this study, we draw on prospective longitudinal data on the reentry narratives and narrative identities of former prisoners to understand how narratives do and do not change when confronted with contradictory experiences and structural constraints. We identify and describe the processes generating narrative change and stability among our subjects. These findings inform a framework for studying narrative change and stability based on four factors: the content of the narrative itself, the structural circumstances experienced by the individual, the institutional contexts in which the individual is embedded, and the social networks in which the individual is embedded.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the ways in which registered sex offenders (RSOs) cope with stigmatization and manage their identities when they are subjected to or anticipate social condemnation. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 RSOs. Respondents discussed methods they use to cope with and manage their stigmatized identities, including honesty, concealment, and isolation, which are addressed in prior literature on stigma management. Additional coping strategies were discussed: grouping, in which RSOs seek out other individuals who are similarly stigmatized as a source of social support and understanding, and denial, in which whereby stigmatized individuals disavow the label that society has ascribed upon them to subjectively reform their identities as separate from their sex offense conviction. Stigmatization of RSOs has negative effects on their social participation and methods of coping with their stigmatized identities may have implications for public health. Recommendations for improving the supervision of RSOs in the community are discussed.
This is the final technical report for a pilot study of Returning Home: Understanding the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry. The study examined the process of prisoner reentry within the city of Baltimore. It involved self-administered surveys with 324 male and female prisoners. The study's purpose was both to examine the process of prisoner reintegration in Baltimore; as well as to test our survey instruments and research design in preparation for implementation of the study in three full-study sites. The report's purpose is to inform policymakers and service providers about how released prisoners navigate these challenges of reentry.
Recent scholarship focuses on the role neighborhood context plays in reoffending. These studies lack an examination of how the size of the parolee population at the neighborhood-level impacts individual recidivism. We examine how the size and clustering of parolee populations within and across neighborhoods impacts individual-level recidivism. Using data from parolees returning to three Ohio cities from 2000 to 2009, we examine how concentrations of parolees in neighborhoods and in the surrounding neighborhoods impact the likelihood of reoffending. We also examine whether parolee clustering conditions the relationship between neighborhood-level characteristics and recidivism. Results show concentrated reentry increases recidivism, while parolees in stable neighborhoods are less likely to recidivate. Also, the positive effect of parolee concentration is tempered when parolees return to stable neighborhoods. These findings suggest that augmenting resources available in neighborhoods saturated by parolees, as well as bolstering residential stability in these same neighborhoods might reduce reoffending.
This article presents findings from an ethnographic study of prisoner reentry programming in a large Midwestern city to better understand the strategies reentry organizations employ to 'rehabilitate' prisoners and the ways in which those strategies articulate with larger social policy processes. Prisoner reentry is a hybrid welfare state-criminal justice institution. As the rehabilitative strategy of choice in the current age, the ascendance and proliferation of reentry services throughout low income communities of color represents the long standing collusion between social welfare and criminal justice actors to manage marginalized populations and a formal reconfiguration of the state, altering its scope, reach and consequence in the lives of the urban poor. I detail the experiences of former prisoners participating in reentry services and discuss the implications of the ascendance of prisoner reentry for race relations, punishment, and social welfare policy in the United States. © The Author(s) 2014. Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav.
Rural and urban regions are interconnected and form one system. Changes in one region therefore also affect others. This is particularly true for a force as large and pervasive as urbanization which resulted in massive rural and urban economic restructuring and geographic realignment of rural–urban boundaries. Until the mid-twentieth century, rural could be considered the opposite of urban, but in the process of urbanization, economic and social structures of rural and urban regions became more similar. However, perceptions and attitudes often survive long after conditions that shaped them have changed. In this article, the authors explain why attention to proper definitions of rural and urban is important to policymaking and
analysis. The authors use ideas, definitions, and empirical results based in large part on A. M. Isserman’s research to highlight the importance of his rural research and to honor his memory.
Although many states have enacted statewide residency restriction laws, others have left the need for, and content of, these laws to local municipalities. To better understand within-state variation in residency restriction laws, this study investigates the public’s desire for these laws and the distances they feel restrictions should be from public spaces populated by children. We review both quantitative and qualitative data from a statewide survey to determine where the public feels sex offenders can live without threatening children. Our results are interpreted using the “dikes” perspective of public opinion to predict the passage and content of future of residency restriction laws.
Sex crime laws seemingly have proliferated recently as part of a national “get tough” shift in criminal justice policy. However, to date, there exists no systematic account of these state-level legislative changes. Accordingly, the “tough on sex crime” characterization of states may be understated or incorrect. It may also gloss over variability in the types of laws enacted and the implications such variability has for the generalizability of assessments of these laws. Drawing on an analysis of state laws, we identify considerable variation in the type, intensity, and design of sex crime laws among states. Results suggest that not all states have uniformly embraced these reforms, that considerable caution is warranted when generalizing from evaluations of particular laws, and that the continuing expansion of sex crime policy making will make it increasingly difficult, especially in the absence of a commensurate body of empirical research, to identify the effects of specific policies.
This study examined whether sex offender residence restriction policies were associated with the clustering of registered sex offender (RSO) residences in 3,056 upstate New York block groups. RSO clustering was measured as the average distance between an RSO and the five closest RSO neighbors, and was aggregated to the block group level. Controls were included for structural characteristics of block groups as well as regional differences within the study area. Results indicate that block groups with relatively newer residence restrictions had decreased RSO clustering (i.e., RSOs living farther apart from each other) compared to block groups without such policies. However, block groups that had residence restrictions for longer than about 2 years had similar RSO clustering levels to block groups without such policies. Results suggest a nonlinear relationship between how long a residence restriction is in place and RSO clustering levels. Implications for future research and policy are discussed.
In this paper we seek to assess the effects of the neighborhood context on sex offenders’ perceptions of their neighbor’s willingness to support them upon release. We also examine the effect of the neighborhood context on sex offenders’ feelings of stress and the need for secrecy, potential risk factors for recidivism. Using survey data obtained from a sample of 333 in-treatment sex offenders, we find that the neighborhood social context exerts an important influence on sex offenders’ perceptions of neighborhood support. We also find that offenders are less likely to worry about the negative repercussions of their status as a sex offender when they perceive higher levels of neighborhood support. Despite the limitations of the sample, implications of this research indicate a need for policies that promote public awareness of local sex offenders while also offering education and understanding about potential barriers to successful sex offender reintegration.
Research Summary
Current legislation mandating DNA collection, civil commitment, registration, and community notification of sex offenders is predicated on the assumption that sex offenders are simply more dangerous than other types of offenders in that they inevitably re‐offend. Moreover, many states are moving to expand sex offender legislation to include non‐sexual offenders on the assumption that some offense types, such as burglary and robbery, serve as “gateway” offenses to sex crimes. The purpose of this research is to highlight two of the common perceptions underlying sex offender laws, and the extension thereof, and examine them in light of current empirical evidence. We employ analysis of variance techniques on Illinois arrest data from 1990 to 1997 to examine the degree to which sex offenders have higher proportions of repeat offending than other criminal categories and if some offense types serve as “gateway” or predicate offenses to sex crimes.
Policy Implications
Our results suggest that the extension of sex offender laws to non‐sexual offenders will likely have little effect on sexual victimization rates. More importantly, our results illustrate that policies can be founded on misconceptions, and these misconceptions not only have financial consequences, but also can affect the likelihood that the policies enacted will achieve their goals. If nothing else, this research suggests that policy makers need to become better informed on the issues they subject to far‐reaching and costly legislation.
Guided by an environmental justice perspective of public policy, this study combines child sex offender registry information with US Census and geospatial data to examine the extent to which differences in the physical structure of Chicago neighborhoods (N = 872) affect the efficacy and fairness of the city's sex offender residence restrictions. Findings from mapping and regression analyses show that, because of differences in neighborhood size and the spatial distribution of prohibited sites (i.e., parks, schools, and daycares), Chicago's 500-foot rule restricts the available residential space for child sex offenders to a much greater extent in disadvantaged neighborhoods (n = 175) than in affluent neighborhoods (n =130). The data also indicate, however, that despite legal proscriptions, child sex offenders continue several years after residence restrictions were first imposed to concentrate in disadvantaged neighborhoods and in relatively close proximity to prohibited sites. Implications for the offenders and communities are discussed.
Community registration laws requiring sex offenders to register with local law enforcement have become increasingly popular and increasingly restrictive in recent years. Although these laws were passed under the auspices of protecting communities from dangerous and violent sexual predators, little research has addressed their efficacy or their consequences. Building on a social capital framework that emphasizes the resources provided by local ties to family, friends, and the community, data from semistructured interviews with 23 sex offenders were analyzed to explore their experiences with local social capital while being registered and on and off of parole. Sex offenders discuss problems accessing and participating in networks of local social capital, incidents of community residential mobilization against them, and their experiences with formal barriers to social capital, including parole restrictions.
This article analyzes data derived from the first detailed long-term follow-up of a sample of serious adolescent female delinquents and similarly situated males. Neither marital attachment nor job stability, factors frequently associated with male desistance from crime, were strongly related to female or male desistance. A symbolic-interactionist perspective on desistance is developed as a counterpoint to Sampson and Laub's theory of informal social control, and life history narratives are used to illustrate the perspective. This cognitive theory is generally compatible with a control approach but (a) adds specificity regarding underlying change mechanisms, (b) explains some negative cases, and (c) fits well with life course challenges facing contemporary serious female (and more provisionally male) offenders.
Drawing from cumulative disadvantage theory, we are the first to examine the role of transportation disadvantage among other known challenges for women on community supervision. We create a composite measure of transportation disadvantage using factor analyses and data for 362 women on probation and parole in one Midwestern state: It is used to predict arrest and conviction using multiepisode event history analysis and conditional logistic regression. Consistent with cumulative disadvantage theory, the results suggest each additional disadvantage makes women more vulnerable, over and above the other disadvantages. Transportation disadvantage is a significant and entrenched feature in criminal justice-involved women’s lives. The import of modeling all available recidivism events, given the entrenched nature of criminal justice system involvement, cannot be overstated.
Studies on offender reentry have consistently shown that lack of, or limited access to, needed postrelease resources and services adversely affects recidivism. Few studies have taken into consideration nonurban and urban contexts for reentry services and program participation. Toward this end, 130 currently incarcerated offenders were surveyed. The results of this study indicate that there were significant differences in employment and other services utilization observed between the two subsamples that varied depending on involvement prior to prison and during incarceration, and affecting the types of programs and services inmates would like to access postrelease.
Academic work on crime and punishment has focused mostly on urban centers, leaving rural communities understudied, except for acknowledgement that rural communities warehouse a large number of prisoners and that rural prisons provide jobs and economic development for some struggling communities. This study uses a novel dataset that includes information on the home addresses of all prisoners in Arkansas from 1993 to 2003 to document imprisonment rates and racial disparities in imprisonment rates across metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties. We show how rural communities both receive and produce prisoners and that imprisonment and racial disparities in imprisonment vary more within different types of communities than across different types of communities. Further, we find that nonmetropolitan rates of imprisonment are higher than would be expected, based on observed local risk factors such as poverty rate. We close with a discussion of what these findings illustrate about concentrated disadvantage across the rural-urban interface.
The appropriation of “welfare stigma” or stereotypes about poor people's overreliance and abuse of public aid in two core criminal justice functions is examined: felony adjudication in a court system and space allocation in a jail. Through a comparative ethnographic study in which an abductive analysis of data (20 months of fieldwork) was used, we show that criminal justice gatekeepers utilize welfare stigma to create stricter eligibility criteria for due process in criminal courts and occupancy in jails. Specifically, the number of court appearances, motions, trials, jail beds, food, showers, and medical services is considered by professionals to be the benefits that individuals seek to access and abuse. Professionals view their role as preventing (rather than granting) access to these resources. The comparative nature of our data reveals that welfare stigma has interorganizational utility by serving two different organizational goals: It streamlines convictions in courts, which pulls defendants through adjudication, and conversely, it expands early release from jails, which pulls inmates out of the custody population. In the context of diminishing social safety nets, our findings have implications for understanding how discretion is exercised in an American criminal justice system increasingly tasked with the distribution of social services to the urban poor.
Criminology and urban sociology have long-standing interests in how neighborhoods and communities respond to and control crime. We build on the literature on social disorganization, collective efficacy, and new parochialism to develop a framework that explains how and why communities respond differently to crime. We draw on more than 2 years of comparative ethnographic data and 56 resident and stakeholder interviews on responses to crime in four communities in two states. We find that the intersections of racial composition, geography, and crime narratives in each place contributed to distinct community responses to crime. By analyzing these dynamics across the four sites, we propose three types of public–parochial partnerships that communities use to respond to crime: public alliances that rely primarily on public forms of control, tentative public–parochial partnerships that rely on tenuous connections with public institutions, and grassroots engagement with public institutions. We explain the emergence of these three approaches as patterned responses rooted in characteristics of local contexts, including racial composition and geographic isolation.
The striking growth of online communities in recent years has sparked significant interest in understanding and quantifying benefits of participation. While research has begun to document the economic outcomes associated with online communities, quantifying the social value created in these collectives has been largely overlooked. This study proposes that online health communities create social value by addressing rural-urban health disparities via improved health capabilities. Using a unique data set from a rare disease community, we provide one of the first empirical studies of social value creation. Our quantitative analysis using exponential random graph models reveals patterns of social support exchanged between users and the variations in these patterns based on users' location. We find that, overall, urban users are net suppliers of social support while rural participants are net recipients, suggesting that technology-mediated online health communities are able to alleviate rural-urban health disparities. This study advances extant understanding of value production in online collectives, and yields implications for policy.
An emerging body of research suggests that those who reside in socially and economically marginalized places may be marked by a stigma of place, referred to as spatial stigma, which influences their sense of self, their daily experiences, and their relations with outsiders. Researchers conducted 60 semistructured interviews at partnering community-based organizations during summer 2011 with African American and Latina/o, structurally disadvantaged youth of diverse gender and sexual identities who were between 18 and 26 years of age residing in Detroit, Michigan. The disadvantaged structural conditions and dilapidated built environment were common themes in participants’ narratives. Beyond these descriptions, participants’ framings and expressions of their experiences in and perceptions of these spaces alluded to reputational qualities of their city and particular areas of their city that appear related to spatial stigma. Young Detroit residents articulated the ways that they experience and navigate the symbolic degradation of their city.
The treatment and management of sexual offenders has long been focused on risk and recidivism. As a consequence, the phenomenon of desistance from sexual offending has only recently gained research attention. Unsurprisingly, the area of theory building to account for this empirical reality has been slow. Although a number of psychological theories of behavioral change and criminological theories of desistance exist, a comprehensive theoretical understanding of desistance from sexual offending is lacking. A theme common across a number of theories of internal desistance is cognitive transformation and specifically, one's readiness for and willingness to change. This study tested the relevance of that particular theme for a sample of 45 men convicted of sexual offenses who are living offense-free lives in the community. In contrast to this theme, long-term desistance was observed in most cases in the absence of any initial desire for intervention. The impact of current approaches such as mandatory treatment is discussed and implications for future research and practice are presented.
© The Author(s) 2015.
Social science research on stigma has grown dramatically over the past two decades, particularly in social psychology, where researchers have elucidated the ways in which people construct cognitive categories and link those categories to stereotyped beliefs. In the midst of this growth, the stigma concept has been criticized as being too vaguely defined and individually focused. In response to these criticisms, we define stigma as the co-occurrence of its components-labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination-and further indicate that for stigmatization to occur, power must be exercised. The stigma concept we construct has implications for understanding several core issues in stigma research, ranging from the definition of the concept to the reasons stigma sometimes represents a very persistent predicament in the lives of persons affected by it. Finally, because there are so many stigmatized circumstances and because stigmatizing processes can affect multiple domains of people's lives, stigmatization probably has a dramatic bearing on the distribution of life chances in such areas as earnings, housing, criminal involvement, health, and life itself. It follows that social scientists who are interested in understanding the distribution of such life chances should also be interested in stigma.
While previous research has added to the understanding of rural residents' unique health challenges, much remains to be learned about the provision of substance use disorder (SUD) treatment in rural areas. A key question is difference in structural resources and quality of care between rural and urban treatment centers.
To examine differences in treatment quality in rural and urban centers and to determine if differences in treatment quality are contextualized by centers' structural resources.
Utilizing combined data from two representative samples of SUD treatment centers (n = 591), we used a series of multivariate regressions to analyze the association between center rurality and various indicators of structural characteristics and treatment quality. Interaction effects were further examined between structural characteristics and treatment quality indicators.
We found that structural and quality differences between rural and urban treatment centers were present. Rural centers had reduced access to highly educated counselors, were more likely to be non-profit and dependent on public funding, offered fewer wraparound services, and had less diverse specialized treatment options. Our results also indicated that rural centers were less likely to prescribe buprenorphine as part of their treatment but were more likely to employ nursing staff and offer specialized treatment for adolescents. Rural center access to a physician contextualized the association between center rurality and the more limited provision of wraparound services.
Our findings suggest that treatment quality differs between urban and rural centers in complex ways that are subject to resource availability.
Employing a framework at the intersection of psychological anthropology and narrative theory, I provide a critique of Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) approaches to sexual offender rehabilitation. I demonstrate that what forensic psychologists refer to as a "cognitive distortion" or "thinking error" is often embedded within a broader narrative, and that these narratives reveal the existence of identifiable strategies designed to communicate something salient, enduring, and moral about the offender. Through the examination of narratives offered by imprisoned sexual offenders, several such narrative strategies containing the seeds of moral agency are identified. It is suggested that CBT's current focus on cognitive distortions effectively eliminates this narrative context and thus serves to disguise and even eradicate the positive, moral notions of self that most offenders exhibit in some form or another. A rehabilitative approach that works with narrative, facilitating development of shared narratives among offenders and therapists, would allow for the emergence of a plan for morally agentive living, transcending what is currently possible within the hostile, challenging framework of CBT. [narrative theory; cognitive behavior therapy; moral agency; sexual offenders; prisons] © 2010 by the American Anthropological Association. All rights reserved.
Objectives This study examines UCR and NCVS serious violence crime trends in urban, suburban, and rural areas, and assesses the extent to which discrepancies in the two data series are due to victim reporting or police crime-recording practices. Particular attention is paid to the dynamics of the rural data series. Methods NCVS data for 1973-2010 are used to estimate subnational rates of serious violence and comparable rates for crimes that victims said were reported to police, and these estimates are compared to subnational UCR data. Time-series cointegration analysis is used to assess convergence in the NCVS and UCR series along with descriptive comparative analyses. Results The degree of convergence in UCR and NCVS trends was found to vary across areas; however this was not due to differences in rates of reporting to police. Suburban and urban UCR and NCVS trends converged with and without adjustment for police reporting. Little evidence of NCVS/UCR series convergence was found in rural areas even after victim reporting was taken into account. Conclusion The recording and production of crime data by the police appears to contribute to subnational differences in the convergence between the UCR and NCVS series. The findings suggest rural crime trend analysis should not be based solely on UCR data. To illustrate the difference between conclusions based on UCR and NCVS rural violence trends, we find that poverty rates have a large, significant association with rural violence as measured in the NCVS, but are unrelated to UCR rates.
Sociologists long have observed that the urban poor rely on kinship networks to survive economic destitution. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork among evicted tenants in high-poverty neighborhoods, this article presents a new explanation for urban survival, one that emphasizes the importance of disposable ties formed between strangers. To meet their most pressing needs, evicted families often relied more on new acquaintances than on kin. Disposable ties facilitated the flow of various resources, but often bonds were brittle and fleeting. The strategy of forming, using, and burning disposable ties allowed families caught in desperate situations to make it from one day to the next, but it also bred instability and fostered misgivings among peers.
Research Summary
We evaluated the efficacy of sex offender residence restrictions in Michigan and Missouri using a quasi‐experimental design with propensity score matching. First, we examined the implementation of the laws and found that sex offenders in both states were less likely to live in restricted areas after the implementation of the laws than the prerestriction sample, but the differences were not statistically significant. In our outcome analysis, we find little evidence that residence restrictions changed the prevalence of recidivism substantially for sex offenders in the postrelease period. In Michigan, trends indicate that the implementation of the laws led to a slight increase in recidivism among the sex offender groups, whereas in Missouri, this effect resulted in a slight decrease in recidivism. Technical violations also declined for both groups in Missouri. The small effect sizes, inconsistent results across states, and the null results between sex offender and non–sex offender models cast doubt on the potential usefulness of the laws to influence individual patterns of recidivism broadly.
Policy Implications
The results caution against the widespread, homogenous implementation of residence restrictions. Instead, we advocate individualization in sex offender programming and call for the development of risk‐centered models of residence restrictions that draw on the established literature. In addition, the research highlights the practical challenges in defining restricted areas, enforcing restrictions, and promoting successful returns to the community. Furthermore, a call for reframing the focus of sex offender reentry to include collaborative treatment groups and enhanced communication and services between key stakeholders is made. Finally, we close with a discussion of several best practice models that provide alternative housing sources for individuals sentenced under residence restrictions without a suitable home plan.
There have been major shifts in the perception of sex offender recidivism over the past 30 years and increased interest in public and professional spheres. However, the discourses of the public and the professionals are becoming increasingly discrepant. The media are pivotal in demonizing all sex offenders and focusing on punitiveness. Media myths have developed that mask professional advances. A paradigm shift is needed from the current emphasis on behavioral science research toward a fuller recognition of system changes and processual questions. History instructs that only a minority of sex offenders are really dangerous. Nevertheless, sex offending is a pervasive problem, and criminal justice solutions alone will not be enough. Indeed, current policies to prevent or address sexual offending have largely failed. Social justice solutions with compassion as an ingredient need to be brought more to the fore.
This study focuses on the relationship between returning offender residential mobility and neighborhood structural factors characteristic of socially disorganized neighborhoods. It uses a unique data set that combines information on parolees released in the state of California during the 2005-2006 time period with their geocoded addresses to view the types of neighborhoods they are moving to. The authors find that sex offenders are entering neighborhoods with more concentrated disadvantage and residential instability upon reentry from prison and upon subsequent moves. This effect for sex offender status is particularly strong for whites and Latinos, leading them into more socially disorganized neighborhoods. The authors also find that sex offenders are more likely to enter neighborhoods with more minorities as measured by Latinos and African Americans and less likely to enter neighborhoods with more whites.
Inmates face many challenges as they attempt to transition from the institution to the community. Securing suitable housing, finding employment, and addressing substance abuse and mental health problems present formidable obstacles to offenders as they attempt to reconnect with society. To this point most, if not all, of the focus on prisoner reentry has been from an urban perspective, with little attention on how these obstacles affect inmates returning to rural areas. This paper examines the challenges rural-bound offenders face when returning to the community, focusing specifically on housing, employment, substance abuse, and mental health. While little research has been conducted in this area, by combining current research on prisoner reentry with knowledge from other disciplines such as sociology, addictions, and health care, it is possible to gain a better understanding of how these obstacles impede reintegration in rural settings. Furthermore, this paper addresses the need to develop policies that recognize the unique features of rural communities.
Theories of crime and research on crime and justice have usually been based on an urban model of social organization. Applying these theories and methods to rural settings provides an opportunity to understand them better and to make clear the assumptions upon which they are based. This article assesses current theories and methods regarding their ability to account for crime and justice in rural areas.
Most of the available research on jails focuses on large institutions, located in urban areas. In this study we empirically consider whether this emphasis shortchanges our understanding of jails by comparing 2,638 rural and urban jails on four dimensions: jail size and use, inmate characteristics, staff characteristics, and inmate services. Our results reveal several important cleavages between rural and urban jails. Based on our findings and a conception of jails as influenced in meaningful ways by their social, political, and organizational contexts, we suggest avenues for future research on local incarceration.
This article presents an analysis of intake survey data from 3,698 adult offenders placed on probation in a midwestern state. The data describe differences between urban and rural adult probation admissions. Included in the analysis and discussion is the identification of drug use and abuse and the ability of probation systems in the state to provide adequate screening and treatment. Other demographic and offense characteristics aid in profiling rural probation offenders, including similarities and differences with their urban counterparts.
Sexual victimization has become one of the most publicized and researched social problems in society. However, potential linkages between the intended and unintended effects of sex offender management legislation have gone largely unaddressed in social science literature. This article addresses these linkages by applying a social-systems model to help better understand the problems of managing sex offenders. Additionally, latent consequences of current and proposed sex offender legislation, including community notification laws, are examined. It is argued that sex offenders (and the community at large) may face a considerable variety of problems not intended by such legislation. In addition, we examine the “one-dimensional monster” stereotype of a sex offender and how this ostracism may discourage offenders from reporting their behavior and seeking counseling. Finally, we provide proposals for addressing these issues with the use of the therapeutic jurisprudence model.
With over 2 million individuals currently incarcerated, and over half a million prisoners released each year, the large and growing number of men being processed through the criminal justice system raises important questions about the consequences of this massive institutional intervention. This article focuses on the consequences of incarceration for the employment outcomes of black and white job seekers. The present study adopts an experimental audit approach-in which matched pairs of individuals applied for real entry-level jobs-to formally test the degree to which a criminal record affects subsequent employment opportunities. The findings of this study reveal an important, and much underrecognized, mechanism of stratification. A criminal record presents a major barrier to employment, with important implications for racial disparities.
I use a large national probability sample to test the hypothesis of urban-rural differences in helping between friends and family members. A very weak trend is apparent whereby urbanites receive more help from friends than do rural dwellers, give more help to friends, expect more help from friends, and expect less help from relatives. These differences exist mainly because of the demographic compositions of urban and rural areas and because urban dwellers live farther from relatives than do rural dwellers. A different pattern appears among the elderly; in this group, urbanism is associated with receiving less assisstance from others in general. The association between giving and receiving assistance is stronger in urban than in rural areas. I interpret these results in the light of social disorganization, overload, and subculture theory.
Sex offender registrationwas widely implemented in the 1990s as a means of enhancingcommunity awareness of sex offenders to promote community safety. This study is one of the first examinations of the collateral consequences of sex offender registration from the perspective of the offender. Drawing on data from 121 registered sex offenders in Kentucky, this research shows that social stigmatization, loss of relationships, employment, and housing, and both verbal and physical assaults are experienced by a significant minority of registered sex offenders.