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Understanding gambling and gaming skill and its implications for the convergence of gaming with electronic gaming machines
Abstract
Skill-based elements are increasing being introduced to electronic gaming machines to appeal to a broad consumer cohort by offering different play experiences. In this paper, we examine what is meant by skill in gambling and to what extent electronic skilled-gambling games differ from existing forms of gambling. Using examples drawn from recent market releases, we examine the ways in which skill-elements are being incorporated into gaming machines. As we will highlight, the industry could look to profit from skillful games in different ways: one model might allow skillful play, but in a context where the long-term RTP always remains negative. Another model might allow individual players to obtain greater returns through competition against other players or genuine opportunities to obtain a positive RTP, but where this will only be achievable for a minority of players. We discuss the potential implications of these differences for player experiences as well as game profitability. We argue that a deeper understanding of how similar structural differences operate in video-gaming might provide useful insights into how popular and successful (from an industry perceptive) these games are likely to be as well as the potential implications for policies, problem gambling, and treatment.
... Data from multiple territories generally agree that opportunities for skill-based (also known as strategic) gambling is increasing while chance-based (i.e. non-strategic) gambling is in decline (Delfabbro et al., 2020), mainly because younger generations systematically show preference for skill-based gambling and find pure chance games less attractive. A study investigating the gambling mode preference of UK gamblers from 2000 to 2015 found that poker and sports betting had become much more common over the period of investigation (Sharman et al., 2019). ...
... Sometimes skill-based forms might be designed in a way that a small percentage of the gamblers obtain benefits (e.g. sports betting exchange markets) (Delfabbro et al., 2020), potentially making sports bettors think that they are not falling victim to erroneous cognitions. Cognizant of the consumers' appetite for skill games and agency, the gambling industry commercializes products that vastly exaggerate the actual control gamblers can exert in them and underestimates their randomness Newall, 2018). ...
... As skill-based gambling gains popularity (Delfabbro et al., 2020), a skill production industry emerges in the shadow of skill-based gambling products. Drawing from the views of Cosgrave (2010), tipsters are arguably another element in a market environment dedicated to procuring 'safe risks' to consumers, risks that can be more or less mastered by sufficient preparation, study, and knowledge. ...
Tipsters are sports betting experts that offer recommendations concerning betting opportunities, usually in exchange for money. With the growth of online sports betting, tipsters have become more accessible via social media. However, it remains unknown whether tipsters might have an impact on sports bettors experiencing gambling problems. In the present study, data concerning tipsters were collected via focus group interviews with sports bettors undergoing treatment for gambling disorder (n = 28) and examined utilizing a thematic analysis approach. The findings suggest that many participants used tipsters during their gambling activity, although they had divergent thoughts about their actual ability to produce accurate tips. The selection of tipsters appears to be biased toward personal contact and word-of-mouth strategies rather than objective performance data. Notably, many bettors had experienced thoughts of becoming tipsters themselves. The participants struggled to integrate into a coherent narrative both the existence of individuals such as tipsters who (allegedly) have been able to consistently ‘beat the bookies’, and their contrasting personal experience of repeated losses. This has implications for therapists working on cognitive restructuring, because tipsters made sports bettors wonder about the importance of skill in betting, and whether thinking they could be winners was actually a distorted or a realistic perception.
... Until recently, there were no suitable control devices that facilitated a comparison to the false appearance of skill in EGMs. However, SGMs have been developed which incorporate skill elements into the randomly determined payout schedules of EGMs (for a review please see Delfabbro et al., 2020a;Pickering et al., 2020). These machines allow for player skill to impact the longrun house advantage such that all players have the possibility of winning, including jackpots, but players with higher levels of skill increase their likelihood of winning small to medium monetary payouts. ...
... The study aggregated subjects sampled from three target groups within the Australian population: (i) young adults (aged 18-39 years), since this population is a potential target audience for SGMs (Delfabbro et al., 2020a;Pickering et al., 2020) and have relatively high rates of gambling and gaming-related problems (Gainsbury et al., 2014;Welte et al., 2015); (ii) regular EGM users, since such individuals would likely encounter SGMs if they were made available in gambling venues; and (iii) community members, since it is important to understand the potential appeal and impact of SGMs on individuals who may not regularly attend licensed gambling venues but may be interested in skillrelated games. The use of multiple sampling strategies improves our study validity, as convenience samples like college students may not generalize well when attitudinal variables are used (Hanel and Vione, 2016). ...
Previous research has demonstrated that attitudes are a primary determinant of intention to gamble on electronic gaming machines (EGMs) consistent with the Theory of Reasoned Action. This paper aims to address how biases in judgment can contribute to attitudes and subsequently behavior, including maladaptive problematic gambling behavior. We take a novel approach by viewing overconfidence in one’s understanding of how outcomes are determined on EGMs as an indication of cognitive distortions. The novelty of this paper is further increased as we compare attitudes to existing EGMs with novel EGMs which include a skill component, referred to as skill-based gaming machines (SGMs), which enables a better controlled comparison between actual and perceived skill. In Study 1, 232 US-based participants were recruited online who were shown various slot machines and SGMs and asked a series of questions about perceived skill and chance in determining outcomes to assess their understanding, then were asked their confidence in their understanding, attitudes toward the machines and they completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index. In Study 2, 246 Australian participants were recruited through community and university student samples; they attended a laboratory where they were randomly allocated to play a real EGM or SGM without money and completed the same measures as in Study 1. In Study 2, participants were randomly told that the outcomes on the machine they would play were determined entirely by chance, skill, or a mixture of both. In both studies, our findings suggest that there are more extreme values in overconfidence in how EGMs work, whereas individuals are more similar in their confidence in understanding SGMs. We also find a relationship between overconfidence in EGM understanding and positive attitudes toward EGMs, but no such relationship with SGMs. There was no impact from controlling for demographics, problem gambling severity, or labeling of machines on these relationships.
... This has significant implications for both identifying and treating problematic gambling behavior in different populations as concepts of luck and skill vary between the groups. In addition, the differing concepts of skill related to both gambling and non-gambling games have implications for future products and activities, such as skill-based gambling, which seek to capitalize on the process of convergence (Delfabbro et al., 2020). ...
... These elements can be seen in a new generation of online gambling games featuring stronger narrative structures, and game-like audiovisual qualities, indeed the gambling industry is seeking to further integrate the two domains through the development of 'skill-based' gambling (Delfabbro et al., 2020). Convergence is also evident with the gambling industry's adoption of the free-to-play (F2P) business model (Alha et al., 2018;Bednarz et al., 2013) pioneered by digital games, and the acquisition of gaming companies by established players in the gambling industry (Cassidy, 2013). ...
This study provides an overview of the interactions between the playing of digital games, gambling activities and Social Casino Games (SCG) in the Finnish context. Earlier studies of SCG playing have predominantly focused on US and Australian markets, and have not included digital gaming in examinations. This study uses cross-tabulation to analyze data from a nationally representative survey (n = 946). SCG play was found to be associated with lower levels of educational attainment, younger males, increased digital game play, gambling in digital games, increased use of free-to-play (F2P) games, and microtransactions. Finally, positive associations were found to exist with established forms of gambling, both online and offline. The findings of this research contribute to the understanding of growing convergence between digital gaming and gambling as it is the first to consider digital game play, SCG play and participation in gambling holistically. It found stronger associations between digital game play and SCG play than between gambling consumption and SCG play, thereby highlighting the importance of context in relationships between digital game consumption and gambling. Furthermore, younger generations of Finns are likely to experience convergent gambling-gaming elements in digital gaming platforms and online environments before engaging in traditional gambling activities.
... In jurisdictions such as Australia, where this study was conducted, the level of direct cognitive involvement in EGM play is minimal, and therefore, reaction time would make a small effect on the time spent playing each game, although there is an increasing trend for games that combine random play of traditional EGMs with elements of low-level skills such as hand-eye coordination and reaction time that effectively act as a multiplier for any wins associated with random play (c.f. Skill Based Games Inc.'s GotSkill games) and might have also have a minor impact on winnings (Delfabbro & Gainsbury, 2020). ...
While comorbidity of problematic alcohol and gambling use is well established, much less is known about the way in which alcohol consumption while gambling interacts with problem-gambling severity and other individual differences. We hypothesised three factors that would interact with alcohol consumption while gambling on electronic gaming machines (EGMs) to influence four behavioural gambling measures: preferred number of lines bet, average duration of play, average spend per session and preferred electronic gaming machine denomination. The latter is a measure of gambler’s preference for the monetary denomination in which EGM bets are placed (e.g. 1 cent, 2 cents, 5 cents, 10 cents, 20 cents, $1), with higher denomination EGMs being higher risk since bets can be placed in larger amounts and money can be lost more rapidly. The three hypothesised interacting factors were problem-gambling severity, presence/absence of alcohol use disorder and biological gender. A total of 1557 male and female participants completed a questionnaire, measuring their problem-gambling status, problem alcohol status, consumption of alcohol at the gambling venue, preferred EGM denomination, preferred number of lines bet, average duration of play and average spend per session. We found the anticipated gender-differential spending effect with males spending more than females, but we also found a surprising reverse differential spending effect for problem gamblers such that females spent more than males. We also found that alcohol consumption while gambling was generally associated with a preference for higher denomination machines and that those players without alcohol problems who drank at the venue preferred to bet on more lines, suggesting a double-max strategy amongst gamblers who drank at the venue. Finally, for non-problem and low-risk gamblers, concurrent alcohol consumption was related to preference for higher denomination EGMs in female players, but not for male players. These findings are discussed in the context of the physiological and psychological effects of alcohol.
... Experience with gaming may increase interest in SGMs given familiarity with a gambling modality has been associated with a person feeling overconfident in their ability and likelihood of winning (14,15). Some concerns have been raised regarding the extent to which SGMs may contribute to gambling problems through immersive experiences [see (9,16)]. Video gaming elements of SGMs provide an engaging and immersive experience for players. ...
This study aimed to compare how consumers understand the role of skill and chance, experience cognitive distortions, and experience immersion based on use of either electronic gaming machines (EGMs) or skill gambling machines (SGMs; EGMs with a skill-based component). Participants ( N = 246, M age = 34 years, 56.91% female) in a laboratory experiment were randomly assigned to play a real EGM or SGM without funds and self-reported measures including intention to gamble, understanding of the role of skill and chance, erroneous gambling beliefs, previous gambling and gaming, and problem gambling severity. Participants demonstrated different deficits in understanding of the role of skill vs. chance in determining outcomes following play. SGM players were more likely to increase their belief that a skill impacts outcomes and focused more on the game play experience. EGM players focused more on wins and personal performance. Intention to play both machines was predicted in both groups by greater experience of immersion during play and breadth of previous gambling, but breadth of previous gaming experience only predicted intent to play SGMs. The results revealed that both EGM and SGM players fail to understand how outcomes are determined, which is likely more problematic for EGM players as this reflects clear cognitive distortions. Further real-world testing is required to understand the extent to which SGMs harms may be different than EGMs, however, these initial findings suggest that their risks appear comparable to EGMs while attracting individuals with more gaming experience.
... The proposition that cryptocurrency trading is associated with gambling is grounded in the structural similarity of the two activities: A situation in which highly volatile assets are traded with limited information and in the expectation of uncertain but high gains resembles the basic setup of gambling (Delfabbro et al., 2021), where stakes are placed on uncertain outcomes, though they are predominantly influenced by chance (Delfabbro et al., 2019). The motives to participate in either of the two activities are considered to be similar: According to Mills and Nower (2019), the hope for high gains explains the association between cryptocurrency trading and problem gambling. ...
Researchers have only recently begun investigating the associations between cryptocurrency and gambling, although the structural similarities of financial speculation and gambling and the risks for transferring harmful behavior from one activity to another have been subject to numerous studies in the past decade. This is noticeable since the societal relevance of cryptocurrencies steadily increases. Based on a survey from 2019, this study analyzed a representative sample of 3,864 Germans regarding their cryptocurrency and gambling use. The aim of the study was to determine differentiating factors between sole gamblers, sole cryptocurrency users and users of both as well as to uncover the socioeconomic profiles and behavioral patterns of the latter group. It was found that cryptocurrency users who also gamble are mostly young, male, well-educated and well-off and report significantly higher levels of domain-specific knowledge, ideological motivation and trust-perceptions about cryptocurrency as compared to the other groups. Using cluster analysis, the behavioral patterns of three distinct user groups were revealed, which differ by the intensity of their cryptocurrency involvement across mental, proactive and financial aspects. The observation that a considerable number of this technology-savvy population of users is considered heavy users indicates potential risks of over-involvement. The findings provide researchers and regulators with an improved understanding of the phenomenon of cryptocurrency and the psychological involvement of users.
... In recent years, however, it has become increasingly difficult to distinguish some forms of gaming from gambling. Video games have incorporated elements of risk and chance-based outcomes, thus aligning them more closely to traditional gambling games, and many electronic gambling games now include outcomes that are determined by a player's level of skill, thus aligning them more closely to traditional gaming (Delfabbro et al., 2020). The continued incorporation of gambling mechanics in video games and gaming mechanics in gambling have been referred to as "convergence" (Kim & King, 2020). ...
Social casino games have achieved widespread popularity, and are accessed by more than 85 million people each day. Yet, why people play social casino games is largely unknown. To address this gap, an inductive approach was taken to better understand the motives for playing social casino games, as well as the motives for transitioning from social casino gaming to gambling and vice versa. To this end, 269 social casino gamers were asked to provide a ranked list of their motives for playing social casino games. Additionally, we asked participants their motivations for transitioning from gambling to social casino gaming (n = 202) or vice versa (n = 67). A total of 795, 605, and 201 unique responses describing motives for playing social casino games, transitioning from social casino gaming to gambling, and transitioning from gambling to social casino gaming, respectively, were analyzed using a thematic content analysis. The most frequently endorsed motive for playing social casino games was for enhancement (e.g., fun, challenge). Participants also noted playing to earn rewards, including money, and for social reasons. Several motives linked social casino game play to gambling. These included: to hone gambling-related 'skills', a desire to transition to gambling to win real money, and as a gambling harm-reduction strategy. Motives for playing social casino games did not differ significantly between those who first gambled and then transitioned to social casino gaming and vice versa, suggesting that once people begin playing social casino games, they have similar motives for continued engagement. The present study contributes to understanding the immense popularity of social casino games and their links to gambling.
... Recently published literature suggests a heightened interest in the characteristics of people involved in different forms of gambling (Gainsbury et al., 2012). These include the examination of popular gambling genres such as poker (Dufour et al., 2020;Moreau et al., 2016), electronic gaming machines (e.g., Delfabbro et al., 2020), and horse racing (e.g., Ladouceur et al., 1998). The findings of these studies suggest that individuals who partake in different gambling activities have distinct characteristics, especially in terms of cognitive distortions and pathological gambling tendencies (Dufour et al., 2015;Dufour et al., 2020). ...
Sports betting is an activity that has seen tremendous growth over the past decade. The integrative nature of sports betting in marketing mediums and the advent of modern technology makes it a particularly dangerous form of gambling. This study aimed to compare the cognitions of sports bettors and non-sports gamblers. A total of 713 participants were recruited, of which 80 were sports bettors, 270 were non-sports gamblers, and 363 were non-gamblers. Cognitive distortions were measured using the Gamblers Belief's Questionnaire, which comprises two factors: Luck/Perseverance, and Illusion of Control. The results of a between-groups MANOVA showed that sports bettors recorded higher scores for Luck/Perseverance (M = 35.27, SD = 13.63) than non-gamblers (M = 17.60, SD = 8.20, p < .001) and non-sports gamblers (M = 27.19, SD = 11.81, p < .001). Sports gamblers also recorded higher Illusion of Control scores (M = 25.48, SD = 8.81) than both non-gamblers (M = 13.46, SD = 6.50, p < .001) and non-sports gamblers (M = 19.76, SD = 7.91, p < .001). Problem gambling was measured using the South Oaks Gambling Screen. One-way analysis of variance between the three groups showed sports bettors scores (M = 3.45, SD = 3.29) were higher than those of non-sports gamblers (M = 1.62, SD = 2.30), and non-gamblers (M = 0.29, SD = 0.96, p < .001). These findings suggest that gamblers should not be treated as a homogenous group, and that greater attention should be placed on sports bettors in prevention and treatment efforts.
... Ever since the emergence of the first electrical mechanical slot machine, or EGMs -Electronic Gaming Machines, developed by Bally in 1964, slot games have been widely adopted by casinos as a major constituent of the casino games. Slot systems have been evolving since then with the adoption of the latest computer technologies [1] [2]. Nowadays, slot machines are basically computers connected with a sophisticated network, dedicated to this specific purpose. ...
... In recent years, however, it has become increasingly difficult to distinguish some forms of gaming from gambling. Video games have incorporated elements of risk and chance-based outcomes, thus aligning them more closely to traditional gambling games, and many electronic gambling games now include outcomes that are determined by a player's level of skill, thus aligning them more closely to traditional gaming (Delfabbro et al., 2020). The continued incorporation of gambling mechanics in video games and gaming mechanics in gambling have been referred to as "convergence" (Kim & King, 2020). ...
Social casino games have achieved widespread popularity, and are accessed by more than 85 million people each day. Yet, why people play social casino games is largely unknown. To address this gap, an inductive approach was taken to better understand the motives for playing social casino games, as well as the motives for transitioning from social casino gaming to gambling and vice versa. To this end, 269 social casino gamers were asked to provide a ranked list of their motives for playing social casino games. Additionally, we asked participants their motivations for transitioning from gambling to social casino gaming (n=202) or vice versa (n=67). A total of 795, 605, and 201 unique responses describing motives for playing social casino games, transitioning from social casino gaming to gambling, and transitioning from gambling to social casino gaming, respectively, were analyzed using a thematic content analysis. The most frequently endorsed motive for playing social casino games was for enhancement (e.g., fun, challenge). Participants also noted playing to earn rewards, including money, and for social reasons. Several motives linked social casino game play to gambling. These included: to hone gambling-related ‘skills’, a desire to transition to gambling to win real money, and as a gambling harm-reduction strategy. Motives for playing social casino games did not differ significantly between those who first gambled and then transitioned to social casino gaming and vice versa, suggesting that once people begin playing social casino games, they have similar motives for continued engagement. The present study contributes to understanding the immense popularity of social casino games and their links to gambling.
... These features peak in a new generation of 'skill-based' gambling machines that resemble traditional arcade games (e.g. a basketball game). With these new products, designers face a complex challenge of rewarding continued practice while protecting the operator's house edge (53). At the current time, it remains unclear whether these skill-based games will be successful from a business perspective, and how they will impact cognitive distortions and gambling harms (54). ...
E. J. Langer's paper, 'The illusion of control' (1975), showed that people act in ways that suggest they hold illusory beliefs in their ability to control the outcome of chance-determined games. This highly cited paper influenced the emerging field of gambling studies, and became a building block for cognitive approaches to problem gambling. Over time, this work has inspired therapeutic approaches based on cognitive restructuring, preventative programmes focused upon gambling myths and regulatory scrutiny of skill mechanics in modern gambling products. However, the psychological mechanisms underlying the 'illusion of control' remain elusive.
... Gambling is generally defined as an activity where items of value (e. g., money or property) are staked on outcomes that are predominantly influenced by chance (Delfabbro et al., 2019). In most gambling research, it has generally been uncommon to extend this definition to speculative activities such as share-trading or broader investment strategies. ...
Some forms of speculative trading share similarities with gambling. Decisions are often based on limited information, short-term motives for gain, and highly volatile and uncertain outcomes. Given these similarities, there is evidence to show that people who are attracted to gambling are also statistically more likely to engage in higher risk speculation such as day-trading of stocks and crypto-currency trading. In this study, involving 543 people (M = 388, F = 155, 85% aged 18-40 years) who reported at least monthly sports-betting, crypto-currency trading or both, we examined whether gambling and problem gambling were reliable predictors of the reported intensity of crypto-currency trading. The results showed that gambling and problem gambling rates were highest among those who reported both activities and that problem gambling scores (PGSI) and engaging in stock trading was significantly related to measures of crypto-currency trading intensity as based on the time spent per day, number of trades and level of expenditure. Future research should examine whether gambling history and involvement influences how people manage their investments in crypto-currencies, including their propensity for making riskier decisions and experiencing more negative outcomes.
... Sports betting contrastingly involves "uncertainty" (Knight, 1921), as any given event can only be experienced once, and the true probabilities cannot be known with certainty. EGMs traditionally do not involve skill, meaning that gamblers are almost guaranteed to lose money over time, although some recent EGMs have introduced skillbased components (Delfabbro, King, & Gainsbury, 2020). ...
Background and aims
A literature exists on the structural characteristics of electronic gambling machines (EGMs), which are design innovations that can promote spending excessive time and money on these games. Fixed-odds sports betting products, where bettors place sports bets against a bookmaker, have also seen significant innovations in recent years. Despite some differences between these gambling products, similar structural characteristics could also be relevant to sports betting. The aim was to review previous research on contemporary fixed-odds sports betting products, and to identify whether structural characteristics from the EGM literature are also relevant to sports betting.
Methods
Structural characteristics uncovered by two influential reviews of EGMs were identified, and their relevance to fixed-odds sports betting products discussed via a narrative review.
Results
Structural characteristics of payout interval and potential betting frequency (in-play betting), multiplier potential (accumulators, complex bets, multis), win probability and payout ratio (all bets), bettor involvement (custom sports betting products, cash out), skill required (all bets), and near-misses (accumulators, complex bets, multis) were all identified in modern fixed-odds sports betting products.
Discussion and conclusions
Fixed-odds sports betting products have increasingly incorporated structural characteristics previously found in EGMs. Future research could further assess the extent to which these structural characteristics contribute to fixed-odds sports bettors spending excessive amounts of time and money while betting. These findings can help guide further sports betting research, contribute to an improved understanding of the potential universality of gambling product design, and inform policy.
... Sports betting contrastingly involves "uncertainty" (Knight, 1921), as any given event can only be 6 experienced once, and the true probabilities cannot be known with certainty. EGMs traditionally do not involve skill, meaning that gamblers are almost guaranteed to lose money over time, although some recent EGMs have introduced skill-based components (Delfabbro, King, & Gainsbury, 2019). Sports betting is contrastingly perceived to be a highly-skilled gambling form (Buchdahl, 2003;Khazaal et al., 2012), which might allow people who are knowledgeable about the sport in question to find bets with positive long-run returns (Andersson, Edman, & Ekman, 2005;Brown & Reade, 2019;Butler, Butler, & Eakins, 2020). ...
Background and aims: A literature exists on the structural characteristics of electronic gambling machines (EGMs), which are design innovations that can promote spending excessive time and money on these games. Fixed-odds sports betting products, where bettors place sports bets against a bookmaker, have also seen significant innovations in recent years. Despite some differences between these gambling products, similar structural characteristics could also be relevant to sports betting. The aim was to review previous research on contemporary fixed-odds sports betting products, and to identify whether structural characteristics from the EGM literature are also relevant to sports betting.Methods: Structural characteristics uncovered by two influential reviews of EGMs were identified, and their relevance to fixed-odds sports betting products discussed via a narrative review.Results: Structural characteristics of payout interval / potential betting frequency (in-play betting), multiplier potential (accumulators, complex bets, multis), win probability and payout ratio (all bets), bettor involvement (custom sports betting products, cash out), skill required (all bets), and near-misses (accumulators, complex bets, multis) were all identified in modern fixed-odds sports betting products.Discussion and conclusions: Fixed-odds sports betting products have increasingly incorporated structural characteristics previously found in EGMs. Future research could further assess the extent to which these structural characteristics contribute to fixed-odds sports bettors spending excessive amounts of time and money while betting. These findings can help guide further sports betting research, contribute to an improved understanding of the potential universality of gambling product design, and inform policy.
... Despite increases in Internet gambling and sports betting (Gainsbury, 2012), participation rates and real expenditure has declined (Queensland Treasury, 2019). Problem gambling rates have similarly shown some decline or stabilized in many countries (Abbott, 2017) and, in response, the industry is looking for new ways to recover its revenue (e.g., skill-based EGMs, virtual activities) (Delfabbro et al., 2019;Pickering, Philander, & Gainsbury, 2020). In countries such as Australia and New Zealand, the major period of growth was in the 1990s and early 2000s with declines experienced thereafter (Abbott, 2017). ...
... The house edge input to theoretical loss can therefore be calculated with precision in nonskilled gambling games, making these an easier introduction to the topic of statistical risk warnings than skilled gambling games. Roulette, scratch cards, lotteries, craps, bingo and traditional slot and electronic gambling machines are all non-skilled games (Turner et al., 2003), although some electronic gambling machines that introduce a small element of skill are being brought to market (Delfabbro et al., 2019). ...
Gambling is considered a public health issue by many researchers, similarly to alcohol or obesity. Statistical risk warnings on gambling products can be considered a public health intervention that encourages safer gambling while preserving freedom of consumer choice. Statistical risk warnings may be useful to gamblers, given that net gambling losses are the primary driver of harm and that gambling products vary greatly in the degree to which they facilitate losses. However, there is some doubt as to whether statistical risk warnings are, in their current form, effective at reducing gambling harm. Here, we consider current applications and evidence, discuss product-specific issues around a range of gambling products and suggest future directions. Our primary recommendation is that current statistical risk warnings can be improved and also applied to a wider range of gambling products. Such an approach should help consumers to make more informed judgements and potentially encourage gambling operators to compete more directly on the relative 'price' of gambling products.
... There are many similarities between loot boxes and machine-based gambling (e.g., slots, poker machines) and numbers games (e.g., lotto, roulette). Loot boxes operate on the same variable ratio reinforcement schedule as gambling with the outcome of each bet determined by chance (Delfabbro et al. 2020). Like gambling, the odds vary according to the rarity of the prize, with low probability prizes attached to the most highly desired rewards (Drummond and Sauer 2018). ...
Loot boxes can provide a competitive advantage to gamers, but there is limited information on how to self-regulate purchases. This study aimed to identify the behaviour change techniques (BCTs) for the self-regulation of loot boxes. A thematic analysis was applied to 777 statements obtained from a systematic search of websites containing real-world experiences. Eleven BCTs and 47 strategies were identified for self-regulation including antecedents (avoidance, environmental restructuring), substitution (spending game credits not money), identity (purchasing loot boxes is a waste of money and inconsistent with values), self-control (use of willpower), and a comparison of risk versus out-right purchases. A further eight BCTs and 38 strategies were identified that could be administered by parents including environmental restructuring (removing stored credit cards, limiting access to games), persuasion (better ways to spend money, budgeting), and monitoring (observing play or expenditure). Multi-faceted support for self-regulation may be needed for children and adult consumers of loot boxes.
... In recent years, researchers and the media observe a convergence of gaming and gambling (King, Delfabbro, & Griffiths, 2010;Zendle & Bowden-Jones, 2019;Gainsbury, 2019): One the one hand, we find video gaming phenomena like simulated gambling games, loot drops, loot boxes, or cryptocurrency games which share several features with gambling (Karlsen, 2013;Scholten et al., 2019;Nielsen & Grabarczyk, 2019). On the other, we see the rise of skill-based games with attached financial bets and payouts, such as Esports betting, daily fantasy sports, or skill-based gambling offered by casinos and online sites to appeal to younger audiences (Macey & Hamari, 2019;Wardle, 2019;Delfabbro, King & Gainsbury, 2019). These convergent phenomena not only raise concerns that they may pose gambling-like risks of harm or serve as a normalizing Ôgateway drugÕ to gambling Ôproper.Õ They also provide a particularly opportune historical moment for the convergence of gaming and gambling research. ...
... In response, gaming equipment manufacturers began to develop HGMs, which appear to be developed to reach an untargeted segment of the population who are not interested in traditional EGMs. HGMs (also referred to as video game gaming machines, interactive gambling machines, and skill-based gaming machines) combine skill elements of traditional video games with EGMs, allowing the player to influence outcomes from the random number generator (Delfabbro et al. 2019). HGMs fall under the broader category of skill-based gaming and refer to the subset that are automated and resemble EGMs (Lapetina 2017). ...
Hybrid gambling machines (HGMs) are a new gambling activity that combine the skill element of traditional video games with the random pay-out schedule of electronic gaming machines (e.g., slots). Developed to increase gambling by younger generations that favor video games, there is currently no empirical evidence regarding consumer views of HGMs to guide policy-decision making related to this new gambling activity. We use the theory of reasoned action (TRA) to investigate factors that motivate intentions to play these machines in two studies: (1) among 43 casino patrons and (2) among 184 US online participants residing in states where HGMs were available. Both samples completed surveys after exposure to actual or explanations of HGMs and slots. Analyses supported the prediction that positive attitudes towards HGMs and positively perceived subjective norms would predict intention to play HGMs and slots. The results suggest that the TRA is a useful framework for explaining intentions to gamble on traditional slot machines and new HGMs. The absence of research on HGMs makes these studies an important and necessary contribution to the empirical literature on machine gambling. Understanding individuals’ intentions to engage with HGMs is important to guide development of harm-minimisation practices and evaluate impact of policy changes.
Influential learning-based accounts of substance addictions posit the attribution of incentive salience to drug-associated cues, and its escalation by the direct dopaminergic effects of drugs. In translating this account to disordered gambling, we have noted how the intermittent nature of monetary rewards in gambling (i.e. the variable ratio) may allow for analogous learning processes, via effects on dopaminergic signalling. The aim of the present article is to consider how multiple sources of reward variability operate within modern gambling products, and how similar sources of variability, as well as some novel sources of variability, also apply to other digital products implicated in behavioural addictions, including gaming, shopping, social media and online pornography. Online access to these activities facilitates not only unparalleled accessibility but also introduces novel forms of reward variability, as seen in the effects of infinite scrolls and personalized recommendations. We use the term uncertainty to refer to the subjective experience of reward variability. We further highlight two psychological factors that appear to moderate the effects of uncertainty: 1) the timecourse of uncertainty, especially with regard to its resolution, 2) the frequency of exposure, allowing temporal compression. Collectively, the evidence illustrates how qualitative and quantitative variability of reward can confer addictive potential to non-drug reinforcers by exploiting the psychological and neural processes that rely on predictability to guide reward seeking behaviour.
Researchers have only recently begun investigating the associations between cryptocurrency and gambling, although the structural similarities of financial speculation and gambling and the risks for transferring harmful behavior from one activity to another have been subject to numerous studies in the past decade. This is noticeable since the societal relevance of cryptocurrencies steadily increases. Based on a survey from 2019, this study analyzed a representative sample of 3864 Germans regarding their cryptocurrency and gambling use. The aim of the study was to determine differentiating factors between sole gamblers, sole cryptocurrency users and users of both as well as to uncover the socioeconomic profiles and behavioral patterns of the latter group. It was found that cryptocurrency users who also gamble are mostly young, male, well-educated and well-off and report significantly higher levels of domain-specific knowledge, ideological motivation and trust-perceptions about cryptocurrency as compared to the other groups. Using cluster analysis, the behavioral patterns of three distinct user groups were revealed, which differ by the intensity of their cryptocurrency involvement across mental, proactive and financial aspects. The observation that a considerable number of this technology-savvy population of users is considered heavy users indicates potential risks of over-involvement. The findings provide researchers and regulators with an improved understanding of the phenomenon of cryptocurrency and the psychological involvement of users.
Evidence suggests that harms may result from gambling participation as a result of a complex interaction between individual differences among consumers, environmental factors, and the characteristics of the gambling product. The latter of these factors, broadly referred to in this paper as product risk, has received increased policy attention in recent years. Product-focussed approaches to harm reduction, however, are under-developed relative to other forms of player protection and likely reflects the limitations of existing evidence and relative complexity of the topic. In this position paper, we define and explain the concept of product risk and consider what is currently known regarding the link between gambling products and harm. The paper describes the present barriers to develop effective product risk regulation and harm mitigation strategies. These include the competing interests of stakeholders, limited collaboration and information sharing, clear roles, responsibilities and leadership and a lack of integrated evidence-informed approaches. In response to these challenges, we propose adopting a framework comprised of a series of principles to progress this contested area of policy. The framework encourages better collaboration and communication between stakeholders; the accelerated production of valid and reliable evidence; a strategic alignment of stakeholder activity; and, more effective and efficient approaches to assessing and mitigating product risk.
Numerous studies have explored the specific risk factors of sports betting attending to the singularities of sports bettors. However, many of these are also present in other gambling profiles (e.g. younger age, males, higher education, skill-based gambling) and fail to tackle the essentially distinguishing trait of sports betting, namely, its symbolic association with sport. This conceptual paper argues that sports betting draws from a rich pool of meanings from professional sport that influences how sports betting products are understood. It argues that, unlike other gambling products whose symbolic covering has to be built after, sports betting relies on a preexisting symbolic pool that structures its social significance. Sport confers to sports betting attributes of agency, control, and skill that make betting products more skill-oriented and less chance-based, but also other attributes of health, game, fun, and nature that decrease the perceived risks associated with sports betting. The paper contends that the symbolic association of sport and sports betting poses particular barriers for treatment of gambling disorder in the form of resistant cognitions about winning because professional sport embodies narratives of success deeply engraved in modern society, to an extent other gambling forms cannot compete in creating via their marketing strategies.
A convergence of gaming and gambling products, services, and platforms is presently drawing considerable policy debate. This convergence may be giving rise to a critical area of consumer vulnerability given the addictive potential of gaming and gambling. While some convergence aspects are gaining research attention, the broader contexts of the phenomenon have not been adequately examined. In light of this, the present study aimed to inform four key enquiry areas pertaining to gaming-gambling convergence—contexts and drivers, definitions and framings, risk and harm, and legislative response. Using a narrative review method, 108 articles from the academic and grey literature were examined and thematically summarised to provide an overview of the convergence phenomenon. Findings indicate convergence in multiple overlapping contexts (gaming elements in gambling, games incorporating gambling elements, gambling on games, free simulated online gambling, and social media games and gambling) driven by technological advances and commercial interests. Findings related to definitions and framing include the industry’s strategic use of the term gaming to reduce negative connotations associated with gambling, and community perceptions of gaming as legitimate and harmless entertainment. Potential risks include transitions from games (without money) to real-money gambling, and problem co-existence. Legislative responses are beginning to emerge with the greatest focus being on loot boxes in games. However, the limited evidence of risk and harm has led to hesitancies in legislative actions to regulate gaming-gambling hybrids in some jurisdictions. Considering that convergence is supported by rapid advances in technology and is taking place largely on the Internet (accessible 24 h), harms for consumers could manifest quickly and spread broadly across societies before their existence and severity are established. Based on the Precautionary Principle, the present evidence base call for harm prevention policies and regulations in addition to changes in the definition of money (including digital currency and microtransaction) in gaming and gambling laws.
Craving is central in the prognosis of gambling disorder. The elaborated intrusion theory (EIT) provides a sound framework to account for craving in addictive disorders, and interference methods inspired from the EIT have substantiated their effectiveness in mitigating substance and food-related cravings. The principle of these methods is to recruit the cognitive resources underlying craving (e.g., visuospatial skills, mental imagery) for another competitive and cognitively demanding task, thus reducing the vividness and overwhelming nature of craving. Here we conducted two experiments employing a between-subjects design to test the efficacy of interference methods for reducing laboratory-induced craving. In these experiments, gamblers (n = 38 for both experiments) first followed a craving induction procedure. They then performed either a visuospatial interference task (making a mental and vivid image of a bunch of keys [experiment 1] or playing the video game Tetris [experiment 2]; experimental conditions) or another task supposed not to recruit visuospatial skills and mental imagery (exploding bubble pack [experiment 1] or counting backwards [experiment 2]; control conditions). Results show that all methods successively mitigated induced craving. Although previous research evidenced the superiority of visuospatial tasks to reduce substance-related craving, our findings question their superiority in the context of gambling craving.
Abbreviations EIT: Elaborated intrusion theory of desire; GD: Gambling disorder; CEQ: Craving Experience Questionnaire; g-CEQ: gambling Craving Experience Questionnaire; g-CEQ-F: Gambling Craving Experience Questionnaire – Frequency form; g-CEQ-S: Gambling Craving Experience Questionnaire – Strength form; Psi-Q: Plymouth Sensory Imagery Questionnaire; PGSI: Problem Gambling Severity Index; S-UPPS-P: Short UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale; DASS-21: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales; ANCOVA: Analysis of covariance.
Skill-based gaming machines (SGMs) include a skill-element within the random mechanisms of electronic gaming machines (EGMs). Concerns have been expressed that SGMs may increase erroneous beliefs among gamblers, which would exacerbate gambling problems. This paper presents the results of a survey of 184 Mechanical Turk workers with access to SGMs. Exploratory analyses were conducted on measures assessing understanding of the role of skill vs. chance in determining outcomes in SGMs, EGMs, and other gambling and gaming activities, gambling participation, problem gambling severity, and gambling-specific erroneous beliefs. SGM play was greater among participants who were younger, more frequently played mobile games or gambled on EGMs, and had higher problem gambling severity. Participants with prior SGM play experience did not have a greater understanding of SGMs, and had less accurate understanding of how EGMs operate, yet had a higher self-reported understanding. The results suggest that individuals with existing gambling problems may gamble on SGMs and that SGMs may also appeal to a new cohort who do not engage with existing gambling activities. Greater efforts are needed to enhance understanding of EGMs in addition to SGMs where these are available to enabled informed decision-making and reduce erroneous beliefs that may drive problematic play.
The distinction between gambling and gaming activities has become increasingly blurred. One of the principal causes of this is technological convergence, a term which refers to the growing co-location and interrelationship between different classes of activities. Some argue that convergence may increase the appeal and accessibility of gambling to susceptible or vulnerable individuals. Studies into the nature and effects of convergence have expanded considerably over the last decade. However, researchers and policy-makers have often struggled to keep abreast of the pace of technological development and of the breadth of topics that now emerge within this research area. To address these issues, we present this special issue, which highlights new developments in gambling gaming convergence research. Important topics include: social casino games, simulated Internet gambling, skill-based gaming machines, gambling mechanisms on Twitch.tv, substance use across gambling and gaming activities, and, the extent to which gaming might act as a potential 'gateway' to gambling. A common theme was that new technologies are constantly enabling innovations and changes to gambling opportunities, which can affect some vulnerable users involved in these activities. We outline further research avenues to better understand the impacts of digital gambling technologies and to support appropriate regulatory and public health responses. ARTICLE HISTORY
New variants of electronic gaming machines (EGMs) are being developed that incorporate gaming elements. Policies to govern the use of skill gaming machines (SGMs) must be predicated on evidence of their impact, which is currently lacking. Focus groups (N = 21) were conducted with university students, regular EGM players, and community members who played an EGM and SGM. Participants clearly perceived that SGMs involved a skill component, although most did not have a good understanding of how SGMs work. There was evidence of greater immersion in SGMs, but this was restricted to the feature in which money was not gambled and time was limited. Participants reported a mixture of both negative and positive emotions during play on both SGMs and EGMs reflecting some consumers enjoying the gaming-elements to a greater extent. The results indicate that SGMs would likely appeal to a subset of consumers and most consumers would not have a good initial understanding of these machines.
Purpose of Review
Skill-based gaming machines (SGMs) add interactive and/or skill features to electronic gaming machines (EGMs), often modelled on elements from arcade, video, online, or mobile games. Availability of SGMs is expanding in the USA and internationally, but evidence of the impacts of these machines is lacking. To provide direction to policymakers and the scientific community, this review critically evaluates the relevant literature and suggests future avenues for research and consumer protection measures.
Recent Findings
Early data suggests that SGMs are most appealing to younger demographics and are likely to attract participation from regular gambling or gaming populations, potentially those with pre-existing problems. Studies of skill elements within other gambling activities indicate that players tend to overestimate their level of control in gambling situations that are determined by chance. Skill involved in SGMs could elicit illusions of control in players, which may contribute to the development of gambling problems.
Summary
The impact of introducing SGMs is still relatively unknown. There is limited robust ecologically valid research on the use of these machines within gambling venues. It is possible that, like other new gambling activities, the introduction of SGMs may lead to harm. Vulnerable populations may include young adults, those with pre-existing problems, and those already involved in gambling and video/mobile gaming. Preliminary consumer protection strategies include player education techniques and account management tools, paired with an empirical evaluation framework. Future studies, including laboratory and field trials, are needed to examine if SGMs more strongly appeal to at-risk gamblers, to determine whether players recognise skill versus chance components, and understand the relationship between involvement, increased cognitive distortions, and problem gambling.
Sports betting is expanding globally through introduction into new markets and growth in existing markets. Traditionally, bets were placed on the outcome of a match before match commencement, with the outcome not determined for hours or even days. The advent of in-play betting has reduced the delay between bet and outcome. A controversial form of in-play betting is betting on micro events (micro-betting), where consumers bet on outcomes such as the next ball in cricket, or the next point in tennis, with the outcome determined almost immediately. This enables rapid, impulsive and continuous betting and may heighten the risk of problem gambling. We surveyed 1813 Australian sports bettors to determine demographic, behavioural and psychological characteristics of micro event bettors, and of those who place a higher proportion of their bets on micro events. Our two hypotheses were supported: that more highly engaged bettors, including those with gambling problems, are more likely to (1) bet on micro events, and (2) place more of their bets on micro events. Of those who bet on micro events, 78% met criteria for problem gambling, and only 5% non-problem gambling (vs 29% and 28% respectively for non micro event bettors). Placing a higher proportion of bets on micro events was also related to problem gambling. Micro event bettors were likely to: be younger, well educated and single; engaged in a wider variety of gambling activities; and to have high trait impulsivity. Micro event betting appears to appeal almost exclusively to bettors with gambling problems, so a ban would represent a highly targeted intervention to reduce gambling-related harm.
A major issue in the widespread controversy about the legality of poker and the appropriate taxation of winnings is whether poker should be considered a game of skill or a game of chance. To inform this debate we present an analysis into the role of skill in the performance of online poker players, using a large database with hundreds of millions of player-hand observations from real money ring games at three different stakes levels. We find that players whose earlier profitability was in the top (bottom) deciles perform better (worse) and are substantially more likely to end up in the top (bottom) performance deciles of the following time period. Regression analyses of performance on historical performance and other skill-related proxies provide further evidence for persistence and predictability. Simulations point out that skill dominates chance when performance is measured over 1,500 or more hands of play.
Background and aims
To review the conceptual and empirical relationship between gambling, investing, and speculation.
Methods
An analysis of the attributes differentiating these constructs as well as identification of all articles speaking to their empirical relationship.
Results
Gambling differs from investment on many different attributes and should be seen as conceptually distinct. On the other hand, speculation is conceptually intermediate between gambling and investment, with a few of its attributes being investment-like, some of its attributes being gambling-like, and several of its attributes being neither clearly gambling or investment-like. Empirically, gamblers, investors, and speculators have similar cognitive, motivational, and personality attributes, with this relationship being particularly strong for gambling and speculation. Population levels of gambling activity also tend to be correlated with population level of financial speculation. At an individual level, speculation has a particularly strong empirical relationship to gambling, as speculators appear to be heavily involved in traditional forms of gambling and problematic speculation is strongly correlated with problematic gambling.
Discussion and conclusions
Investment is distinct from gambling, but speculation and gambling have conceptual overlap and a strong empirical relationship. It is recommended that financial speculation be routinely included when assessing gambling involvement, and there needs to be greater recognition and study of financial speculation as both a contributor to problem gambling as well as an additional form of behavioral addiction in its own right.
Background and Aims
Gambling and gaming activities have become increasingly recognised as sharing many common features at a structural and aesthetic level. Both have also been implicated as contributing to harm through excessive involvement. Despite this, relatively little attention has been given to the fundamental characteristics that differentiate these two classes of activity, especially in situations where the boundaries between them may be particularly hard to distinguish. This is evident, for example, in digital games that incorporate free and paid virtual currencies or items, as well as the capacity for wagering. Such overlaps create problems for regulatory classifications, screening, diagnosis and treatment. Is the problem related to the gambling or gaming content?
Methods
In this paper, we review the principal sources of overlap between the activity classes in terms of several dimensions: interactivity, monetisation, betting and wagering, types of outcomes, structural fidelity, context and centrality of content, and advertising.
Results
We argue that gaming is principally defined by its interactivity, skill-based play, and contextual indicators of progression and success. In contrast, gambling is defined by betting and wagering mechanics, predominantly chance-determined outcomes, and monetisation features that involve risk and payout to the player. A checklist measure is provided, with practical examples, to examine activities according to features of design and function, which may inform guidelines for policy makers, researchers and treatment providers.
Discussion and conclusions
We suggest that, in some instances, using category-based nomenclature (e.g., “gambling-like game”) may be too vague or cumbersome to adequately organise our understanding of new gaming/gambling hybrid activities.
International Gambling Studies (2014): A taxonomy of gambling and casino games via social media and online technologies, International Gambling Studies, Published online 24 Feb 2014. ABSTRACT The increased popularity of casino games on social media platforms has prompted international jurisdictions to consider the extent to which these games may be similar to Internet gambling activities and therefore subject to regulatory action. Gambling themes are popular in video and computer games and simulated-gambling activities are commonly offered by gambling operators as a way of enticing users to gamble online with money. However, little research has evaluated the impact of the digital convergence of gambling and gaming. The lack of a clear definition of online gambling-themed activities to guide such research undertakings represents a significant hurdle to the fields of gambling and gaming. Based on a review of the extant literature, this paper proposes a taxonomy to distinguish between many types of online activities with gambling-themed content. This taxonomy suggests that the principal features that differentiate online gambling games include the requirement for payment, the role of skill, the type of platform, and the centrality of the gambling theme. The proposed hierarchical framework aims to promote clear and consistent discussion to guide ongoing investigation of new and emerging Internet gambling and gaming technologies.
Interactive gambling as a regulated activity, coupled with easy accessibility to offshore providers represents a new mode and format of gambling superimposed on traditional land-based opportunities. This paper aimed to investigate the prevalence of gambling among Australian adults and the relationship between various gambling activities and interactive modes of access. A second aim was to compare interactive and non-interactive gamblers in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, attitudes and beliefs about gambling and gambling participation. In a nationally representative telephone survey, 15,006 Australian adults completed measures assessing past 12-month gambling participation and a sub-sample completed questions about interactive gambling and beliefs. The majority of participants (64.3 %) reported gambling at least once, with 8.1 % having gambled online. Interactive gamblers gambled on a greater number of activities overall and more frequently. Interactive gamblers were more likely to be male, younger, have home Internet access, participate in more forms of gambling and have higher gambling expenditure. Almost half of the interactive gamblers preferred land-based gambling although a small proportion also noted a number of disadvantages of interactive gambling. This study shows that the nature of gambling participation is shifting with interactive gambling having a significant and growing impact on overall gambling involvement.
Recent research has shown superstitious behaviour and illusion of control in human subjects exposed to the negative reinforcement conditions that are traditionally assumed to lead to the opposite outcome (i.e. learned helplessness). The experiments reported in this paper test the generality of these effects in two different tasks and under different conditions of percentage (75% vs. 25%) and distribution (random vs. last-trials) of negative reinforcement (escape from uncontrollable noise). All three experiments obtained superstitious behaviour and illusion of control and question the generality of learned helplessness as a consequence of exposing humans to uncontrollable outcomes.
Numerous studies have shown that pathological gamblers are particularly prone to various cognitive biases that may explain why they continue to gamble despite having occurred substantial losses. A common explanation advanced to account for this finding is that pathological gamblers may have poorer numerical or statistical knowledge than other people. Addressing these deficits is therefore seen as one possible way in which to assist pathological gamblers or prevent the development of problematic behaviour within the broader community. The aim of this study was test this assumption by assessing the numerical reasoning skills, objective gambling knowledge and tendency towards biased reasoning in a sample of 90 regular poker-machine gamblers (pathological and non-pathological) and a non-gambling comparison group (n = 45). Analyses based on both group comparisons and regression analyses controlling for differences in educational attainment showed that pathological gamblers scored significantly higher on the cognitive biases measure than other gamblers. However, this difference could not be attributed to poorer knowledge of gambling odds or limited numerical ability among pathological gamblers. The findings suggest that educating pathological gamblers with greater knowledge about the odds of gambling is unlikely to be an effective harm minimisation strategy.
This paper uses computer simulations to examine the effect of highly skilled gamblers on the success of moderately skilled gamblers. It shows that skilled players negatively impact the outcome for less skilled players. A player's winnings are not only affected by the house rake or vigorish but also by the skill of other players. It is concluded that less skilled players are often better off playing a game of chance than a game of skill.
It is our contention that professionals in the field of gambling studies can gain a great deal of insight into problem gambling by closely examining the games gamblers play. The purpose of this article is to examine some differences between games that involve some skill and those that involve only chance in order to help treatment and prevention workers understand the dynamics of these games. For example, understanding the nature of the game and its effects on the individual gambler can help a therapist understand a client's motives and beliefs, which may facilitate a more individualized, client-centered approach to the treatment.
There is a paucity of empirical research examining the possible association between gambling and video game play. In two studies, we examined the association between video game playing, erroneous gambling cognitions, and risky gambling behaviour. One hundred and fifteen participants, including 65 electronic gambling machine (EGM) players and 50 regular video game players, were administered a questionnaire that examined video game play, gambling involvement, problem gambling, and beliefs about gambling. We then assessed each groups' performance on a computerised gambling task that involved real money. A post-game survey examined perceptions of the skill and chance involved in the gambling task. The results showed that video game playing itself was not significantly associated with gambling involvement or problem gambling status. However, among those persons who both gambled and played video games, video game playing was uniquely and significantly positively associated with the perception of direct control over chance-based gambling events. Further research is needed to better understand the nature of this association, as it may assist in understanding the impact of emerging digital gambling technologies.
In 4 experiments, 144 depressed and 144 nondepressed undergraduates (Beck Depression Inventory) were presented with one of a series of problems varying in the degree of contingency. In each problem, Ss estimated the degree of contingency between their responses (pressing or not pressing a button) and an environmental outcome (onset of a green light). Depressed Ss' judgments of contingency were suprisingly accurate in all 4 experiments. Nondepressed Ss overestimated the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes when noncontingent outcomes were frequent and/or desired and underestimated the degree of contingency when contingent outcomes were undesired. Thus, predictions derived from social psychology concerning the linkage between subjective and objective contingencies were confirmed for nondepressed but not for depressed Ss. The learned helplessness and self-serving motivational bias hypotheses are evaluated as explanations of the results. (41/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Superstitious beliefs, defined as a strong conviction based on the erroneous perception of a cause-effect association between two independent events, are considered to play an instrumental role in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. In this preliminary study, responses to eight items assessing superstitious beliefs were compared among 56 electronic gaming machine (EGM) problem gamblers, 22 non-problem EGM and 23 non-EGM non-problem gamblers. Results suggested that problem gamblers endorsed more superstitious beliefs than non-problem gamblers and that such beliefs were correlated with gambling intensity. Further research is required to determine if superstitious beliefs represent a vulnerability factor for the development of problem gambling or emerge as a consequence of involvement in gambling.
Traditionally disparate markets and products, gambling activities and games have begun to overlap in many ways, particularly in the online marketplace. Consumers appear to be moving between these activities, indicating perception of similarities in products. The hybrid nature of some activities has resulted in gambling regulators considering whether they need to act with regards to certain games. Typically, regulatory classifications and taxonomies have been centred on objective features of product offerings, based on the perspective of producers and technology. However, consumer perspective is relevant to defining markets and understanding the potential migratory relationship between products. This research aims to gather an indepth understanding about the multifacetal market space of online gambling and gaming from a consumer perspective. A large-scale survey (n=1000 respondents) assesses perceived similarities between 16 gaming and 9 gambling products by means of holistic triadic comparisons. Multidimensional scaling provides evidence for enduring market boundaries between online gambling and gaming products, but indicates several fine-grained similarities on the level of specific products. Products encountering elements of skill, planning, consideration, and achievements over time were perceived differently from those that are more playful and less realistic with immediate outcomes. Consumers did see connections between games and some gambling products, which may explain the joint usage of and migration between products. Insights are thus relevant for regulators, consumers, and professionals in both gambling and gaming industries as market boundaries have become blurred.
To analyse problem gamblers' decision making under conditions of risk and ambiguity, investigated underlying psychological factors associated with their choice behaviour and examine whether decision making differed in strategic (e.g., sports betting) and non-strategic (e.g., electronic gaming machine) problem gamblers.
Cross-sectional study.
Out-patient treatment centres and university testing facilities in Victoria, Australia.
39 problem gamblers and 41 age-, gender- and estimated-IQ-matched controls.
Decision making tasks included the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and a Loss Aversion Task. The Prospect Valence Learning (PVL) model was used to provide an explanation of cognitive, motivational and response style factors involved in IGT performance.
Overall, problem gamblers performed more poorly than controls on both the IGT (p = 0.04) and the Loss Aversion Task (p = 0.01), and their IGT decisions were associated with heightened attention to gains (p = 0.003) and less consistency (p = 0.002). Strategic problem gamblers did not differ from matched controls on either decision making task, but non-strategic problem gamblers performed worse on both the IGT (p = 0.006) and the Loss Aversion task (p = 0.02). Furthermore, we found differences in the PVL model parameters underlying strategic and non-strategic problem gamblers' choices on the IGT.
Problem gamblers demonstrated poor decision making under conditions of risk and ambiguity. Strategic (e.g., sports betting, poker) and non-strategic (e.g., electronic gaming machines) problem gamblers differed in decision making and the underlying psychological processes associated with their decisions.
Conducted a series of 6 studies involving 631 adults to elucidate the "illusion of control" phenomenon, defined as an expectancy of a personal success probability inappropriately higher than the objective probability would warrant. It was predicted that factors from skill situations (competition, choice, familiarity, involvement) introduced into chance situations would cause Ss to feel inappropriately confident. In Study 1 Ss cut cards against either a confident or a nervous competitor; in Study 2 lottery participants were or were not given a choice of ticket; in Study 3 lottery participants were or were not given a choice of either familiar or unfamiliar lottery tickets; in Study 4, Ss in a novel chance game either had or did not have practice and responded either by themselves or by proxy; in Study 5 lottery participants at a racetrack were asked their confidence at different times; finally, in Study 6 lottery participants either received a single 3-digit ticket or 1 digit on each of 3 days. Indicators of confidence in all 6 studies supported the prediction. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Due to intensive marketing and the rapid growth of online gambling, poker currently enjoys great popularity among large sections of the population. Although poker is legally a game of chance in most countries, some (particularly operators of private poker web sites) argue that it should be regarded as a game of skill or sport because the outcome of the game primarily depends on individual aptitude and skill. The available findings indicate that skill plays a meaningful role; however, serious methodological weaknesses and the absence of reliable information regarding the relative importance of chance and skill considerably limit the validity of extant research. Adopting a quasi-experimental approach, the present study examined the extent to which the influence of poker playing skill was more important than card distribution. Three average players and three experts sat down at a six-player table and played 60 computer-based hands of the poker variant "Texas Hold'em" for money. In each hand, one of the average players and one expert received (a) better-than-average cards (winner's box), (b) average cards (neutral box) and (c) worse-than-average cards (loser's box). The standardized manipulation of the card distribution controlled the factor of chance to determine differences in performance between the average and expert groups. Overall, 150 individuals participated in a "fixed-limit" game variant, and 150 individuals participated in a "no-limit" game variant. ANOVA results showed that experts did not outperform average players in terms of final cash balance. Rather, card distribution was the decisive factor for successful poker playing. However, expert players were better able to minimize losses when confronted with disadvantageous conditions (i.e., worse-than-average cards). No significant differences were observed between the game variants. Furthermore, supplementary analyses confirm differential game-related actions dependent on the card distribution, player status, and game variant. In conclusion, the study findings indicate that poker should be regarded as a game of chance, at least under certain basic conditions, and suggest new directions for further research.
Internet gambling is one of the fastest growing sectors of e-commerce and rapidly growing as a mode of gambling. Although Internet gambling is characterized by high levels of customer choice, little is known about Internet gamblers or their engagement with Internet and non-Internet forms of gambling. Regulators are struggling to respond to Internet gambling given that little is known about the impact of this mode of gambling on the existing gambling market, who is gambling online and how. This paper presents one of the largest studies of Internet gambling; an online survey completed by 6682 Australian gamblers. Results show that Internet gamblers are a heterogeneous group, although there is a tendency for Internet gamblers to be male, have high incomes and be well educated. Internet gamblers have more positive attitudes towards gambling and are more highly involved gamblers, engaging in many different gambling activities in both online and offline forms. However, a proportion of Internet gamblers prefer the privacy and anonymity of Internet gambling and do not like land-based venues, suggesting that Internet gambling is creating a new market of gambling customers. Understanding the impact of this new mode of gamblers on existing gamblers and new players is important to contribute to the appropriate regulation of this activity.
The illusions of control area is reviewed, and 5 conditions that influence control judgments are identified: skill-related factors, success or failure emphasis, need for the outcome, mood, and the intrusion of reality. It is proposed that individuals use a control heuristic that includes perceptions of intentionality and connection. Judgments of intentionality are based on foreseeability, ability to produce the effect, and valence of the outcome. Judgments of connection are based on the perceived association between the action and the outcome, which includes temporal, shared meaning, and predictive association. Effects of motives to overestimate, underestimate, and have accurate assessments of control are explained, using the concepts of hindsight bias, connection, and counterfactuals. In addition, the relation between the control heuristic and illusory correlation research and applications of the control heuristic to coping with chronic illness are explored.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Yale University, 1974. Includes bibliographical references (p. 51-54).
This study evaluates the efficacy of a cognitive treatment for pathological gambling. Five pathological gamblers were treated in a multiple baseline across subjects design. Cognitive correction targeted the erroneous perceptions towards the notion of randomness. Four subjects reported a clinically significant decrease in the urge to gamble, an increase in their perception of control, and no longer met the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling. Therapeutic gains were maintained at the 6 month follow-up. Results suggest that cognitive therapy targeting the misconception of the notion of randomness is a promising treatment for pathological gambling, a refractory disorder to most therapeutic interventions.
The aims of this study are to develop and validate a measure to screen for a range of gambling-related cognitions (GRC) in gamblers.
A total of 968 volunteers were recruited from a community-based population. They were divided randomly into two groups. Principal axis factoring with varimax rotation was performed on group one and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used on group two to confirm the best-fitted solution.
The Gambling Related Cognition Scale (GRCS) was developed for this study and the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Motivation Towards Gambling Scale (MTGS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) were used for validation.
Exploratory factor analysis performed using half the sample indicated five factors, which included interpretative control/bias (GRCS-IB), illusion of control (GRCS-IC), predictive control (GRCS-PC), gambling-related expectancies (GRCS-GE) and a perceived inability to stop gambling (GRCS-IS). These accounted for 70% of the total variance. Using the other half of the sample, CFA confirmed that the five-factor solution fitted the data most effectively. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the factors ranged from 0.77 to 0.91, and 0.93 for the overall scale.
This paper demonstrated that the 23-item GRCS has good psychometric properties and thus is a useful instrument for identifying GRC among non-clinical gamblers. It provides the first step towards devising/adapting similar tools for problem gamblers as well as developing more specialized instruments to assess particular domains of GRC.
Illusion of control in relation to gaming experience: A comparison of regular gamblers and video-game players
- D King
- P Delfabbro
- A Ejova
King, D., Delfabbro, P., & Ejova, A. (2012). Illusion of control in relation to gaming experience:
A comparison of regular gamblers and video-game players. Journal of Gambling Studies, 28,
421-435.
Loot boxes as a form of gambling in video games: An empirical investigation
- R Mentzoni
Mentzoni, R. (2018). Loot boxes as a form of gambling in video games: An empirical investigation.
Paper presented at the 12th Annual Conference on Gambling Studies and Policy Issues,
Valetta, Malta.
The success equation: Untangling skill and luck in business, sport and investing
- M J Mouboussin
Mouboussin, M. J. (2012). The success equation: Untangling skill and luck in business, sport and
investing. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Australian gambling statistics
- Queensland Treasury
Queensland Treasury (2019). Australian gambling statistics (34th Ed). 2016-17. Brisbane: Queensland
Treasury. http://www.qgso.qld.gov.au/products/reports/aus-gambling-stats/
On the hunt for Canadian gaming bigfoot
- J Tadman
Tadman, J. (2019). On the hunt for Canadian gaming bigfoot. Canadian Gaming Lawyer Review,
7-9. Spring.
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