Major Agricultural Crops in the XVI Century Samtskhe-Javakheti

Abstract

The paper represents a study of the XVI century historical document, known as the 'The Great Defter of Gurcistan Vilayet' and shows the agricultural image of the time. The document contains data describing Samtskhe-Javakheti region, which is located in the southern part of Georgia and unites six administrative municipalities. Above, the mentioned historical source contains information about the population, settlements, agricultural crops, and taxes imposed on them. The paper focuses on the rye, millet, broad bean, cicer and lentil crops, which were widespread in the described area, in the second half of the XVI century, but disappeared later. The research included land-use mapping, also the creation of databases. The work also shows the results of the analysis of agricultural censuses from the XX and XXI centuries, which revealed the major factors of the disappearance of the crops.

Full text

Major Agricultural Crops in the XVI Century Samtskhe-Javakheti
Roman Maisuradze
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, 1, Chavchavdze Ave., Tbilisi, 0179, Georgia
Received: 22.08.2018; accepted: 05.10.2018
A B S T R A C T
The paper represents a study of the XVI century historical document, known as the ‘The Great Defter of Gurcistan Vilayet’ and shows
the agricultural image of the time. The document contains data describing Samtskhe-Javakheti region, which is located in the southern
part of Georgia and unites six administrative municipalities. Above, mentioned historical source contains the information about the
population, settlements, agricultural crops and taxes imposed on them. The paper focuses on the rye, millet, broad bean, cicer and lentil
crops, which were widespread in described area, in the second half of the XVI century, but disappeared later. Research included land-
use mapping, also creation of databases. The work also shows the results of the analysis of agricultural censuses from XX and XXI
centuries, which revealed the major factors of disappearance of the crops.
Keywords:
Retrospective cartography, Crops, Landscape change, Agricultural crops, Samtskhe- Javakheti, Georgia.
*Corresponding author: Roman Maisuradze:: E-mail address: roman.maisuradze@tsu.ge
Introduction
A crop diversity is a foundation for agricultural
development of a country. To study and understand
the traditional agricultural crops is strategically
important to the states similar to Georgia. The
existence of such crops in the area is an indicator
of ancient traditions, maintenance and development
of which can contribute to the food security and
strengthening of agricultural sector. This can lead
to the economic stability and empowerment of
communities.
‘The Great Defter of Gurcistan Vilayet’in order to
and resulting from the developed political processes
several historical regions of Georgia got under its
command [1, 2]. The tax system of the Ottoman
Empire itself implied the census and assessment of
subjugated territories aimed to the tax collection.
The imposed taxes entailed human custom duties
(the military service of the Ottoman Empire) and a
chief rent [1, 3, 4]. made in natural form, similar to
the monetary one. The main concern of the Empire
was to get the taxes. The way the goal would be
reached did not matter. The region of Samtskhe-
Javakheti was well developed from an agricultural
standpoint. The tax data presented in ‘The Great
Defter of Gurcistan Vilayet’ is the source that
The cereal crops are still in majority [5, 6]; The
substantial part has disappeared from agricultural
crops. In particular, this fact refers to millet and
rye crops, as well as the legumes. Among the bean
family, broad beans, lentil and cicer crops were
traditional here and played quite an important role
in the regional agriculture over the past centuries,
however today a kidney bean replaced the other
legumes.
By means of the historical materials, we have
tried to study and assess the crops spread in the
region and their state several centuries ago. Based
Annals of Agrarian Science 17 (2019) 16– 27
R. Maisuradze
Annals of Agrarian Science

on the available basic sources (The Great Defter
of Gurcistan Vilayet, results of 1923, 2002, 2014
agricultural inventories), we have assessed the
distribution of the mentioned crops in the region
and changes in the course of several centuries.
Objectives and methods
The ‘Gurcistan vilayet’ included the territory
of modern Samtskhe-Javakheti, Kvabliani gorge
adjacent to it and was extended to the territory
of present-day Turkey, where it included the
surroundings of Chrdili (Childir) lake, the Potskhovi
River valley, as well as the upper part of Mtkvari
upper part of Oltisi River. Our research covers the
part of the ‘vilayet’, which is in the limits of the
modern Georgia that corresponds to the military-
administrative unit of the present-day Samtskhe-
Javakheti. The region under the study (Fig. 1.)
includes six administrative units – Borjomi,
Akhaltsikhe, Adigeni, Aspindza, Akhalkalaki and
Ninotsminda municipalities [7]. The area of the
region is 6412.8km2 [6]. Its population is 160, 5
thousand people [8]. The Didi Abuli Mountain
(3301m) at the Samsari ridge is its highest point. The
region is mountainous, with alternation of hollows,
volcanic canyons, tablelands and mountain ranges.
Here are represented Akhaltsikhe (Samtskhe)
structural basin, the Lesser Caucasus mountain
system, in a form of Arsiani, Adjara-Imereti and
Trialeti ridges and volcanic highlands in form of
Javakheti, Borjomi-Thori-Tsikhisjvari plateaus and
Erusheti highland, as well as in form of Samsari
and Javakheti ridges situated between volcanic
plateaus, which borders with the region under study
from the east. The regional climate transforms from
moderate chilly subtropical one into a cold and the
dry subtropical climate of mountain hollows, dry
climate of mountain tablelands and cold climate
of high mountains [9]. The amount of precipitation
at the Javakheti tableland is within 500-600 mm,
which is roughly similar within the limits of the
hollow, while on the slopes of Trialeti, Arsiani
and Adjara-Imereti ridges it increases and reaches
the maximum of 1400-1500 mm in its upper part,
approximately at 2200-2500 m height.
We have used the following materials to execute
this work: ‘The Great Defter of Gurcistan Vilayet’,
historical sources of the XVI-XX centuries, 1897
and 1923 census documents, as well as the results
of a newest census in the form of the 2014 Geostat
materials. As for cartographic documents, we made
use of the map compiled by Jikia and Aslanikashvili
in 1953, and large-scale 1:50000, 1:25000 maps and
satellite images. In order to execute the work, we
have used the method of retrospective mapping, the
historiographic analysis and the statistical analysis,
that assisted us in the manifestation of the situation
revealed resulting from the processing of available
archive documents and other sources.
The time interval of statistical materials is quite
large. The numbers given in ‘The Great Defter of
Gurcistan Vilayet’ providing us with information
about what tax was imposed on different settlements;
the equivalent of the chief rent was also calculated
in kind, measured in weight and volume (so-called
Qila), which slightly differed from each other in
weight in case of various crops [1].
Fig. 1.
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The following materials were used as a basis of
the map: large-scale 1:50000, 1:25000 maps and
satellite images., By means of GIS-technology, we
have selected the satellite images a zone of arable
lands, which are suitable for agricultural crops,
taking into account soils, slope inclinations, aspect
and altitude above the sea level. We have composed
GIS-layers of arable lands and perennial plantings,
i.e. a zone, where the mentioned crops were
cultivated.
The expedition method envisaged the visual
current state assessment. Field works foresaw an
satellite images. We conducted GEO-information
map compilation and analysis afterwards, when
quantity of agricultural crops under study, sorted
according the rural settlements, were transferred to
GIS databases. The extrapolation was made for each
settlement, according to arable lands. Thus, we got
the map of the distribution of the above-mentioned
crops for the second part of the XVI century, based
on which we can conduct a comparative analysis
this time period and what trends exist as of today.
Results
Rye crop is still rare and occasionally found in
Georgia. In the second part of the XVI century,
the rye plantings were widely spread in the whole
mapping (Fig. 2.): 1. Samtskhe structural basin;
2. Uraveli gorge and Greli-Uraveli-Sakhudabeli
band; 3. Javakheti highland; 4. Mtkvari valley
from Aspindza to the south, in the Tolerta-Erkota-
and its adjacent settlements, and according to
administrative units of that time two peaks of their
concentration are clear: Chacharaki district (Nihie)
in Akhaltsikhe Liva (Sanjak) and Akhalkalaki
district in the Liva (Sanjak) having the same name.
In total, the rye harvest was equal to 2356.96 tons,
rye was sowed in 400 locations, other settlements
were deprived of its plantings, including all those
settlements, information on which is scarce. The
zone of mentioned crops occupied far more areas
than those where its actual plantings are distributed
(Fig. 2.). Rye plantings occupy more than half of
inhabited localities. However, today the plantings
are available in singular experimental farms only.
Fig. 2.
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Millet plantings in the XVI century occupied
far less areas, than in case of rye, since the millet
was not the main food crop, as a wheat and barley.
Its plantings ended at the approximately, 1500-
1600 meters height above the sea level, which on
one hand can be referred to its less productivity in
highest belts, or else there could be another reason,
e.g. that other crops were prioritized at the Javakheti
it is not considered to be the best zone for millet
plantings (Fig. 3.). The distinct concentration of their
plantings in the millet distribution area is observed
in the Samtskhe hollow; a relatively small area of
its concentration is represented by Uraveli gorge.
They are also concentrated on the Uraveli-Anda-
Tskordza section and in the Aspindza-Saro-Nijgori-
Toloshi band, from Tmogvi village to Nakalakevi.
In total, 857.89 tons were harvested. The millet was
sowed with 236 locations, other settlements were
deprived of its plantings, including all settlements,
information on which is scarce, since these villages
were depopulated and their prescribed taxes, similar
(Akce). The millet crop occupied a substantial
area.
The millet plantings are concentrated in Udi,
Mzvare and Chacharaki districts, while in the number
of regions (Akhalkalaki, Tke-Javakheti, Kanarbeli,
Nialiskuri, Kashveti, Kvabliani) its plantings are
almost unavailable; The Kvabliani district is almost
depopulated. The Kanarbeli, Nialiskuri, Akhalkalai
and Tke-Javakheti districts avoided their sowing
due to chilly climate, since in the Buzmareti district
available settlements are almost in the same climate
and edaphic conditions, as those of Nialiskuri and
Kanarbeli. Millet plantings in small quantities were
available there.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
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Broad bean (Fig. 4.) and cicer (Fig. 5.)
plantings almost repeat the same zone, and their
basic area coincides with each other as well as
lentil (Fig. 6.) plantings repeat the distribution
limits of other legume crops. The major part of
them are, again, concentrated on the Samtskhe
structural basin and in case of all three crops
their harvest is getting smaller from the west of
the hollow to its east. A top yield was obtained in
Use district; the slightly less harvest is peculiar to
Mzvare, Atskuri and Chacharaki districts; but the
latter substantially lags behind other districts by
broad bean plantings.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
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Table 1.
Administrative units Agricultural
crops
Number of
settlements with
crops
Yield, Tons
Akhaltsikhe Liva
Mzvare Nihie
Rye
18
97.9
Millet
18
100.76
Broad
-
bean
18
7.650
Lentil
18
6.757,5
Cicer
18
7.778
Chrdili (In Akhaltsikhe Liva)
Rye
22
113.52
Millet
21
89.76
Broad
-
bean
21
11.985
Lentil
21
9
.
05
3
Cicer
21
6.630
Ude
Rye
51
215.93
Millet
51
171.27
Broad
-
bean
39
16.575
Lentil
50
15.81
Cicer
50
13
.
388
Kvabliani
Rye
6
11.55
Millet
1
2.2
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
1
0.765
Cicer
1
0.255
Otskhe
Rye
18
113.3
Millet
18
83.93
Broad
-
bean
1
0.383
Lentil
2
0.
63
8
Cicer
2
0.
63
8
Atsk'uri
Rye
38
156.42
Millet
26
77
Broad
-
bean
14
8.16
Lentil
21
9.18
Cicer
21
7.65
Altunkala (Okrotsikhe)
Rye
14
87.45
Millet
13
64.02
Broad
-
bean
2
0.893
Lentil
4
1.53
Cicer
4
1.403
Rye
35
147
.
18
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Aspindza
Millet
25
45
.
98
Broad
-
bean
1
0.
255
Lentil
7
2168
Cicer
7
1785
Ch'ach'araki
Rye
40
326
.
15
Millet
24
106.15
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
16
6.12
Cicer
16
5.865
Total, in Akhaltsikhe Liva
Rye
242
1269.4
Millet
197
741.07
Broad
-
bean
96
45.9
Lentil
140
52.02
Cicer
140
45.392
Khertvisi Liva
Khertvisi
Rye
29
242.11
Millet
22
68.97
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
13
4.208
Cicer
13
4.208
Tqe-Javakheti
Rye
35
226.6
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Buzmareti
Rye
8
51.15
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Total, in Khertvisi Liva
Rye
72
519.86
Millet
22
68.97
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
13
4.208
Cicer
13
4.208
Akshehir (Akhalkalaki) Liva
Akshehir (Akhalkalaki)
Rye
43
355.3
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Tmogvi
Rye
10
72.05
Millet
2
12.1
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Nialisquri Rye 15(5
Outside of
Georgia)
96.8 (42.45 Outside
of Georgia)
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer 0 0
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Total, in Region
Rye
400
2356.96
Millet
236
857.89
Broad
-
bean
96
45.901
Lentil
153
56.23
Cicer
153
49.6
Total, in Akhalkalaki Liva
Rye
68
469.8
Millet
2
12.1
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Childiri Liva
Kanarbeli Rye 15 (7 Outside of
Georgia)
94.05 (37.95 Outside
of Georgia)
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Total, in Childiri Liva Rye 15 (7 Outside of
Georgia
)
94.05 (37.95 Outside
of Georgia
)
Millet
0
0
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Fotskhovi Liva
Chrdili (In Fotskhovi Liva) Rye
3 (9 Outside of
Georgia
)
3.85 (10.45
Outside
of Georgia
)
Millet 12 (7 Outside of
Georgia
)
30.25 (27.5 Outside
of Georgia
)
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Total, in Fotskhovi Liva Rye
3 (9 Outside of
Georgia)
3.85 (10.45 Outside
of Georgia)
Millet 12 (7 Outside of
Georgia
)
30.25 (27.5 Outside
of Georgia
)
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Petre liva
Petre
Rye
0
0
Millet
2
5.5
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Kashveti
Rye
0
0
Millet
1
2
.
75
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Total, in Petre Liva
Rye
0
0
Millet
3
8.25
Broad
-
bean
0
0
Lentil
0
0
Cicer
0
0
Annals of Agrarian Science 17 (2019) 16 – 27
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Mazra
(administrative
N
N
Community
Agriculture
Rye
(ha)
Mille
t (ha)
Broad
bean
(ha)
Lenti
l (ha)
Cicer
(ha)
Akhalkalaki
1
Alastani
108.56
0
1.853
0
0
2
Baraleti
614.65
0
13.298
0.327
8.066
3
Gorelovo
0
0
0
0
0
4
Dilska
104.64
0
0
0
0
5
Eshtia
5.886
0
0
0
0
6
Kondura
85.238
0
0
0
0
7
Kulikami
59.623
0
0
0
0
8
Okami
251.57
0
0
0
0
9
Sathkhe
26.596
0
0
0
0
10
Khertvisi
105.95
0
0
0
0
All
1362.7
0
15.151
0.327
8.066
Akhaltsikhe
1
Adigeni
32.373
2.507
0
0
0
2
Ats'kuri
15.696
0.327
0
0
0
3
Vale
86.219
0.327
0
0.109
0
4
Varkhani
9.701
2.071
0
0
0
5
Idumala
10.355
0.654
0
0
0
6
Klde
1.635
0
0
0
0
7
Lepisi
59.296
0
0
0
0
8
Ude
14.933
1.308
0
0
0
9
Uraveli
65.182
0
0
0
0
All
295.39
7.194
0
0.109
0
Gori (Communities
according of
‘Gurjistan Villaiet’
territory)
4
Akhaldaba
0
0
0
0
0
7
Bakuriani
0
0
0
0
0
8
Borjomi
0
1.962
0
0
0
11
Gujareti
0
0
0
0
0
12
Dviri
0
0
0
0
0
32
Kvishkheti
0
0.327
0
0
0
36
Tsagveri
1.09
0
0
0
0
All
1.09
2.289
0
0
0
Total 1659.1 9.48 15.15 0.44 8.07
Table 2.
The role and importance of the mentioned
crops was high in the past, which was a good
for a new introduction of a variety of crops (Table
1). In case, we compare the state of agricultural
crops described in the ‘Defter’ with the current
state, the change is obvious. It was interesting to
the society stopped cultivating them. Was this fact
related to any natural (climate, edaphic) or human
factors?
According to the census conducted in 1923
(Table 2, 3), rye crop was still intensely cultivated
in both Samtskhe structural basin and Javakheti
plateau. The area under crops is small in Borjomi
gorge. However, the reasons are different, from
the present-day territory of Borjomi municipality
is heavily devastated in the Defter, which cannot
be said about the data of the 1923 census. The lack
of arable lands, on one hand, and the functional
change of this territory by the early XX century
related to its use for recreation and health-
Annals of Agrarian Science 17 (2019) 16– 27
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Table 3.
promoting purposes, on the other, are probable
reasons for this fact. This region became the
resort center of Romanovs’ imperial family, and,
respectively, the crops that took hold in the Russian
Empire with high intensity (corn, potato) that was
more rapidly distributed there. Distribution of
potato has begun after 1840 and is chronologically
related to the migration of different people groups
of the Russian Empire (Dukhobors, Ukrainian,
Polish and German migrants). The widespread
replacement of local, traditional crops with the
higher yielding and easy cultivated crops became
a precondition for the encouragement towards the
development of one-crop (monoculture) system
in the Soviet Union and a major part of Javakheti
was covered with potato plantings. Similar to the
rye, the millet crop was of frequent occurrence
in the Akhaltsikhe structural basin. The difference
is that it had already been vanished from the
Khertvisi community for this period. Roughly, the
same took place regarding the lands of Borjomi
Municipality.
Mazra
(administrative
N
N
Community Agriculture
Rye (ha)
Millet
(ha)
Broad
bean (ha)
Lentil
(ha)
Cicer
(ha)
Akhalkalaki
1
Alastani
271.41
0
3.706
0
0
2
Baraleti
1536.62
0
26.596
0.654
16.132
3
Gorelovo
0
0
0
0
0
4
Dilska
261.6
0
0
0
0
5
Eshtia
14.715
0
0
0
0
6
Kondura
213.095
0
0
0
0
7
Kulikami
149.057
0
0
0
0
8
Okami
628.93
0
0
0
0
9
Sathkhe
66.49
0
0
0
0
10
Khertvisi
264.87
0
0
0
0
All
3406.79
0
30.302
0.654
16.132
Akhaltsikhe
1
Adigeni
80.9325
6.2675
0
0
0
2
Ats'kuri
39.24
0.8175
0
0
0
3
Vale
215.547
0.8175
0
0.218
0
4
Varkhani
24.2525
5.1775
0
0
0
5
Idumala
25.8875
1.635
0
0
0
6
Klde
4.0875
0
0
0
0
7
Lepisi
148.24
0
0
0
0
8
Ude
37.3325
3.27
0
0
0
9
Uraveli
162.955
0
0
0
0
All
738.475
17.985
0
0.218
0
Gori (Communities
according of
‘Gurjistan Villaiet’
territory)
4
Akhaldaba
0
0
0
0
0
7
Bakuriani
0
0
0
0
0
8
Borjomi
0
4.905
0
0
0
11
Gujareti
0
0
0
0
0
12
Dviri
0
0
0
0
0
32
Kvishkheti
0
0.8175
0
0
0
36
Tsagveri
2.725
0
0
0
0
All
2.725
5.7225
0
0
0
Total 4147.99 23.71 30.3 0.87 16.13
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a centralization of farms and region’s focus
on a monoculture and planning of agricultural
directions. These plans envisaged the receipt of
maximally high yields emphasized the species that
were aimed at quantitative indices and became a
characteristic pattern of Soviet collective farms;
3. This trend caused an invasion of potato and
corn crops in the 50-60s of the XX century and
enlargement of their plantings at the expense
of wheat, barley, rye, and millet plantings, as
well. Today we reap the results of the mentioned
state-planned economy that are expressed in the
reduction of agricultural product diversity that
makes up the traditional life and complicates the
restoration-preservation of agricultural crops;
4. The comparative analysis conducted for the
mentioned period gives us a good opportunity to
be guided by the available information, should
the local population, farmers and agribusiness
sector of the mentioned branch of agriculture
be interested in it. Since the traditional local
agriculture, its crop species are part of regional
traditions and culture, one of the forms of heritage,
restoration and renewal of which is an important
component of regional development.
Table 4.
Years
Agricultural crops 1966 1968 1970
Autumn wheat
8.9
7.4
7
Autumn
Barley
0.2
0.1
0.2
Spring Barley
19.6
16.3
15.8
Oats
1.1
1.4
2.2
Corn
3
2.4
1.9
There was a very extensive and centralized
agricultural policy of the USSR period. This
policy was focused on the receipt of maximally
abundant product and therefore the specialization
envisaged growing such crops by ‘Kollhozes’
(collective farms) that could give higher yields.
The development of this strategy caused the
rooting of the crops that could bring higher
those replaced traditional crops, which were
totally vanished from the explored region by that
time. In addition, this process was developed
just in several dozens of years. The crops that
have thousand-year traditions disappeared in
just dozens of years. The crops, which were
successfully cultivated for thousand years, could
not disappeared in several dozen years without an
outside interference and this process is directly
related to the agricultural policy pursued in the
mentioned time period.
Conclusion
Based on the research outcomes, we can
conclude the following: 1. Today, the presence
of annual agricultural crops of the second part of
distinguished by high crop yield and at the same
time, which were more easily cultivated.
In the category of ‘cereals and grain legume
crops’ of crop areas the legume crops were in the
minority and mainly the kidney bean plantings
are meant here, while the rest is occupied by the
cereals. However, if we judge by the ensuing
table (Table 4): rye and millet crops were no
more sowed and, therefore, they had no part in the
region everyday life, as agricultural crops [11].
the XVI century, except for cereals, cannot be felt
in the region. Among traditionally existing cereal
crops, only wheat and barley remain here; legume
cultures are completely replaced by kidney beans;
2. The change of rules for the society and such
distinct substitution of one agricultural crop
by another could not have happened so simply,
even due to recommendatory measures. The
state-planned economy and collectivization
of agriculture of the USSR period envisaged
Annals of Agrarian Science 17 (2019) 16– 27
R. Maisuradze

Annals of Agrarian Science 17 (2019) 16 – 27
R. Maisuradze
Acknowledgements
The Shota Rustaveli National Science
Foundation of Georgia (SRNSFG) under Grant
YS-2016-44 funded this work. Project title is -
The retrospective mapping and spatial analysis
of the Samtskhe-Javakheti region based on ‘The
Great Book of the Gurjistan Vilayet’.
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