Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder Materials with Application Models of Casual Two-Dimensional Packaging

Abstract

Sustained modern trends in industrial development are increasing the quality requirements of all types of products. The two-dimensional case of the mathematical modeling of metal filling powders in an arbitrary bunker taking into account the physical characteristics of a material is considered. The practice of producing new porous materials on the fundamental aspects of metal powders shows that the implementation in full volume of their strength and exploitation characteristics requires a significant increase in the prediction accuracy of physical and mechanical properties of materials and the development of new methods of modeling, which includes complex analysis of the processes of formation materials.

Full text

World Congress
on Engineering
and Technology;
Innovation and its
Sustainability 2018
Angelo Beltran Jr. · Zeny Lontoc
Belinda Conde · Ronnie Serfa Juan
John Ryan Dizon Editors
EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing

EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication
and Computing
Series editor
Imrich Chlamtac, European Alliance for Innovation, Gent, Belgium
volynasi@gmail.com

Editor’s Note
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This content, complemented with open calls for contribution of book titles and
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Angelo Beltran Jr. • Zeny Lontoc • Belinda Conde
Ronnie Serfa Juan • John Ryan Dizon
Editors
World Congress on
Engineering and Technology;
Innovation and its
Sustainability 2018
123
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Editors
Angelo Beltran Jr.
Adamson University
Manila, Philippines
Zeny Lontoc
University of Perpetual Help System DALTA
Las Pinas, Philippines
Belinda Conde
University of Perpetual Help System
DALTA
Las Pinas, Philippines
Ronnie Serfa Juan
Cheongju University
Chungchongbukdo
Cheongju-si, Korea (Republic of)
John Ryan Dizon
Bataan Peninsula State University
Balanga, Philippines
ISSN 2522-8595 ISSN 2522-8609 (electronic)
EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-20903-2 ISBN 978-3-030-20904-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20904-9
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
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Foreword
We are pleased to present to you the proceedings of the first edition of the 2018 Euro-
pean Alliance for Innovation (EAI) International Conference on World Congress
on Engineering and Technology; Innovation and Its Sustainability (WCETIS). This
conference has become an instrument to gathered researchers from the academe
and different field of discipline in engineering internationally, contributing to the
enhancement of society through engineering and ICT.
The technical program of WCETIS 2018 consisted of 12 full papers. The
conference has only one main track divided into seven general topics as follows:
(1) Industrial Engineering and Healthcare; (2) Advanced production, processing,
and manufacturing; (3) Sustainable Infrastructure; (4) Water Resources Planning
and Management; (5) Heat transfer and fluids; (6) Electronics and Electrical
Engineering; and (7) Internet of Things. Together with the high-quality technical
paper presentations, the technical program also featured one keynote speech, with
two technical talks. The keynote speaker is Dr. Angelo Beltran Jr. from Adamson
University, Philippines. The two invited talks were from Prof. Lorena Ilagan and Mr.
Rolando Pula of University of Perpetual Help System DALTA, Philippines. Lorena
Ilagan discussed Internet of Things (IoT), while Mr. Rolando Pula talked about
LiDAR Technology for Resources Mapping. The purpose of the talk is to spread
some technological advances happening in the country through the application of
latest technology in addressing major challenges.
Regular coordination with the steering chair, Imrich Chlamtac – Bruno Kessler
Professor, University of Trento, Italy through the EAI Conference Managers –
Radka Pincakova, and Karolina Marcinova was essential for the success of the
conference. We sincerely appreciate their support and guidance throughout the
process of handling and hosting a conference. This conference will not also be
possible without the help of very supportive and dedicated organizing commit-
tee team. Particularly, the following individuals: Ronnie Concepcion II – Local
Chair, Rolando Pula – Technical Program Committee Co-chair; Sheily Mendoza –
Sponsorships and Exhibits Chair, and Cyd Laurence Santos – Web Chair. We also
gave our appreciation for those reviewers who take time to review the papers.
Additionally, we also want to thank the top management of the University of
v
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vi Foreword
Perpetual Help System DALTA in supporting us and, lastly, for all the authors who
submitted their works to WCETIS 2018 conference.
We are firmly convinced that WCETIS conference provides a good venue
for all different engineering fields in sharing their ideas, researchers, works, and
scientific findings that promote advances in the seven major topics of the conference
contributing to the betterment of mankind. We also expect that the future WCETIS
conference will be much more successful and bigger in terms of number of high-
quality papers in different engineering fields surpassing the previous volume.
Lorena Ilagan
volynasi@gmail.com

Conference Organization
Steering Committee
Imrich Chlamtac Bruno Kessler Professor, University of Trento,
Italy
Organizing Committee
General Chair
Lorena Ilagan Dean, College of Engineering – University of
Perpetual Help DALTA Las Piñas City,
Philippines
General Co-Chairs
Rolando Pula Research Coordinator, College of
Engineering – University of Perpetual Help
DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
TPC Chair and Co-Chair
Rolando Pula Research Coordinator, College of
Engineering – University of Perpetual Help
DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
Lawrence Charlemagne David Research Coordinator, Maritime Academy of
Asia and the Pacific
Sponsorship and Exhibit Chair
Sheily Mendoza Chairman, Industrial Engineering
Department – University of Perpetual Help
System DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
Local Chair
Ronnie Concepcion II Chairman, Electronics and Communication
Engineering Department – University of
Perpetual Help System DALTA Las Piñas City,
Philippines
vii
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viii Conference Organization
Workshops Chair
Ronnie Concepcion II Chairman, Electronics and Communication
Engineering Department – University of
Perpetual Help System DALTA Las Piñas City,
Philippines
Publicity & Social Media Chair
Mariz Vega Faculty, Computer Engineering Department –
University of Perpetual Help System DALTA
Las Piñas City, Philippines
Publications Chair
Belinda Conde Research Director, University of Perpetual
Help System DALTA Las Piñas City,
Philippines
Web Chair
Cyd Laurence Santos Faculty, Computer Engineering Department –
University of Perpetual Help System DALTA
Las Piñas City, Philippines
Posters and PhD Track Chair
Raniel Suiza Chairman, Mechanical Engineering
Department – University of Perpetual Help
System DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
Panels Chair
Edison Mojica Chairman, Electrical Engineering
Department – University of Perpetual Help
System DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
Demos Chair
Cyd Laurence Santos Faculty, Computer Engineering Department –
University of Perpetual Help System DALTA
Las Piñas City, Philippines
Tutorials Chairs
Shiella Marie Garcia Chairman, Computer Engineering
Department – University of Perpetual Help
System DALTA Las Piñas City, Philippines
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Technical Program Committee
Arnold Paglinawan Professor, Mapua University, Philippines
Belinda Conde Research Director, University of Perpetual Help System
DALTA Las Piñas Campus, Philippines
Alfonso Loreto School Director, University of Perpetual Help System
DALTA Las Piñas Campus, Philippines
Ihsan Yassin Professor, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia
Dante Silva Professor, Mapua University, Philippines
ix
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Contents
Part I Industrial Engineering and Healthcare
A Web-Based “InstaSked” Appointment Scheduling System
at Perpetual Help Medical Center Outpatient Department ................. 3
Sheily Mendoza, Ranzel Cloie Padpad, Amira Jane Vael, Cindy Alcazar,
and Rolando Pula
Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder
Materials with Application Models of Casual Two-Dimensional
Packaging ......................................................................... 15
Oleksandr Povstyanoy, Oleg Zabolotnyi, Roman Polinkevich,
Dmytro Somov, and Olha Redko
Part II Advanced Production, Processing and Manufacturing
Low-Cost, Automated, Rapid Bio Composting with SMS
Monitoring System ............................................................... 29
Shiella Marie Garcia, Cyd Laurence B. Santos, Dexter C. Dolendo,
Nicole Ann Roque, Arvin C. Marquez, and Rolando Pula
Post-harvest and Processing Technology Management System for
Local Coffee Growers............................................................ 41
Willie C. Buclatin
Technology of Obtaining Long-Length Powder Permeable
Materials with Uniform Density Distributions................................ 63
Oleg Zabolotnyi, Oleksandr Povstyanoy, Dmytro Somov, Viktor Sychuk,
and Kostiantyn Svirzhevskyi
Part III Electronics and Electrical Engineering
Feasible Human Emotion Detection from Facial Thermal Images ......... 81
Kimio Oguchi and Shohei Hayashi
xi
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xii Contents
Determination of Calcium and pH Level in Urine for Calcium-Based
Kidney Stone Diagnosis Using Arduino Microcontroller .................... 89
Rolando Pula and Ramon Garcia
Servo-Controlled 5-Axis 3D Printer from an Open-Source Kit ............. 101
Dawn Christine P. Corpuz, Ramon Miguel Imbao, Carlos M. Oppus,
and Juan Antonio G. Mariñas
Part IV Internet of Things, ICT and Artificial Intelligence
Alphanumeric Test Paper Checker Through Intelligent Character
Recognition Using OpenCV and Support Vector Machine .................. 119
Jessica S. Velasco, Anthony Aldrin V. Beltran, Joie Ann C. Alayon,
Paul Edgar B. Maranan, Cheza Marie A. Mascardo,
Justine Mae B. Sombrito, and Lean Karlo S. Tolentino
Automated Water Quality Monitoring and Control for Milkfish Pond .... 129
Shiella Marie P. Garcia, Cyd Laurence B. Santos, Karen Mae E. Briones,
Sean Michael L. Reyes, Maurice Alyana G. Macasaet, and Rolando Pula
Optimization of Nonlinear Temperature Gradient
on Eigenfrequency Using Genetic Algorithm for Reinforced
Concrete Bridge Structural Health ............................................ 141
Ronnie S. Concepcion II, Lorena C. Ilagan, and Ira C. Valenzuela
Alertness and Mental Fatigue Classification Using Computational
Intelligence in an Electrocardiography and Electromyography
System with Off-Body Area Network .......................................... 153
Ronnie S. Concepcion II, Jommel S. Manalo, Ave Jianne D. Garcia,
Rhaniel A. Legaspi, Jun Angelo Prestousa, Gio Paolo C. Pascual,
Junco S. Firmalino, and Lorena C. Ilagan
Index ............................................................................... 171
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Modeling the Structural Characteristics
of Porous Powder Materials
with Application Models of Casual
Two-Dimensional Packaging
Oleksandr Povstyanoy, Oleg Zabolotnyi, Roman Polinkevich, Dmytro Somov,
and Olha Redko
1 Introduction
Creating new porous powder materials (PPM) with guaranteed properties has
become possible with the help of traditional powder metallurgy technology, but
it is necessary to forecast and control the parameters of their structure in the
manufacturing process, which include: granulomere composition of the charge,
the shape of particles, the density of the molded workpiece, the quality of the
contacts, shaping, porosity, density, and volume distribution. However, the methods
of powder metallurgy do not always ensure the homogeneity of properties within the
materials and do not present an opportunity to obtain the structural characteristics
of materials on a qualitative level. There is a need to increase the efficiency of
traditional technologies and also an introduce non-waste production of widespread
products, save energy, reduce labor costs, and control the parameters of the
structure of powder materials in the process of their manufacture, possibly through
forecasting using modern simulation tools [1–3].
The prediction of laws of the formation of structures and properties of materials
depends firstly on the geometric factors of the powder particles. In addition, the
analysis of modern technological processes of powder metallurgy shows that the
presence of correlation links between the constituents, structure, and properties is
provided by all operations of the technological process, where the initial stage is the
filling of molds with a powder, which determines not only the size, shape, density,
productivity, safety, and culture of work, but also affects a number of important
properties of the finished product. Therefore, modeling experiments of forecasting
O. Povstyanoy · O. Zabolotnyi () · R. Polinkevich · D. Somov · O. Redko
Lutsk National Technical University, Lutsk, Ukraine
e-mail: povstjanoj@ukr.net;volynasi@gmail.com;r.polinkevych@lntu.edu.ua;
somovd@rambler.ru;redkooi@ukr.net
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
A. Beltran Jr. et al. (eds.), World Congress on Engineering and Technology;
Innovation and its Sustainability 2018, EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication
and Computing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20904-9_2
15
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16 O. Povstyanoy et al.
the dependence of material properties on the technological parameters of obtaining
products using analytical, numerical, and numerical–analytical methods by three-
dimensional modeling hold great importance in this arena.
2 Literature Review
The analysis of structurally heterogeneous materials was carried out by scientific
groups under the guidance of R.M. Kadushnikov, I.G. Kamenin, Yu. N. Kryuchkov,
V.D. Rud, M.B. Shtern, and V.D. Rud. The peculiarity of these works is the
modeling of the structural characteristics of materials made up of particles in regular
and irregular forms. The simulation results were checked on field experiments with
manufactured carbido states, which proved to be highly effective in modeling. The
obtained results qualitatively reproduce the process of filling the press form [4–7].
In the works of K.K. Kuzhidlovskiy, M.M. Lobur, O.M. Matviykova, and T.V.
Semenov, the authors considered information methods for calculating the physical
and chemical characteristics of powder materials [8–10]. The peculiarity of these
works is that only the chemical composition or aggregate state of the initial material
is analyzed, and the restoration of oxides, electrolysis of materials, and thermal
dissociation of compounds was observed.
In foreign literary sources, much of the work on creating geometry is heavily
centered on fiber modeling and the very boundary of geometry in composite
materials [11,12].
Modeling methods for the uncertainty of geometry influence the strength of
components at the initial filling stage [13–15], but modeling of the random
placement of powder at the filling stage in the hopper, taking into account the
physical parameters of components, is completely unexplored.
There is a great need for the development of a methodology for modeling the
calculation of a real fill in PPM form, which represents a more realistic level of
heterogeneity and is the starting point for identifying the physical basis of powder
behavior at the filling stage for most of the cases that are currently determined
as empirical and characterized by real experiments. Ideally, the theoretical results
obtained in this way change the engineering view of the properties of future PPM.
Therefore, the aim of our study is to develop a methodology for a calculation
model of random pores in PPM at the stage of placing the material into the hopper,
taking into account the physical fundamental components for a two-dimensional
case.
3 New Method for the Calculation of Physical Parameters
For filtering the PPM, it is necessary to use powders with large particle sizes, while,
at the same time, it is necessary to use powders of small particle sizes to achieve
a high fineness of purification. These contradictions predetermine the need to find
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Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder Materials... 17
new technological techniques and methods that would allow the creation of PPM
with such structures, which provide the most optimal combination of performance
characteristics.
In addition, it should be noted that the practice of using new materials for
the foundations of metal powders shows that implementation in full volume of
their strength and performance characteristics requires a significant increase in the
prediction accuracy of the physical and mechanical properties of materials and the
development of new methods of modeling that include a comprehensive analysis of
the processes of formation materials.
By analyzing the majority of domestic and foreign models of consolidation
powders, the authors proposed a new method for the calculation of physical
parameters, which formed the basis for the study of real packages (two-dimensional
case).
Let area G∈R3be filled with small metal balls (Fig. 1).
It is necessary to establish the integral characteristics of the material to be
received, such as the dielectric penetration. To solve this problem, we use the
following approach [16]. Consider that, as a result of filling the area G, the particles
appear as stationary, isotropic, random fields {ξij(u), u∈R3}, which describe the
dielectric permittivity of the population.
If the electric potential of the region is applied as φ, then the potential Uinside
the area is the solution to the Dirichlet problem:
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
3

i,j=1
ξi,j ∂2
∂xi∂xjU=0
U∂G =ϕ
,(1)
Since the coefficients ξij have a complex nature, then a direct solution to the
problem is impossible. Therefore, using the averaging method is proposed. Assume
that ∀i,j∈Zξij is ergodic and area Gis large enough to manifest this property. That
is expected, but instead of Eq. (1), note that:
Fig. 1 Variant of filling a
two-dimensional hopper with
balls of appropriate size
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18 O. Povstyanoy et al.
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
3

i,j=1
ξi,j ∂2
∂xi∂xjU=0
U∂G =ϕ
,(2)
with some “averaged” value of ξij.
As part of this approach, the following simple cases were considered:
1. One-dimensional space, where G∈R. Instead of a random field ξ(u), u∈R
considers a periodic function p: R →R.
2. Multidimensional space, with the same periodic function p: Rd→R,ÇÈ d>2.
3.1 One-Dimensional Case
Let G=[−1; 1]. In this case, the system in Eq. (1) can be rewritten as follows:
x
ε(u) =pε(u)xε(u)
xε(−1)=xε(1)=1,(3)
where pε(x) =px
εand p:R→R, which is a periodic function with a period of 1.
Decisions of this system are made through a probabilistic representation:
x(u) =Muexp −τ
0
pε(ω(s))ds,
where {w(s), s∈[0, +∞]}, known as the Wiener process, and τ=inf{s:wu(s)∈
{−1; 1}}, which is the moment of exit of the Wiener process from area G.
Since the measure of attending the Wiener process specified on Ris absolutely
continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure, then the following equality holds:
τ
0
pε(ω(s))ds =−1
−1
pε(u)lτ(u)d,
where lτ(u) =τ
0δu(ω(s))ds, which is the local time of the Wiener process at point
u.
If it is known that lτ(u) is a continuous function, then for further transformations,
we use the following theorem.
3.2 Theorem 1
For any continuous function f:G→Rand a periodic function p:R→Rwith period
1, convergence is performed:
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Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder Materials... 19
1
−1
pε(u)f (u)du →1
0
p(u)du1
−1
f(y)dy,ε →0+
Proof. Let ε=1
n,n ∈Nand replace the variables x=un:
1
−1
pε(u)f (u)du =1
nn
−n
p(x)f x
ndx =1
n
n−1

i=−ni+1
i
p(x)f x
ndx
To prove the necessary convergence, make the following transformations:

1
n
n−1

i=−n
i+1
i
p(x)f x
ndx−
1
0
p
(u)du
1

−1
f(y)dy
=
1
n
n−1

i=−n
i+1
i
p(x)f x
ndx
−1
n
n

−n
fy
ndy
1
0
p(u)du
=
1
n
n−1

i=−n
i+1
i
p(x)f x
ndx −1
np(x)dx
i+1
i
fy
ndy
≤1
n
n−1

i=−n
i+1
i
i+1
i
p(x) fx
n−fy
ndydx
≤1
n
n−1

i=−n
max
|x−y|≤1
nfx
n−fy
n
i+1
i
p(x)dx
=2
1
0
p(x)dx ·
max
|x−y|≤1
nfx
n−fy
n
Function fis continuous on the segment [−1, 1]; if it is uniformly continuous on
the same segment, then the definition is definite:
∀ε>0∃δε>0∀x1,x
2∈[−1,1](|x1−x2|<δ
ε)⇒(|f(x1)−f(x2)|<ε
)
Means ∀ε>0∃N0∈N∀n≤N0:
max
|x−y|≤1
nfx
n−fy
n
<ε
Then, ∀ε>0∃N0∈N∀n≤N0:

1

−1
pε(u)f (u)du−
1
0
p(u)du
1

−1
f(y)dy
≤2
1
0
|p(x)|dx·
max
|x−y|≤1
nfx
n−fy
n
<ε
1
0
|p(u)|du⎞
⎠
That is, the necessary convergence is performed.
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20 O. Povstyanoy et al.
According to the proved theorem 1:
τ
0
pε(ω(s))ds →1
0
p(u)du1
−1
lτ(y)d y, ε →0+
herewith:
1
0
p(u)du1
−1
lτ(y)dy =1
0
p(u)duτ
0
dy =τ1
0
p(u)du
and this means that the convergence of mathematical expectations is fulfilled:
Muexp ⎧
⎨
⎩
−
τ
0
pε(ω(s))ds⎫
⎬
⎭
→Muexp ⎧
⎨
⎩
−τ
1
0
p(u)du⎫
⎬
⎭
ε→0+
That and the convergence of the solutions of the systems of equations give rise
to the next theorem.
3.3 Theorem 2
Let xεbe the solution of Eq. (3). Then, there is convergence:
xε→x,at ε→0+,
where xsolves the problem:
x(u) =1
0p(s)ds x(u)
x(−1)=x(1)=1(4)
which is a random field.
3.4 Theorem 3
Let {ξij}be a set of homogeneous isotropic random fields given on Rd(d>3).Ifthe
following conditions are executed:
1. ∀i,j∈Z∃A1,A2∈R, so that ∀x∈Rd,λ1,λ2∈R:A1λ26ξij(x)λ1λ26A2λ2
where λ2=λ2
1+λ2
2and:
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Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder Materials... 21
2. ξij satisfies the degree condition of equally strong interchanges
then uεsolves the task:
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
3

i,j=1
ξi,j ∂2
∂xi∂xju(x) =0
u∂G =g
,(5)
where Gis a limited area with smooth boundary, gis some function, and uis the
decision of the “average” task:
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
3

i,j=1
ξi,j ∂2
∂xi∂xjU=0
U∂G =ϕ
,(6)
then:
Msup {|uε(x) −u(x)|:x∈G}=Oεκ,κ>0.
4 Results
Figure 2shows an example of visualization fillings according to the developed
computer simulation model [17].
Fig. 2 Examples of visualization fillings of two-dimensional packaging in accordance with the
developed computer simulation model
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22 O. Povstyanoy et al.
Fig. 3 Sample calibration process and real dimensional input with the Smart-eye®application
Analysis of the porosity distributions of PPM was carried out using the Smart-
eye®application (Fig. 3). The software allows determining the necessary character-
istics needed for a qualitative assessment of the structure of any material, including
porous ones [18]. The algorithm of work is as follows: let bi,jbe the outgoing image,
where its value is equal to the brightness at point i,j∈D, where i=1, 2, ...nand
j=1, 2, 3, ...m. Image bi,jis under real conditions and, also, a set of images of
individual objects will be equal to:
bi,j =H1(i, j )+H2(i, j)+···+ Hs,k (i, j )(7)
where Hsis the number of real objects and Hk(i,j) is the image of the kth object,
k=1, 2, 3, ...s.
The task of a recognizable image in this case will consist of finding all
objects Hs(i,j) and Hk(i,j), which are determined from the criteria of the homo-
geneity area:
max
P∈R|f(P)−m|×T(8)
where µis the initial value, Pis the value in area R, mis the average number of
pixels in area P, and f(P) is the brightness distribution function.
Obtaining the porosity distribution (Figs. 4and 5) gives a clear idea of the particle
size distribution, provided that the radii (in fractions) are the same and characterize
the differential distribution of the particles in the area of the cylindrical bunker [19].
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Modeling the Structural Characteristics of Porous Powder Materials... 23
Fig. 4 Determination of the structural characteristics of the metal by a graphical method using the
Smart-eye®application
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
1
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
105
118
131
144
157
170
183
196
209
222
235
248
261
274
287
300
313
326
Fig. 5 Distribution of porosity change of porous powder materials (PPM)
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24 O. Povstyanoy et al.
5 Conclusions
The practice of producing new porous materials on the fundamental aspects of
metal powders shows that the implementation in full volume of their strength
and exploitation characteristics requires a significant increase in the prediction
accuracy of physical and mechanical properties of materials and the development
of new methods of modeling, which includes complex analysis of the processes of
formation materials.
Comparison of data obtained by computer simulation methods with the results of
experimental studies in general shows the adequacy of representations, laid down on
the basis of the algorithm and the means of its implementation. At the same time,
certain simplifications for the purpose of idealization result from the fact that the
experimental curves are located below the corresponding data obtained by computer
simulation methods. That is, the real tendency to compaction being higher than
expected. It is possible to assume that, during the packing, there are processes of
additional crushing, due to which there are additional conditions for the mutual
movement of particles. As a result, the process of filling the voids becomes more
significant.
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volynasi@gmail.com