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Declining Trends in HIV Prevalence Among Women Attending Antenatal Care Clinics Obfuscate the Continued Vulnerability of Adolescent Girls in Maharashtra, India (2005-2017)
... At present, the epidemic is highly heterogeneous and is confined within pockets of high prevalence regions of India. 4,5 Towards the goal of ending AIDS by 2030, no complacency at this point is acceptable; 6 region-specific targeted interventions and improved ART linkage and adherence to halt the disease transmission are required. Female sex workers (FSW), men having sex with men (MSM), transgenders (TG) and injecting drug users (IDU) form the core risk group of HIV infection, their potential clients such as single male migrants (SMM) and long-distance truckers (LDT) comprise the bridge population. ...
Background and objectives:
The purpose of this study was to analyze trends in HIV prevalence and risk factors associated with HIV infection among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Odisha State, India.
Methods:
Data were from the HIV Sentinel Surveillance (HSS) among pregnant women, a descriptive cross-sectional study using consecutive sampling method and conducted in India. Data and samples were collected from pregnant women attending select antenatal clinics that act as designated sentinel sites in Odisha State, India, during the three months surveillance period and in three surveillance years: 2013, 2015, and 2017. All eligible pregnant women aged between 15 and 49 years, attending the sentinel sites for the first time during the surveillance period, were included. Information on their socio-demographic characteristics and blood samples were also collected.
Results:
In total, 38,384 eligible pregnant women were included in the survey. Of these, 107 women were HIV positive, with an overall prevalence of 0.28%. HIV prevalence indicated a stabilizing trend between 2013 and 2017. However, pregnant women whose spouses were non-agricultural laborers, truck drivers, or migrants were significantly at higher risk of being infected. Likewise, HIV prevalence significantly increased over the years among pregnant women whose spouses were in the service sector (government or private). District-wise fluctuations in HIV prevalence was observed, with the district of Cuttack recording the highest prevalence among the districts.
Conclusion and global health implications:
Women who are spouses of non-agricultural laborers, truck drivers or migrants need focused interventions, such as creating awareness on HIV and its prevention. Migration, due to poverty and its impact on sexually transmitted diseases among migrants from low and middle-income countries, have been documented globally. Single male migrant specific interventions are recommended to halt the disease progression among pregnant women and general population in Odisha, India.
Limited evidence is available on the vulnerability of Adolescent Girls and Young Women (AGYW) to sexual risk behaviour and STI/HIV. Though there are almost no statistics available on vulnerability, related literature suggests that AGYW have low awareness about sexual risk behaviour/ transmission and the prevalence of STI/HIV, making them vulnerable. We conducted a rapid review of peer-reviewed studies addressing transmission network, prevalence, incidence awareness, common determinants of sexual risk behaviour/STI/HIV, health-seeking behaviour and existing interventions addressing the situation among AGYW (age 15–24) to inform the evidence gap in this crucial area of research. We registered the study in PROSPERO (CRD42023403713). We developed detailed inclusion/exclusion criteria, searched JSTOR, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Population Council Knowledge Commons databases and followed the guidance from Cochrane Rapid Review to develop the rapid review. We also searched the bibliography of the included studies. We included the English language peer-reviewed quantitative, qualitative, mixed method studies published from Jan 1 2000 to Mar 31 2023. Six reviewers extracted data, and the seventh reviewer independently assessed the quality. Ninety-six studies met the inclusion criteria. We used descriptive statistics and narrative synthesis methods for data analysis. We also conducted a Risk of Bias Assessment (RoB) to check the quality of the included studies. Inadequate literature was found on the transmission network. Prevalence and awareness of STI/HIV are low among AGYW. However, Female Sex Workers, sex-trafficked women or drug users in this age group suffer more. Age, education, income, relationship dynamics with spouses/partners, multiple partners, and substance use are crucial in determining STI/HIV. Traditional sources of health seeking are more popular than formal sources because of social stigma. Mass media campaigns, community mobilization programs, and life skills training programs increase awareness about HIV, condom use and self-efficacy. The inclusion of only English language studies and not conducting meta-analysis because of high heterogeneity are some of the limitations of the study.
Objectives
To identify and synthesise prevailing definitions and indices of vulnerability in maternal, new-born and child health (MNCH) research and health programs in low- and middle-income countries.
Design and setting
Scoping review using Arksey and O’Malley’s framework and a Delphi survey for consensus building.
Participants
Mothers, new-borns, and children living in low- and middle-income countries were selected as participants.
Outcomes
Vulnerability as defined by the authors was deduced from the studies.
Results
A total of 61 studies were included in this scoping review. Of this, 22 were publications on vulnerability in the context of maternal health and 40 were on new-born and child health. Definitions used in included studies can be broadly categorised into three domains: biological, socioeconomic, and environmental. Eleven studies defined vulnerability in the context of maternal health, five reported on the scales used to measure vulnerability in maternal health and only one study used a validated scale. Of the 40 included studies on vulnerability in child health, 19 defined vulnerability in the context of new-born and/or child health, 15 reported on the scales used to measure vulnerability in child health and nine reported on childhood vulnerability indices. As it was difficult to synthesise the definitions, their keywords were extracted to generate new candidate definitions for vulnerability in MNCH.
Conclusion
Included studies paid greater attention to new-born/ child vulnerability than maternal vulnerability, with authors defining the terms differently. A definition which helps in improving the description of vulnerability in MNCH across various programs and researchers was arrived at. This will further help in streamlining research and interventions which can influence the design of high impact MNCH programs.
Scoping review registration
The protocol for this review was registered in the open science framework at the registered address (https://osf.io/jt6nr).
Heterogeneity of the HIV epidemic across districts of south India is reflected in HIV positivity among antenatal clinic (ANC) attendees. Along with individual factors, contextual factors also need consideration for effective HIV interventions. Thus, identifying district and individual level factors that influence ANC HIV positivity assumes importance to intervene effectively.Data on HIV sentinel surveillance among the ANC population were obtained from the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) between years 2004 and 2007. Data from serial cross-sectional studies among female sex workers (FSWs) conducted during this time period in 24 districts were used to generate district level variables corresponding to parameters concerning this high risk population. Other district level data were obtained from various official/governmental agencies. Multilevel logistic regression was used to identify individual and district level factors associated with ANC-HIV positivity.The average ANC-HIV prevalence from 2004 to 2007 in the 24 integrated biological and behavioural assessments (IBBA) districts ranged from 0.25 to 3.25%. HIV positivity was significantly higher among ANC women with age ≥ 25 years [adjusted odds ratio (AOR):1.49; 95% confidence interval (95%CI):1.27 to 1.76] compared to those with age
Introduction
At the epicentre of the HIV epidemic in southern Africa, adolescent girls and young women aged 15–24 contribute a disproportionate ~30% of all new infections and seroconvert 5–7 years earlier than their male peers. This age–sex disparity in HIV acquisition continues to sustain unprecedentedly high incidence rates, and preventing HIV infection in this age group is a pre-requisite for achieving an AIDS-free generation and attaining epidemic control.
Discussion
Adolescent girls and young women in southern Africa are uniquely vulnerable to HIV and have up to eight times more infection than their male peers. While the cause of this vulnerability has not been fully elucidated, it is compounded by structural, social and biological factors. These factors include but are not limited to: engagement in age-disparate and/or transactional relationships, few years of schooling, experience of food insecurity, experience of gender-based violence, increased genital inflammation, and amplification of effects of transmission co-factors. Despite the large and immediate HIV prevention need of adolescent girls and young women, there is a dearth of evidence-based interventions to reduce their risk. The exclusion of adolescents in biomedical research is a huge barrier. School and community-based education programmes are commonplace in many settings, yet few have been evaluated and none have demonstrated efficacy in preventing HIV infection. Promising data are emerging on prophylactic use of anti-retrovirals and conditional cash transfers for HIV prevention in these populations.
Conclusions
There is an urgent need to meet the HIV prevention needs of adolescent girls and young women, particularly those who are unable to negotiate monogamy, condom use and/or male circumcision. Concerted efforts to expand the prevention options available to these young women in terms of the development of novel HIV-specific biomedical, structural and behavioural interventions are urgently needed for epidemic control. In the interim, a pragmatic approach of integrating existing HIV prevention efforts into broader sexual reproductive health services is a public health imperative.
Background: Many antenatal clinics (ANC)-based HIV surveillance systems in India have limited coverage of remote rural sites, a weakness that compromises adequate estimation, monitoring, and development of effective preventive and care programs. To address this void in rural area of western Maharashtra, we conducted antenatal clinic-based sentinel surveillance to know the prevalence of HIV infection among rural pregnant women. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out at ANC clinic, Dept. of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Pravara Rural Hospital, Loni, Maharashtra. A total of 12,171 pregnant women from rural area accepted HIV testing after counseling who attending ANC clinic in Pravara Rural Hospital, Loni, during January 2008 to December 2011 were included in the study. Data were entered in Microsoft excel and percentage and proportion was calculated. Results: In the present study, out of 12171 pregnant women from the rural area accepted HIV testing after counseling who attending ANC clinic, only 50 (0.41%) were HIV positive and remaining 12, 221 (99.59%) were HIV negative. The study showed that the prevalence of HIV among pregnant women was 0.41%. Out of the 50 HIV positive pregnant women studied majority, 32 (64.0%), were primigravidas and 18 (36.0%) were multigravidas. Conclusion: In our study all 12171 pregnant women from the rural area accepted HIV testing after counseling and prevalence of HIV was found to be 0.41%. The need of the hour is to provide universal access to these services by involving the NGO′s and the private sector.
The young people in the age group of 10-24 yr in India constitutes one of the precious resources of India characterized by growth and development and is a phase of vulnerability often influenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect their health and safety. Nearly 10-30 per cent of young people suffer from health impacting behaviours and conditions that need urgent attention of policy makers and public health professionals. Nutritional disorders (both malnutrition and over-nutrition), tobacco use, harmful alcohol use, other substance use, high risk sexual behaviours, stress, common mental disorders, and injuries (road traffic injuries, suicides, violence of different types) specifically affect this population and have long lasting impact. Multiple behaviours and conditions often coexist in the same individual adding a cumulative risk for their poor health. Many of these being precursors and determinants of non communicable diseases (NCDs) including mental and neurological disorders and injuries place a heavy burden on Indian society in terms of mortality, morbidity, disability and socio-economic losses. Many health policies and programmes have focused on prioritized individual health problems and integrated (both vertical and horizontal) coordinated approaches are found lacking. Healthy life-style and health promotion policies and programmes that are central for health of youth, driven by robust population-based studies are required in India which will also address the growing tide of NCDs and injuries.
Background
Indian cultural tradition demanding marriage, many MSM howsoever they self-identify are likely to be married or have sex with women. To consolidate India's HIV prevention gains, it is important to understand and address the interaction between the MSM and heterosexual epidemics in India and create specific interventions for bisexual MSM. The challenge is to identify and intervene this hard to reach population. Data from HIV Sentinel Surveillance 2011 among MSM in four Indian states were analyzed to assess predictors and prevalence of bisexual behaviour in MSM.
Methods
Between March-May 2011, 4682 men (15–49 years) who had anal/oral sex with a male partner in the past month, attending intervention sites and consenting for an un-linked anonymous survey answered an 11- item questionnaire and provided blood for HIV test by finger stick at 19 designated surveillance sites.
Results
Of 4682 MSM tested overall, 5% were illiterate, 51% reported only receptive anal intercourse, 21% only penetrative and 28% both. 36% MSM had ever received money for sex. Overall 6.8% were HIV infected. 44% MSM were bisexual in the last six months. On multivariate analysis, ‘being bisexual’ was found to be independently associated with ‘older age’: 26–30 years [AOR = 3.1, 95% CI(2.7, 3.7)], >30 years [AOR = 6.5, 95% CI(5.5, 7.7)]; ‘reporting penetrative behaviour alone’ with other men [AOR = 5.8, 95% CI(4.8, 7.0), p<0.01] and ‘reporting both penetrative and receptive behaviour’ [AOR = 2.7, 95% CI(2.3, 3.1) p<0.01]. Those who both paid and received money for sex [AOR = 0.49, 95% CI (0.38, 0.62)] were significantly less likely to be bisexual.
Conclusions
A substantial proportion of men receiving services from Targeted Intervention programs are bisexual and the easy opportunity for intervention in this setting should be capitalised upon. Focusing on older MSM, as well as MSM who show penetrative behaviour with other men, could help in reaching this population.
Objective:
To assess the population-level impact of "Avahan," the India AIDS Initiative of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, between 2003 and 2008 in Karnataka state, India.
Design:
Secondary data analysis using all consistent data collection sites from antenatal clinic (ANC) sentinel surveillance data from 2003 to 2008 in Karnataka.
Methods:
A multilevel logistic regression model considering individual- and district-level variables was developed to compare time trends in HIV prevalence among young ANC women (younger than 25 years of age) between Avahan (18) and non-Avahan (9) districts. District-level random effects were considered for the intercept and time. The impact was assessed using interaction terms between district type (Avahan vs. non-Avahan) and time. The number of cases averted was estimated, comparing predicted ANC HIV prevalence in the presence versus the absence of Avahan. Data from the National Family Health Survey Round 3 (2006) were used to extrapolate these numbers to the general population.
Results:
HIV prevalence among young ANC women declined from 1.46% (2003) to 0.83% (2008). The HIV prevalence trend was significantly different between Avahan and non-Avahan districts (P = 0.046). Overall, 87,035 cases of HIV infection were estimated to have been averted in the Karnataka general population because of Avahan during the 2003-2008 period (range under varying assumptions: 55,160-150,784).
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that Avahan has had a significant impact on the HIV epidemic in the general population of Karnataka. These results suggest that targeted interventions similar to Avahan should be implemented and scaled up in all concentrated and mixed HIV epidemics.
To update the estimation of the adult HIV prevalence and number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in India for the year 2008-2009 with the combination of improved data and methods.
Based on HIV sentinel surveillance (HSS) data and a set of epidemiological assumptions, estimates of HIV prevalence and burden in India have been derived.
HSS sites spread over all the States of India.
Secondary data from HSS sites which include attendees of antenatal clinics and sites under targeted interventions of high-risk groups, namely, female sex workers (FSW), intravenous drug users (IDU) and men having sex with men (MSM). PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Estimates of adult HIV prevalence and PLHIV in India and its states.
The adult HIV prevalence in India has declined to an estimated 0.31% (0.25-0.39%) in 2009 against 0.36% (0.29-0.45%) in 2006. Among the high prevalence states, the HIV prevalence has declined in Tamil Nadu to 0.33% in 2009 and other states show either a plateau or a slightly declining trend over the time period 2006-2009. There are states in the low prevalence states where the adult HIV prevalence has risen over the last 4 years. The estimated number of PLHIV in India is 2.4 million (1.93-3.04 million) in 2009. Of which, 39% are women, children under 15 years of age account for 4.4% of all infections, while people aged 15-49 years account for 82.4% of all infections.
The estimated adult prevalence has declined in few states, a plateau or a slightly declining trend over the time. In future, efforts may be made to examine the implications of the emerging trend of the HIV prevalence on the recent infections in the study population.
To study the trends of the HIV epidemic and risk factors associated with HIV in a rural area of India. We utilized HIV prevalence among young pregnant women as an indicator of population trends in HIV infection.
This was an observational study of pregnant women aged less than 25 years who were counseled and tested for HIV infection in a rural hospital between August 2007 and June 2011. Information on age, education, occupation, and community were collected prospectively from all of the women.
The HIV prevalence in young pregnant women decreased from 1.22% in 2007 to 0.35% in 2011. Comparing the periods 2007-2009 and 2010-2011, a reduction in HIV prevalence was seen in all subgroups except in women from forward castes. Women whose job was not related to agriculture and women who had only completed primary education were more likely to be HIV-infected.
These results indirectly indicate that the incidence of HIV infection is decreasing in this rural setting. However, an increase in the HIV prevalence in women from forward castes was observed. In rural areas, HIV testing of pregnant women who have only completed primary education or who are working in a field not related to agriculture should be encouraged, because of their higher risk of HIV infection.
Indias HIV epidemic is of global interest. 2 years ago we showed that HIV prevalence in young women declined by about a third between 2000 and 2004 in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. HIV prevalence at young ages (15-24 years) is a useful proxy for trends in HIV incidence. We now present trends up to 2007. Among 423842 women aged 15-24 years tested nationally at antenatal clinics prevalence declined by 54% (95% CI -45 to -63; p<0.0001) between 2000 and 2007 in south India and there was no significant change in north India (3% -47 to 53; p=0.73) where HIV is less prevalent. Declines in south India were similar if we analysed individual age-groups if we excluded Tamil Nadu or restricted the analyses to each individual state or to the sites tested continuously for at least 4 years. Women who use antenatal clinics differ from those who do not in education residence and migration but these demographic factors remained similar from year to year. More research is needed to understand why incidence has fallen in south India. The most probable reason is reduced contacts with female sex work by the husbands of tested women or increased condom use in sex work. Although useful for estimating trends in HIV incidence data from antenatal clinics cannot estimate community prevalence reliably. The National Family Health Survey of 2005-06 (NFHS-3) yielded lower HIV prevalence nationally in adults (0.28% 95% CI 0.25-0.31 at ages 15-49 years) than seen among women at antenatal clinics in our study (0.60% 0.57-0.63 at ages 15-49 years). A study in one district suggested that women with HIV were over-represented in public antenatal clinics but we found that HIV infection was associated with lower use of public antenatal clinics within the NHFS-3. Among 8743 eligible women survival analyses with Coxs regression of time since last antenatal clinic use yielded a hazard ratio for HIV of 0.44 (0.22-0.90; p=0.02) after adjustment for age and sampling unit. The halving of new infections in south India and the lack of demonstrable increases in the north would at first glance seem to be consistent with Indias downward revision of HIV prevalence in 2006 from 5.1 million to 2.5 million (range 2.0-3.1 million). However the revised prevalence estimates are based largely on "hybrid" analyses that combine antenatal clinic and NFHS-3 data whereas earlier estimates were based on antenatal clinic data. The NFHS-3 has biases also including the under-representation of high-risk groups. In conclusion although the estimation of HIV trends is reasonably robust we caution that prevalence estimates remain uncertain. Reliable estimation of prevalence requires combining various sources of data including information on AIDS mortality. (full-text)
While several studies have documented the extent of pre-marital sexual experience among young people in India, little work has been done to explore the factors that are correlated with the timing of pre-marital sexual initiation. This paper examines age at initiation of pre-marital sex, circumstances in which first sex was experienced, nature of first sexual experience and correlates of age at initiation of pre-marital sex. Life table estimates suggest that pre-marital sexual initiation occurred in adolescence for 1 in 20 young women and 1 in 10 young men. For the majority of these young people, their first sex was with an opposite-sex romantic partner. First sex, moreover, was unprotected for the majority and forced for sizeable proportion of young women. A number of individual, family-, peer- and community-level factors were correlated with age at first pre-marital sex. Moreover, considerable gender differences were apparent in the correlates of age at first pre-marital sex, with peer- and parent-level factors found more often to be significant for young women than men.
In a population-based representative sample of 2,475 never married persons aged 15-24 years from Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh state in India, 21.7% (95% CI 18.7-24.7) males and 4.6% (95% CI 2.2-7.0) females reported having had sex. Only 22.3% males and 6.3% females reported consistent condom use for premarital sex in the last 6 months. The strongest associations with premarital sex for males were current use of alcohol and tobacco, and for females were not living with parents currently and being an income earner. These findings can inform HIV prevention efforts among young adults in India.
Alcohol and other drug (AOD) use during sexual encounters, sexual partner's age, perceived HIV risk and perceived condom effectiveness were studied among 388 sexually active African American youth. Cluster analysis of condom use, number of partners, and frequency of sexual intercourse identified four groups: low risk, monogamy strategy, condom strategy, and high risk. Low-risk youth used condoms consistently and had few partners. High-risk youth used condoms inconsistently with many partners. Monogamy strategy youth used condoms inconsistently but had few partners. Condom strategy youth used condoms consistently with a moderate number of partners. The high-risk group included more males and the monogamy group included more females. High-risk males reported more AOD use during sexual activity than all females, and low-risk or condom strategy males. Females had older partners, rated condoms as less effective and perceived lower HIV/AIDS risk than males. Results suggest differential HIV risk mechanisms by gender. Implications for gender-specific HIV prevention are discussed.
Estimating the seroprevalence of HIV in a low risk population such as pregnant women provides essential information for an effective implementation of AIDS control programmes, and also for the monitoring of HIV spread within a country. Very few studies are available from north India showing the current trend in HIV prevalence in the antenatal population;which led us to carry outthis study at a tertiary care hospital in north India
Blood samples from pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi were collected after informed consent and pre-test counseling. The samples were tested for HIV antibodies as per the WHO guidelines, over a period of four years from January 2003 to December 2006.
Of the 3529 pregnant women tested in four years, 0.88% (CI 0.5 - 1.24) women were found to be HIV seroreactive. Majority of the seroreactive pregnant women (41.9%) were in the age group of 20-24 years followed by the 30-34 yrs (25.8%) and 25-29 years (22.6%) age group. The mean age of the HIV positive women was 24.9 years (SD +/- 1.49 yrs). The HIV seroprevalence rates showed an increasing trend from 0.7% (CI 0.14 - 2.04) in 2003-2004 to 0.9% (CI 0.49 - 1.5) in 2005-2006. This prevalence rate indicates concern, as Delhi and its adjoining states are otherwise considered as 'low prevalence states'.
Seroprevalence of HIV infection was found to be increasing in the last four years amongst pregnant women of North India. These findings are in contrast to the national projections.
Context.
—A high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in female sex workers (FSWs) and men who attend sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics poses a risk for spread of infection to other populations.Objective.
—To examine spread of HIV to a low-risk population by comparing prevalence of, and risk factors for, HIV and STDs in FSWs and non-FSWs.Methods.
—Women attending STD clinics in Pune, India, were assessed for STDs and HIV from May 13, 1993, to July 11, 1996. Demographic and behavioral information was collected, and clinical and laboratory assessment was performed.Main Outcome Measure.
—Prevalence and risk determinants of HIV infection.Results.
—Of 916 women enrolled, 525 were FSWs and 391 were non-FSWs. Prevalence of HIV in FSWs and non-FSWs was 49.9% and 13.6%, respectively (P<.001). In multivariate analysis, inconsistent condom use and genital ulcer disease or genital warts were associated with prevalent HIV in FSWs. History of sexual contact with a partner with an STD was associated with HIV in non-FSWs.Conclusions.
—Infection with HIV is increasing in non-FSWs, previously thought to be at low risk in India. Since history of sexual contact with their only sex partner was the only risk factor significantly associated with HIV infection, it is likely that these women are being infected by their spouses. This underscores the need for strengthening partner-notification strategies and counseling facilities in India.
Counseling services is an important component of National AIDS Control Program which aims at creating awareness and promoting changes in reducing high risk behavior against HIV/AIDS. Pregnant women attending antenatal clinics are being counseled about HIV/AIDS under prevention of parent to child transmission (PPTCT) program. The objective of this study was to assess (KABP) regarding HIV/AIDS among pregnant women attending PPTCT program before and after counseling at Lok Nayak Hospital, New Delhi. A Quasi-experimental study was conducted. Data was collected by interviewing 600 pregnant women attending ANC clinic during May 2006 to May 2007 using a pre-test and post-test interview schedule. About 69.2% of the pregnant women had heard about AIDS before the counseling. Knowledge regarding mother to child transmission of HIV was 53.5%. 38.2% knew that mother to child transmission can be reduced by drugs. The knowledge of pregnant women about AIDS was significantly different in pre-test (mean score = 15.3) and post test (mean score = 35.6) (P < 0.0001). Attitude of study participants towards people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) indicated that individuals with HIV should be allowed to work (79.9%) and all commercial sex workers should compulsorily be tested for HIV (55.1%). There was significant difference between in pre-test and post-test attitude about PLWHA and HIV testing (p < 0.0001). The condom use among the study participants significantly improved after counseling (1.2% in pre-test and 58.6% after counseling) (p < 0.0001). Counseling services were effective in increasing knowledge and changes in attitude and behavior among pregnant women and the efforts needs to be sustained.
This article examines sociocultural expectations of sexual behavior and the reasons why not using condoms may be logical to married heterosexual couples in India. Married women who report monogamous sexual relationships with their husbands are a high-risk group for HIV infection in India. Based on the public health model and a population-based perspective on HIV infection prevention, this article illustrates the underlying mechanisms that link the role of women in society, holistic health beliefs, and cultural beliefs about the transmission of HIV with the precursors to nonuse of condoms. The author concludes that promoting condom use requires an emphasis on family health, not only as contraceptives. Challenges for reducing the social stigma and developing a comprehensive policy on HIV prevention and AIDS treatment and care are discussed.