Assessing the Significance of Religion in Gender and Migration Studies. New Avenues for Scholarly Inquiry

Abstract

In this article I discuss the need for more systematic integration of approaches dealing with religious beliefs and practices into the discussion about sources and areas of gender social changes that occur in global migration. Firstly, starting from the discussion about negative representations of religiosity in contemporary debates, I consider from theoretical and methodological perspectives why we should move the religious dimension from the margins more to the centre of analysis. Secondly, basing on an exploratory review of empirical research about intersections of religion and gender in the lives of international migrants, I discuss findings that reveal about religion as a potential mediator in the gen-dered revolution. I answer how they help to understand the complexities and ambivalences of social changes and identify the areas they concern. I argue that the revolutionary potential that arises at the intersection of migration, gender and religion is not limited to changing gender orders in religious "

Full text

C
en
t
r
a
l
and Ea
s
t
e
r
n Eu
r
opean M
i
g
r
a
ti
on Rev
i
e
w
Rece
i
ved: 19 Janua
r
y 2018, Accep
t
ed: 24 Decembe
r
2018
Vo
l
. 7,
N
o. 2, 2018, pp. 111!124
do
i
: 10.17467
/
ceem
r
.2018.16
* In
s
tit
u
t
e of
S
oc
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s
aw,
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o
l
and. Addre
ss
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s
ka
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@
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.uw.edu.p
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1996
:
66). Th
i
s
dec
l
ara
ti
on wa
s
for
m
u
l
a
t
ed
t
wo decade
s
ago by Lynne
F
reed
m
an, a fe
m
i
n
i
s
t
l
awyer, who
warned
s
oc
i
a
l
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v
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aga
i
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i
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ti
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li
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m
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w
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t
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s
ua
l
need for re
li
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ss
. Th
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s
dec
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l
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o be referenced
t
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t
o
t
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i
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t
ance
t
ha
t
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till
d
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v
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s
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hace
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a
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fro
m
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h
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ne
s
i
n Europe and
t
he U
S
A,
t
hen deve
l
oped
i
n hundred
s
of
s
t
ud
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e
s
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s
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y
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y
s
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e
m
a
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-
i
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wo
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s
G
l
oba
l
S
ou
t
h or
C
en
t
ra
l
and Ea
s
t
ern Europe
;
and re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y p
l
ay
s
an
i
m
por
t
an
t
ro
l
e
i
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r everyday
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t
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t
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r be
li
ef
s
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l
ue
s
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s
wr
itt
en
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n cu
lt
ura
l
pa
tt
ern
s
.
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s
ed a que
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ti
on
i
f we are fac
i
ng
t
he gendered revo
l
u
ti
on
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on,
s
he referred
it
s
def
i
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iti
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o
t
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s
i
m
il
ar pheno
m
enon of
t
he
m
a
ss
t
ran
s
iti
on of wo
m
en N
m
i
dd
l
e-c
l
a
ss
hou
s
ew
i
ve
s
i
n
t
he
U
S
A and We
s
t
ern Europe N
t
o
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
s
i
nce
t
he
l
a
t
e 1970
s
. O
t
her
s
oc
i
o
l
og
i
s
t
s
, Ar
li
e
R
u
ss
e
l
Hoch
s
ch
il
d and Anne
M
achung (1989), a
s
ked whe
t
her
t
h
i
s
gendered change
i
n
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
N ca
ll
ed
t
he
s
econd
s
h
i
f
t
N wou
l
d change
t
he re
l
a
ti
on
s
h
i
p be
t
ween wo
m
en and
m
en
t
oward
s
m
ore de
m
ocra
ti
c par
t
ner
s
h
i
p
s
.
H7))$I7+ *-../, a
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oc
i
a
t
ed
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he con
t
e
m
porary g
l
oba
l
and p
i
oneer econo
m
i
c
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
of w
i
ve
s
and
m
o
t
her
s
fro
m
t
he G
l
oba
l
S
ou
t
h coun
t
r
i
e
s
w
it
h
t
ha
t
pheno
m
enon of
t
ran
s
iti
on. And
s
he a
s
ked
i
f w
i
der recon
s
t
ruc
ti
on of
ro
l
e
s
i
n hou
s
eho
l
d
s
t
oward
m
ore ega
lit
ar
i
an gender re
l
a
ti
on
s
wou
l
d fo
ll
ow
t
ha
t
m
a
ss
m
i
gra
ti
on? Or
m
aybe we
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i
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t
ner
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p N
t
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o
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s
de
s
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i
bed by Hoch
s
ch
il
d and
M
achung (1989)? In wha
t
d
i
rec
ti
on wou
l
d
t
h
i
s
gender
s
oc
i
a
l
change go? An
s
wer
s
t
o
t
ho
s
e que
s
ti
on
s
i
n
t
he f
i
r
s
t
decade
s
of re
s
earch,
s
i
nce
t
he 1990
s
, a
s
s
hown
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ti
ve ro
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s
.
The
s
epara
ti
on of gender,
m
i
gra
ti
on and re
li
g
i
on re
s
earch area
s
wa
s
no
t
on
l
y due
t
o d
i
s
c
i
p
li
nary d
i
v
i
de
s
w
it
h
i
n
s
oc
i
a
l
s
c
i
ence
s
.
Si
nce
t
he f
i
r
s
t
wave of fe
m
i
n
i
sm
, re
li
g
i
on ha
s
been perce
i
ved ra
t
her a
s
a pr
i
m
ary force
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a
s
an ana
l
y
ti
ca
l
d
i
m
en
s
i
on.
R
e
li
g
i
ou
s
dog
m
a
s
t
ha
t
l
eg
iti
m
i
s
e power
i
nequa
liti
e
s
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on of
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s
en
t
wo
m
en a
s
e
ss
en
ti
a
ll
y
i
nfer
i
or and
m
or-
a
ll
y weak (
M
ah
l
er 2008
:
265). In
s
o
m
e European coun
t
r
i
e
s
,
s
uch a
s
P
o
l
and or Ire
l
and, po
liti
ca
l
h
i
s
t
ory of
li
bera
l
fe
m
i
n
i
s
t
m
ove
m
en
t
s
i
s
l
arge
l
y
s
haped
i
n
t
he f
i
gh
t
aga
i
n
s
t
t
he ro
l
e of
R
o
m
an
C
a
t
ho
li
c
C
hurch
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
i
n gender po
liti
c
s
and power
i
n
t
he
s
e coun
t
r
i
e
s
(
B
obako 2017). On
l
y
i
n
t
he recen
t
decade one can ob
s
erve
s
i
gn
i
f
i
can
t
change
s
t
ha
t
have exer
t
ed
i
m
pac
t
on
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
t
ud
i
e
s
.
Fi
r
s
tl
y,
t
he fe
m
i
n
i
s
t
re
i
n
t
erpre
t
a
ti
on of re
li
-
B6(4 7+ 7 +(&)5$ (< C(;$4E+ $;3(C$);en
t
ha
s
beco
m
e
m
ore v
i
s
i
b
l
e,
m
o
s
tl
y due
t
o deba
t
e
s
on
m
u
lti
cu
lt
ura
l
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(
B
obako 2017
;
M
ah
m
ood 2012). A
s
M
on
i
ca
M
ah
l
er (2008
:
266) po
i
n
t
ed ou
t
i
n her ar
ti
c
l
e on re
li
g
i
on, v
i
o
l
ence
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ng re
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g
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ou
s
be
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ng, and re
li
g
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s
t
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iti
on
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t
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, ha
s
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o an
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s
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ng cha
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enge
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he
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uppo
s
ed
i
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a
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s
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ed and
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h
i
f
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ng cu
lt
ura
l
t
erra
i
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li
ke any o
t
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s
it
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i
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ch
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2008) a
s
we
ll
a
s
f
i
nd
i
ng
s
of
t
ran
s
na
ti
ona
l
approach
t
o g
l
oba
l
m
ob
ilit
y con
s
tit
u
t
ed an
i
m
por
t
an
t
i
m
pu
l
s
e for
gendered approach
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
t
ud
i
e
s
.
Fi
r
s
t
s
u
mm
ar
i
s
a
ti
on
s
of
t
he
s
e paper
s
s
how var
i
ou
s
i
n
t
ere
s
ti
ng pro-
ce
ss
e
s
of gender
i
s
a
ti
on of
i
mm
i
gran
t
re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y and
it
s
e
m
power
i
ng po
t
en
ti
a
l
(
R
yan and Vacche
lli
2013). They
)$>$78$9 78+( A'#$ C7D+ re
li
g
i
on
i
s
i
m
por
t
an
t
for
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
ou
t
s
i
de of re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n
s
oc
i
a
l
i
n
s
ti
-
t
u
ti
on
s
,
i
nc
l
ud
i
ng c
i
v
i
c organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
, fa
m
ili
e
s
, workp
l
ace
s
,
s
choo
l
s
, and hea
lt
h-57)$ ()B746+7'6(4+E *=79B$
and Eck
l
und 2007
:
359). A
ll
of
t
he
s
e ha
s
l
ed
t
o an
i
ncrea
s
i
ng
i
n
t
ere
s
t
i
n a
m
u
lti
d
i
s
c
i
p
li
nary and
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
ona
l
e
m
p
i
r
i
ca
l
re
s
earch
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
t
ud
i
e
s
and ha
s
i
n
iti
a
t
ed a
t
heore
ti
ca
l
deba
t
e on gendered change, re
li
g
i
on and
m
i
gra
ti
on.
The goa
l
of
t
h
i
s
ar
ti
c
l
e
i
s
a
m
ore
s
y
s
t
e
m
a
ti
c
i
n
t
egra
ti
on of re
li
g
i
on
i
n
t
o
t
he d
i
s
cu
ss
i
on abou
t
a gendered
s
oc
i
a
l
change and g
l
oba
l
m
i
gra
ti
on. I con
t
r
i
bu
t
e
t
o
t
he ex
i
s
ti
ng know
l
edge
i
n
t
wo way
s
:

C
en
t
r
a
l
and Ea
s
t
e
r
n Eu
r
opean M
i
g
r
a
ti
on Rev
i
e
w
113
1.
Fi
r
s
tl
y,
s
t
ar
ti
ng fro
m
t
he d
i
s
cu
ss
i
on abou
t
t
he po
s
t
-
s
ecu
l
ar
s
kep
ti
c
i
sm
t
o
t
he ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
on
i
n con-
t
e
m
porary wor
l
d and
s
t
ereo
t
yp
i
ng of re
li
g
i
on
i
n con
t
e
m
porary deba
t
e
s
, I po
i
n
t
ou
t
why we
s
hou
l
d
i
nc
l
ude re
li
g
i
on a
s
one of
t
he key d
i
m
en
s
i
on
s
of ana
l
y
s
i
s
t
o under
s
t
and
t
he co
m
p
l
ex
it
y and a
m
b
i
va-
l
ence of gendered
s
oc
i
a
l
change
i
n g
l
oba
l
m
i
gra
ti
on.
2.
S
econd
l
y, I d
i
s
cu
ss
wha
t
t
he ex
i
s
ti
ng e
m
p
i
r
i
ca
l
re
s
earch of (
t
ran
s
)
m
i
gran
t
s
revea
l
s
abou
t
re
li
g
i
ou
s
i
ss
ue
s
a
s
a po
t
en
ti
a
l
m
ed
i
a
t
or
i
n
t
he gendered
s
oc
i
a
l
change
s
and
i
den
ti
fy
t
he area
s
t
hey concern.
I argue
t
ha
t
t
he po
t
en
ti
a
l
for change
t
ha
t
ar
i
s
e
s
a
t
t
he
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
on of
m
i
gra
ti
on, gender and re
li
g
i
on
i
s
no
t
li
m
it
ed
t
o chang
i
ng gender order
s
i
n re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
. I
t
i
s
re
li
g
i
ou
s
be
li
ef
s
t
he
ms
e
l
ve
s
t
ha
t
64<8&$45$ ;6B)74'+E $>$)D97D 86>$+ 749 5#788$4B$ '#$ $R6+'64B B$49$)$9 5(4')75' 64 87D 7)$7+Q 64 C()L
re
l
a
ti
on
s
, c
i
v
i
c and po
liti
ca
l
par
ti
c
i
pa
ti
on. Thu
s
,
t
he purpo
s
e of
t
he ar
ti
c
l
e
i
s
a pre
li
m
i
nary, exp
l
ora
t
ory
rev
i
ew of
t
h
i
s
t
ype of re
s
earch.
A
lt
hough
t
he d
i
s
cu
ss
i
on abou
t
t
he re
l
a
ti
on
s
h
i
p be
t
ween re
li
g
i
on and
m
i
gra
ti
on ha
s
beco
m
e pre
s
en
t
i
n p
i
oneer
lit
era
t
ure rev
i
ew
s
, we are dea
li
ng w
it
h
t
he genera
l
l
ack of
s
y
s
t
e
m
a
ti
c
i
nqu
i
ry and rev
i
ew
i
n
t
o
t
he ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
on
a
s
a
m
ed
i
a
t
or
i
n gendered change
s
exper
i
enced by g
l
oba
l
m
i
gran
t
s
. Therefore,
t
he ar
ti
c
l
e
i
s
an a
tt
e
m
p
t
t
o
an
s
wer H$BBD Y$>6''E+ 5788 '( A3&' )$86B6(4 <)(4' 749 5$4'$) 64 (&) 7''$;3'+ '( &4der
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t
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hu
s
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l
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s
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L
o
s
t
in
t
h
e
p
o
s
t-
s
ec
ul
ar
s
k
e
p
t
i
c
i
s
m
The rea
s
on for
t
he
s
l
ow deve
l
op
m
en
t
of re
s
earch
s
how
i
ng
t
he re
l
a
ti
on
s
h
i
p be
t
ween re
li
g
i
on and gender change
s
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on ha
s
a w
i
der background
t
han fe
m
i
n
i
s
t
cr
iti
c
s
. On
t
he one hand,
s
oc
i
a
l
s
c
i
ence
s
are
i
nf
l
uenced by
po
s
t
-
s
ecu
l
ar
s
kep
ti
c
i
sm
, on
t
he o
t
her hand,
t
he
i
nc
l
u
s
i
on of re
li
g
i
on
i
n re
s
earch
i
n
t
he con
t
ex
t
of
it
s
nega
ti
ve
i
m
pac
t
and
m
i
s
under
s
t
and
i
ng
s
preva
il
s
. I w
ill
d
i
s
cu
ss
here
t
he
s
e
t
wo pheno
m
ena
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
t
o gender and
m
i
gra
ti
on re
s
earch.
Fi
r
s
tl
y,
i
n
t
he
s
econd ha
l
f of
t
he
t
wen
ti
e
t
h cen
t
ury
t
he neg
l
ec
t
of re
li
g
i
on per
s
pec
ti
ve on re
s
earch agenda
wa
s
exp
l
a
i
ned by
t
he
s
kep
ti
c
i
sm
of con
t
e
m
porary re
s
earcher
s
i
n
t
he f
i
e
l
d of
s
oc
i
a
l
s
c
i
ence
s
a
s
t
o
t
he
i
m
por
t
ance
of re
li
g
i
ou
s
be
li
ef
s
and prac
ti
ce
s
i
n
t
he
li
fe of
t
he
i
nd
i
v
i
dua
l
i
n po
s
t
-
s
ecu
l
ar Europe and Nor
t
h A
m
er
i
ca (
C
adge
and Eck
l
und 2007
;
Ebaugh and
C
hafe
t
z 2000).
S
oc
i
o
l
og
i
s
t
P
eggy Lev
itt
, who advoca
t
e
s
g
i
v
i
ng
m
ore recogn
i
-
ti
on
t
o
t
he ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y and
s
p
i
r
it
ua
lit
y
i
n $>$)D97D 86<$ (< ;6B)74'+ *7 A86>$9 )$86B6(4E 733)(75#, )$<$)+ '(
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a
s
ecu
l
ar wor
l
d where re
li
g
i
on
i
s
an aberra
ti
on ra
t
her
t
han a nor
m
a
l
par
t
of da
il
y
li
fe.
B
ecau
s
e
s
urvey
s
i
nd
i
ca
t
e
'#7' ;(+' 3$(38$ 9(4E' B( '( 5#&)5# (4 O&497D+ *$R5$3' 64 '#$ J46'$9 O'7'$+Q C#$)$ 3$(38$ 9( 7' #6B#$) 8$>$8+
t
han
i
n any o
t
her coun
t
ry w
it
h a co
m
parab
l
e
s
t
andard of
li
v
i
ng), we conf
i
den
tl
y dec
l
ared
t
ha
t
re
li
g
i
on wa
s
of
littl
e
i
m
por
t
ance.
B
u
t
, of cour
s
e,
t
ha
t
fa
il
ed
t
o
t
ake
i
n
t
o accoun
t
t
he deep way
s
i
n wh
i
ch re
li
g
i
on
i
s
e
m
bedded
64 :)65L+ 749 ;()'7)E *Y$>6'' -./-W -,1
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t
er a
s
i
m
il
ar
s
it
ua
ti
on
i
n
t
he f
i
e
l
d of
s
t
ud
i
e
s
of gender and
s
oc
i
a
l
change
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on, wh
i
ch ha
s
been deve
l
op
i
ng for
m
ore
t
han
t
wo decade
s
, and
it
s
fru
it
i
s
a huge nu
m
ber of pub
li
ca
ti
on
s
on
m
i
gran
t
s
fro
m
around
t
he wor
l
d. Ana
l
y
s
i
ng
t
he
l
ead
i
ng re
s
earch per
s
pec
ti
ve
s
and re
s
earch
s
u
mm
ar
i
e
s
,
it
i
s
d
i
ff
i
cu
lt
no
t
t
o
no
ti
ce
t
ha
t
re
s
earch rare
l
y p
l
ace
s
re
li
g
i
ou
s
and
s
p
i
r
it
ua
lit
y
i
ss
ue
s
a
m
ong
m
e
t
hodo
l
og
i
ca
l
and
t
heore
ti
ca
l
ap-
proache
s
dea
li
ng w
it
h gendered ro
l
e
s
chang
i
ng. The an
s
wer
t
o
t
he que
s
ti
on per
t
a
i
n
i
ng
t
o
t
he
s
pec
i
f
i
c
s
and
d
i
rec
ti
on
s
of gender and
s
oc
i
a
l
change
s
i
s
pr
i
m
ar
il
y
s
ough
t
i
n
t
he con
t
ex
t
of g
l
oba
l
econo
m
i
c
i
nequa
liti
e
s
,
wh
i
ch re
s
u
lt
i
n
t
he recon
s
t
ruc
ti
on of care work
m
arke
t
s
and gender order
s
. The
m
o
s
t
i
m
por
t
an
t
re
s
earch area
s

114 8* 9#/%:(;%
focu
s
on
t
he new profe
ss
i
ona
l
po
s
iti
on of wo
m
en, new gender order
s
i
n
t
he fa
m
il
y and co
mm
un
iti
e
s
w
it
h
i
n
t
he con
t
ex' (< ')74+47'6(478 86<$ *A#$)$ 749 '#$)$E,Q 37''$)4+ (< )$5(4+')&5'6(4 (< 57)64B )(8$+ 749 <7;68D 69$4'6e
ti
e
s
i
n
m
ob
ilit
y. However,
t
he
m
arg
i
na
l
pre
s
ence of ana
l
y
s
e
s
of
t
he ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
ou
s
be
li
ef
s
and prac
ti
ce
s
i
n
gender and
s
oc
i
a
l
change proce
ss
e
s
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
i
s
a k
i
nd of paradox
i
f we rea
li
s
e
t
ha
t
m
any re
s
earcher
s
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When we po
s
e que
s
ti
on
s
abou
t
gendered revo
l
u
ti
on
i
n
t
he area of fa
m
il
y, care and work, bu
t
a
l
s
o
i
n pub
li
c
li
fe,
t
he broad
l
y under
s
t
ood re
li
g
i
ou
s
d
i
m
en
s
i
on
s
hou
l
d
t
ake a
m
ore
i
m
por
t
an
t
p
l
ace
i
n re
s
earch. I
t
i
s
d
i
ff
i
cu
lt
t
o
i
m
ag
i
ne renego
ti
a
ti
on
s
of gender ru
l
e
s
w
it
hou
t
m
ed
i
a
ti
on of re
li
g
i
ou
s
be
li
ef
s
and prac
ti
ce
s
a
s
we
ll
a
s
it
s
s
t
ruc
t
ure
s
. Even when a per
s
on
i
s
no
t
re
li
g
i
ou
s
, he canno
t
e
s
cape
t
he pre
ss
ure
s
and cu
lt
ura
l
de
m
and
s
. Thu
s
,
gender ru
l
e
s
are very c
l
o
s
e
l
y re
l
a
t
ed
t
o re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y.
M
any
s
t
ud
i
e
s
po
i
n
t
t
o
t
he d
i
rec
t
re
l
a
ti
on
s
h
i
p be
t
ween re
li
-
g
i
ou
s
va
l
ue
s
and gender ro
l
e
s
.
P
a
t
r
i
archa
l
a
ttit
ude
s
, for exa
m
p
l
e, are
s
t
rong
l
y a
ss
oc
i
a
t
ed w
it
h
t
he
C
hr
i
s
ti
an
t
rad
iti
on. The founda
ti
on of
t
h
i
s
t
rad
iti
on on
m
a
s
cu
li
n
i
s
ed cu
lt
ure ha
s
i
nf
l
uenced
t
he va
li
da
ti
on of d
i
fference
s
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
s
be
t
ween
m
en and wo
m
en, wh
i
ch
i
s
ref
l
ec
t
ed
i
n
i
den
ti
fy
i
ng
t
he ro
l
e of wo
m
en w
it
h car
i
ng and
t
he
s
phere of
t
he ho
m
e ra
t
her
t
han
t
he p
l
ace on
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
(
S
herka
t
2000 and Hof
s
t
ede 1980, 1991, af
t
er
:
Vo
i
cu 2009
:
145). Thu
s
, how w
ill
t
he
s
e re
l
a
ti
on
s
change
i
n a new con
t
ex
t
, when
m
i
gra
ti
on a
s
an
i
m
por
t
an
t
m
odern
i
s
a
ti
on
m
echan
i
sm
favour
s
s
ecu
l
ar
i
s
a
ti
on (Vo
i
cu 2009) and prov
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econd
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t
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l
approach and
t
he
t
endency
t
o neg
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ec
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re
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and
s
p
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it
ua
lit
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d
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m
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on
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s
earch agenda
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er
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for who
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e
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por
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i
s
i
s
re
l
a
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ed
t
o reduc
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t
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i
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i
f
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cance of re
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s
l
a
m
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beco
m
e a grow
t
h
i
ndu
s
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ry (
B
obako 2017
;
Lev
itt
2012
:
2
;
Lu
t
z
1997
;
S
zczepan
i
kova 2012). The con
s
equence
s
of
s
uch reduc
ti
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s
ub
s
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ti
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l
becau
s
e
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l
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it
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it
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u
s
ti
f
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t
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e d
i
fference
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be
t
ween
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2007), and a
s
s
uch beco
m
e
s
t
he
t
echno
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ogy of power (
s
ee
B
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s
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a
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s
i
n refugee cen
t
re
s
i
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ou
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coun
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and oppre
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i
f pa
t
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ms
re
m
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s
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en
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o
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gender prac
ti
ce
s
, even
i
f
t
hey co
m
e fro
m
t
he
s
a
m
e

C
en
t
r
a
l
and Ea
s
t
e
r
n Eu
r
opean M
i
g
r
a
ti
on Rev
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e
w
115
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ro
l
e
s
of re
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i
on a
s
e
it
her fac
ilit
a
ti
ng or ob
s
t
ruc
ti
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t
he
i
ncorpora
ti
on of
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mm
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ti
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s
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n cop
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it
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enced
t
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nc
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urn
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s
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s
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t
s
t
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C
ond
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onged
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n
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t
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ilit
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a
t
endency
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li
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t
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i
n
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tit
u
ti
on
s
t
ha
t
are
m
o
s
t
re
s
ili
en
t
a
t
ti
m
e
s
of cr
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it
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it
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t
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t
ended
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s
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on
i
s
a
ti
on beco
m
e
s
c
l
earer when we acknow
l
edge
t
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s
t
ruc
ti
v
i
s
t
na
t
ure of re
li
g
i
on and
l
ook a
t
it
a
l
s
o a
s
a
s
ource of agency.
M
on
i
ca
M
ah
l
er no
t
e
s
t
ha
t
af
t
er cr
iti
c
i
sm
of re
li
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i
on a
s
a
m
a
i
n
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ource of
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M
ah
l
er 2008
:
265).
R
e-
li
g
i
o
s
it
y can be,
t
herefore, no
t
on
l
y a
m
echan
i
sm
reproduc
i
ng
t
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i
s
ti
ng order of power,
i
nc
l
ud
i
ng
t
he gender
reg
i
m
e
s
, bu
t
a
l
s
o a
s
ource of
s
t
reng
t
h and agency,
s
o
t
ha
t
s
uch ex
i
s
ti
ng order can be changed
i
n var
i
ou
s
way
s
fro
m
t
he
i
n
s
i
de or fro
m
ex
t
erna
l
po
s
iti
on
s
(Woodhead 2013). A
l
o
t
of re
s
earch ha
s
s
hown
t
he pa
tt
ern
s
i
n wh
i
ch
wo
m
en u
s
e re
li
g
i
on and
it
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
t
o con
t
end for ega
lit
ar
i
an
i
sm
a
s
s
pace
s
i
n wh
i
ch
t
o ra
i
s
e fe
m
i
n
i
s
t
con
s
c
i
ou
s
ne
ss
w
it
h o
t
her
s
(Ebaugh and
C
hafe
t
z 1999
:
586N587). In
t
urn, o
t
her gender and re
li
g
i
on
s
t
ud
i
e
s
of
t
en
s
how
s
p
i
r
it
ua
lit
y, and re
li
g
i
ou
s
prac
ti
ce
s
and be
li
eve
s
a
s
t
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l
y
s
ource of agency and e
m
power
m
en
t
for
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l
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t
ha
t
t
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der genera
ti
on
s
of
P
o
li
s
h wo
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t
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c
ti
ms
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uded
m
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sms
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t
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s
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i
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li
s
t
t
ran
s
for
m
a
ti
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t
o
t
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t
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s
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t
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m
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s
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ec
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l
ve
t
he prob
l
e
m
t
ha
t
Fl
oya An
t
h
i
a
s
and
M
a
j
a
C
ederberg (2010
:
28) ca
ll
t
he ho
m
ogen
i
s
a
ti
on of
t
he exper
i
ence
s
of
m
i
gran
t
wo
m
en, a
s
we
ll
a
s
t
o 7>(69 '#$ )6+L (< 5(8(46+7'6(4 () '#$ ()6$4'786+7'6(4 (< ;6B)74' C(;$4E+ 69$4'6'6$+1 @'
wou
l
d a
l
s
o he
l
p
t
o re-exa
m
i
ne
t
he proce
ss
e
s
of
s
ecu
l
ar
i
s
a
ti
on
i
n
t
he con
t
ex
t
of
m
i
gra
ti
on.

116 8* 9#/%:(;%
Re
li
g
i
o
n
a
s
a me
di
ator
in
s
oc
i
a
l
c
h
a
n
ge ! t
h
e rev
i
ew of em
pi
r
i
ca
l
ge
nd
er a
nd
m
i
grat
i
o
n
re
s
earc
h
I
t
i
s
no
t
ea
s
y
t
o an
s
wer
t
he que
s
ti
on per
t
a
i
n
i
ng
t
o where
t
he pheno
m
ena re
l
a
t
ed
t
o re
li
g
i
on and re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y
a
l
ready occur
i
n e
m
p
i
r
i
ca
l
m
i
gra
ti
on re
s
earch, and, above a
ll
, wh
i
ch pheno
m
ena re
l
a
t
ed
t
o gender are perce
i
ved
i
n
t
h
i
s
s
cope. The f
i
r
s
t
ana
l
y
s
e
s
s
u
mm
ar
i
s
i
ng
t
he e
m
p
i
r
i
ca
l
re
s
earch ach
i
eve
m
en
t
s
a
t
t
he
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
on of re
li
g
i
on
and
m
i
gra
ti
on have appeared on
l
y recen
tl
y. In a
ll
t
he
s
e ana
l
y
s
e
s
, re
s
earcher
s
pa
i
d a
tt
en
ti
on
t
o
t
he
i
m
por
t
ance
of
t
he pheno
m
enon of gender
i
s
a
ti
on of re
li
g
i
on or
it
s
m
ed
i
a
ti
on
i
n
s
oc
i
a
l
change
s
(
C
adge and Eck
l
und 2007
;
Ebaugh and
C
hafe
t
z 1999
;
Lev
itt
and
J
awor
s
ky 2007
;
Yang and Ebaugh 2001). However,
s
uch re
s
earch
i
s
s
till
+57)5$1 "#$)$ 7)$ (48D 7 <$C +3$5678 6++&$+ *$1B1 [(46<756( 749 %4B$8$+ -./.^ c(d9U67L 74d
S
handy 2002
;
Long
m
an,
M
i
dden and van den
B
rand
t
2012
;
R
yan and Vacche
lli
2013), a few book
s
(e.g.
B
obako 2017
;
Lev
itt
-./-, 749Q 7:(>$ 788Q +57''$)$9Q +64B8$ 57+$ +'&96$+ *$1B1 c(d9U67L -..-^ \]C$8;$6$) -./.^ _75L+(4 -./`^ a$D
2013
;
W
illi
a
ms
2008). A
lt
hough
t
hey are very few,
t
hey an
s
wer
t
he key que
s
ti
on of
t
h
i
s
ar
ti
c
l
e whe
t
her and
how d
i
fferen
t
a
s
pec
t
s
of re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y
m
ed
i
a
t
e
i
n
s
oc
i
a
l
change a
t
t
he
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
on of
m
i
gra
ti
on and gender. Nev-
er
t
he
l
e
ss
,
it
m
u
s
t
be re
m
e
m
bered
t
ha
t
it
w
ill
s
till
be a p
i
c
t
ure
t
ha
t
i
s
no
t
co
m
p
l
e
t
e, becau
s
e
t
he
i
ss
ue of re
li
g
i
on
began
t
o be
t
he
s
ub
j
ec
t
of a broader
i
n
t
ere
s
t
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on re
s
earch on
l
y
i
n
t
he 1990
s
and
s
i
nce
t
hen ha
s
been
deve
l
op
i
ng ra
t
her
s
l
ow
l
y (
C
adge and Eck
l
und 2007
;
Ebaugh and
C
hafe
t
z 1999
;
Yang and Ebaugh 2001). A
s
7 ;7''$) (< <75'Q 6< )$86B6(4 #7+ 78)$79D :$$4 +'&96$9Q 6' 6+ &+&788D C6'#64 '#$ <)7;$C()L (< +3$56<65 A)$86B6(&+
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
s
t
ar
t
ed and
/
or a
tt
ended by
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
(...) ra
t
her
t
han of
t
he
s
oc
i
a
l
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
, fa
m
ili
e
s
, work-
p
l
ace
s
, hea
lt
h-care orga46+7'6(4+ () ('#$) +(5678 64+'6'&'6(4+E ;65)( 5(4'$R'+ <(5&+$9 (4 6496>69&78+E $R3$)6e
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exper
i
ence
s
i
n a range of
s
oc
i
a
l
s
phere
s
i
s
re
l
a
ti
ve
l
y new
t
o
t
h6+ 7)$7 (< )$+$7)5#E *=79B$ 749 T5L8&49 -..iW
360). The ava
il
ab
l
e
s
t
ud
i
e
s
are pr
i
m
ar
il
y
m
onograph
i
c, de
s
cr
i
p
ti
ve paper
s
, docu
m
en
ti
ng
t
he ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
of
sm
a
ll
,
e
t
hn
i
c re
li
g
i
ou
s
a
ss
e
m
b
li
e
s
of
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
. There
i
s
no co
m
para
ti
ve ana
l
y
s
i
s
s
yn
t
he
s
i
s
i
ng
t
he accu
m
u
l
a
t
ed
know
l
edge. De
s
p
it
e every
t
h
i
ng,
t
he rev
i
ew of ava
il
ab
l
e
m
onograph
s
a
ll
ow
s
t
o char
t
pa
tt
ern
s
.
L
it
era
t
ure ana
l
y
s
i
s
w
ill
be d
i
v
i
ded
i
n
t
o
t
hree
s
ec
ti
on
s
. In
t
he f
i
r
s
t
s
ec
ti
on, I w
ill
d
i
s
cu
ss
gendered change
s
t
hrough re
li
g
i
on a
s
t
he effec
t
of
t
op-down pre
ss
ure. I w
ill
pre
s
en
t
new func
ti
on
s
and po
s
iti
on
s
i
n
l
ay and re
li
-
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on proce
ss
e
s
a
s
t
he effec
t
of
t
he pre
ss
ure of new
m
acro- and
m
ezo-
s
t
ruc
t
ure
s
.
In
t
he
s
econd
s
ec
ti
on, I w
ill
dep
i
c
t
gendered change
s
t
hrough re
li
g
i
on a
s
t
he effec
t
of bo
tt
o
m
-up pre
ss
ure.
I w
ill
de
s
cr
i
be
t
he
i
nf
l
uence of be
li
ef
s
and prac
ti
ce
s
on crea
ti
ng and redef
i
n
i
ng gendered ro
l
e
s
i
n
l
ay and re
li
-
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on proce
ss
e
s
. The
l
a
s
t
s
ec
ti
on w
ill
focu
s
on
t
he unno
ti
ced ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
on
i
n
reproduc
ti
on of g
l
oba
l
gendered d
i
v
i
s
i
on of
m
arke
t
s
.
Gende
r
ed change
s
t
h
r
ough
r
e
li
g
i
on a
s
t
he e
ff
ec
t
o
f
t
op-do
w
n p
r
e
ss
u
r
e.
N
e
w
f
unc
ti
on
s
and po
s
iti
on
s
i
n
l
ay and
r
e
li
g
i
ou
s
o
r
gan
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n m
i
g
r
a
ti
on p
r
oce
ss
e
s
One of
t
he key area
s
i
n
t
he f
i
e
l
d of
m
i
gra
ti
on re
s
earch
i
s
t
he ana
l
y
s
i
s
of gender change
s
i
n func
ti
on
i
ng of
l
ay
and re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
t
o
t
he ana
l
og
i
ca
l
one
s
i
n
t
he coun
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n. Here
t
he a
tt
en
ti
on
i
s
pa
i
d
t
o d
i
fferen
t
po
s
iti
on
s
of wo
m
en and
m
en a
s
t
he
i
n
iti
a
t
or
s
of
t
he
s
e change
s
, wh
i
ch re
s
u
lt
s
fro
m
t
he
i
r new,
d
i
fferen
t
po
s
iti
on on
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
and new pa
tt
ern
s
of ac
ti
v
it
y
t
ha
t
open
s
pace
s
for bo
t
h e
m
power
m
en
t
and re-
t
rad
iti
ona
li
s
a
ti
on.
Fi
r
s
tl
y,
t
he ba
s
i
c d
i
m
en
s
i
on of
t
he
s
t
udy of
t
he organ
i
s
a
ti
ona
l
change
s
of re
li
g
i
ou
s
and
s
ecu
l
ar
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
i
s
a
l
s
o an a
tt
e
m
p
t
t
o under
s
t
and how d
i
ver
s
e
l
y
t
he
s
e
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
m
ed
i
a
t
e
i
n
t
he proce
ss
of
i
n
t
egra
ti
on of wo
m
en
and
m
en
i
n
t
o a new coun
t
ry.
M
o
s
t
m
onograph
s
docu
m
en
t
a huge ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n prov
i
d
i
ng
for
m
a
l
and
i
nfor
m
a
l
s
oc
i
a
l
a
ss
i
s
t
ance
t
o
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
.
S
uch ac
ti
on
s
are
t
aken no
t
s
o
m
uch by profe
ss
i
ona
l
c
l
er-
gy
m
en bu
t
by
s
ecu
l
ar peop
l
e ga
t
hered around re
li
g
i
ou
s
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
. And a
s
a nu
m
ber of
s
t
ud
i
e
s
s
how,
t
he
s
e

C
en
t
r
a
l
and Ea
s
t
e
r
n Eu
r
opean M
i
g
r
a
ti
on Rev
i
e
w
117
are
l
arge
l
y wo
m
en who
i
n vo
l
un
t
eer
i
ng f
i
nd
t
he po
ss
i
b
ilit
y
t
o fu
l
f
ill
t
he ro
l
e of devo
t
ed carer
s
. Add
iti
ona
ll
y,
wo
m
en
s
eek
s
uppor
t
and he
l
p
i
n
t
he care and educa
ti
on of
t
he
i
r off
s
pr
i
ng, wh
i
ch are ob
t
a
i
ned
t
hrough en
t
er
i
ng
and ac
ti
ng
i
n
s
oc
i
a
l
ne
t
work
s
cen
t
ered around re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
. W
i
der
t
han
i
n
t
he coun
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n,
t
he non-re
li
g
i
ou
s
func
ti
on of
t
he par
i
s
h and
m
i
ss
i
on cover
s
t
he who
l
e range of
i
nfor
m
a
l
s
uppor
t
i
nc
l
ud
i
ng he
l
p
i
n f
i
nd
i
ng a f
l
a
t
or a
j
ob,
s
choo
l
and care for ch
il
dren
i
n
t
he ca
s
e of ch
il
db
i
r
t
h,
ill
ne
ss
or dea
t
h, educa
ti
on of
ch
il
dren
i
n
t
he
i
r na
ti
ve
l
anguage, and even
s
t
ar
ti
ng
t
he
i
r own bu
s
i
ne
ss
and
t
ak
i
ng
m
or
t
gage
s
. Th
i
s
i
s
e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
i
m
por
t
an
t
for fa
m
ili
e
s
of econo
m
i
c
m
i
gran
t
s
work
i
ng
i
n
t
he
l
owe
s
t
s
ec
t
or
s
of
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
and,
t
herefore,
exper
i
enc
i
ng
m
u
lti
p
l
e exc
l
u
s
i
on
s
.
B
ank
s
t
on and Zhou (1995, 1996) argue
t
ha
t
V
i
e
t
na
m
e
s
e ch
il
dren and
t
he
i
r
carer
s
rece
i
ve pro
t
ec
ti
on and
s
uppor
t
i
n re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
t
ha
t
m
ed
i
a
t
e educa
ti
ona
l
s
ucce
ss
and be
tt
er
adap
t
a
ti
on
t
o A
m
er
i
can
s
oc
i
e
t
y.
R
e
s
earcher
s
of
t
he
C
h
i
ne
s
e work
i
ng-c
l
a
ss
i
mm
i
gran
t
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
i
n New
n()LE+ =#647'(C4 +#(C '#7' '#$ 755$++ '( +&5# 7 <)6$498D +375$ 6+ 6;3()'74'Q $+3$56788D <() '$$47B$ 6;;6B)74'+
C#( 7)$ >&84$)7:8$ '( A974B$)(&+ 749 9$+')&5'6>$ :$#7>6() 37''$)4+E1 P$'C()L+ B7'#$)$9 7)(&49 8(578 5#&)5#$+
p
l
ay ro
l
e
s
s
i
m
il
ar
t
o fo
s
t
er fa
m
ili
e
s
,
i
n wh
i
ch
t
hey rece
i
ve
s
oc
i
a
l
, f
i
nanc
i
a
l
and car
i
ng
s
uppor
t
, wh
i
ch fac
ilit
a
t
e
s
t
he proce
ss
of
s
oc
i
a
l
pro
m
o
ti
on
t
o
t
he
m
i
dd
l
e c
l
a
ss
(
C
ao 2005
;
Gue
s
t
2003).
S
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
t
he d
i
fference
s
i
n def
i
n
i
ng gendered
m
i
gra
ti
on func
ti
on
s
of re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
are
s
o
l
arge
a
m
ong re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n
t
he coun
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n and
i
n
t
he
s
end
i
ng coun
t
r
i
e
s
of
m
i
gran
t
s
t
ha
t
s
o
m
e of
t
he organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
s
i
gn
i
f
i
can
tl
y
l
oo
s
en
t
he
ti
e
s
li
nk
i
ng
t
he
m
w
it
h
t
he
i
r headquar
t
er
s
. Th
i
s
i
s
t
he ca
s
e e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
when
t
he re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
opera
ti
ng
i
n an
i
mm
i
gra
ti
on coun
t
ry have
l
e
ss
pa
t
r
i
archa
l
s
t
ruc
t
ure
s
t
han
i
n
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s
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t
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s
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t
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mm
on
t
o
s
ee
s
p
lit
s
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l
a
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t
o a d
i
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t
v
i
s
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ti
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fro
m
h
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s
t
or
i
ca
l
and gendered per
s
pec
ti
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s
po
i
n
t
s
ou
t
how non-European branche
s
of
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s
and fro
m
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o
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her
s
s
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i
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s
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e
l
ve
s
. Th
i
s
s
t
reng
t
hened
t
he refor
ms
t
ha
t
t
ook p
l
ace
i
n
t
he
1960
s
af
t
er
t
he
S
econd Va
ti
can
C
ounc
il
, wh
i
ch were
t
o
s
uppor
t
t
he
m
i
ss
i
onary func
ti
on
s
of re
li
g
i
ou
s
order
s
.
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t
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t
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s
y
m
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l
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rugg
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o abo
li
s
h
t
he h
i
erarchy and of
t
he f
i
gh
t
for
t
he new
i
dea of
s
i
s
t
erhood and
i
ndependence wa
s
t
he que
s
ti
on of wear
i
ng
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ti
on
s
w
it
h
t
he
i
r
s
uper
i
or
s
i
n Ger
m
any. However,
t
he an
t
hropo
l
og
i
s
t
re
m
ark
s
t
ha
t
t
h
i
s
proce
ss
of
i
nd
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v
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s
a
ti
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pr
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m
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s
of order
s
i
n wh
i
ch
s
en
t
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t
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ll
y
i
nd
i
v
i
dua
li
s
ed or where
nun
s
fro
m
i
nd
i
genou
s
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
of Afr
i
ca, A
s
i
a, and
S
ou
t
h A
m
er
i
ca en
t
ered and
s
t
rugg
l
ed
t
o
t
ake
i
n
t
o
755(&4' '#$6) 5&8'&)78 96<<$)$45$+1 \]C$8;$6$) *-./?, 9$+5)6:$+ '#$ 3)('$+'+ (< 6496B$4(&+ \649&+ C#( <(&B#'
t
o break
t
he e
t
hnocen
t
r
i
sm
of
t
he
i
r pr
i
ore
ss
. They wan
t
ed
t
o
i
n
t
roduce
l
oca
l
cu
lt
ura
l
pa
tt
ern
s
, a r
it
ua
l
of
s
itti
ng
i
n
s
t
ead of knee
li
ng, ea
ti
ng
m
ea
l
s
prepared
i
n accordance w
it
h ru
l
e
s
of
t
he H
i
ndu cu
i
s
i
ne
i
n
s
t
ead of
t
he Ger
m
an one.
New
i
mm
i
gran
t
prac
ti
ce
s
change func
ti
on
s
and re
l
a
t
ed gender order
s
i
n
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
or
i
g
i
na
ti
ng
i
n
t
he coun-
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n.
F
or exa
m
p
l
e,
i
n
t
he U
S
A, under
l
y
i
ng
l
y h
i
erarch
i
ca
l
i
mm
i
gran
t
churche
s
have a
t
endency
t
o
t
ran
s
for
m
w
it
h
ti
m
e
i
n
t
o
sm
a
ll
congrega
ti
on
s
, a
ss
oc
i
a
ti
on
s
w
it
h ra
t
her d
i
rec
t
, hor
i
zon
t
a
l
re
l
a
ti
on
s
h
i
p
s
and d
i
f-
feren
t
, far
m
ore ega
lit
ar
i
an gender re
l
a
ti
on
s
. Th
i
s
i
s
t
he effec
t
of
t
he
i
nf
l
uence of A
m
er
i
can cu
lt
ure ba
s
ed on
congrega
ti
ona
li
sm
(Warner and W
itt
ner 1998
;
Yang and Ebaugh 2001). And a
lt
hough
m
any of
t
he
s
e congre-
ga
ti
on
s
are
s
till
run by profe
ss
i
ona
l
c
l
ergy
m
en, fro
m
one year
t
o ano
t
her
s
ecu
l
ar
l
eader
s
, par
ti
cu
l
ar
l
y fe
m
a
l
e
l
eader
s
, occupy an
i
ncrea
s
i
ng
l
y
i
m
por
t
an
t
cen
t
ra
l
p
l
ace. In
t
he new con
t
ex
t
, r
it
ua
l
s
, prac
ti
ce
s
and
s
t
y
l
e
s
of
prayer are a
l
s
o chang
i
ng (Yang and Ebaugh 2001). Th
i
s
i
s
e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
t
rue for young organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
.
M
i
gran
t
s
t
hen
t
ran
s
fer
s
uch change
s
t
o
t
he coun
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n. A
m
er
i
can re
s
earch of
m
i
gran
t
s
fro
m
S
ou
t
h A
m
er
i
ca
s
how
s
t
ha
t
t
hey p
l
ay a
m
a
j
or ro
l
e
i
n expor
ti
ng
t
he
i
dea of congrega
ti
ona
li
sm
t
o
t
he p
l
ace
s
t
hey have
l
ef
t
beh
i
nd.

118 8* 9#/%:(;%
S
econd
l
y, when we a
s
k abou
t
new gender po
s
iti
on
s
(and order
s
)
i
n organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
,
t
he an
s
wer
i
s
t
ha
t
we
of
t
en dea
l
w
it
h hybr
i
d
s
t
ra
t
eg
i
e
s
. On
t
he one hand, wo
m
en
i
n re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
reproduce
t
rad
iti
ona
l
e
t
hn
i
c cu
lt
ure wh
il
e, on
t
he o
t
her hand,
m
ore and
m
ore frequen
tl
y
t
ake up h
i
gh and pre
s
ti
g
i
ou
s
po
s
iti
on
s
t
here,
wh
i
ch
m
en wou
l
d no
t
be ab
l
e
t
o or do no
t
wan
t
t
o ho
l
d. Ebaugh and
C
hafe
t
z (1999) no
ti
ced
s
uch pa
tt
ern
s
wh
il
e
exa
m
i
n
i
ng
t
h
i
r
t
een re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n
t
he A
m
er
i
can c
it
y of Hou
s
t
on. They a
l
s
o no
ti
ced
t
ha
t
m
en ac
ti
va
t
e
t
he
ms
e
l
ve
s
for
t
he
i
r co
mm
un
iti
e
s
on
l
y when
t
hey
l
o
s
e
t
he
i
r c
l
a
ss
s
t
a
t
u
s
. In
t
urn,
J
o
ll
y and
R
eeve
s
(2005) re-
m
i
nd
t
ha
t
even
i
f
m
en are ac
ti
ve
i
n
t
he
i
r e
t
hn
i
c organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
,
t
hey u
s
ua
ll
y choo
s
e
t
ho
s
e who
s
e po
li
c
i
e
s
are
t
arge
t
ed a
t
ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
i
n
t
he
i
r coun
t
r
i
e
s
of or
i
g
i
n. The exp
l
ana
ti
on for
t
h
i
s
i
s
a wor
s
e adap
t
a
ti
on of
m
en
t
o
li
fe
i
n
i
mm
i
gra
ti
on coun
t
r
i
e
s
. Th
i
s
i
s
conf
i
r
m
ed,
i
n par
ti
cu
l
ar, by
t
he re
s
earch on
t
he f
i
r
s
t
genera
ti
on of A
m
er
i
can
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
fro
m
S
ou
t
h A
m
er
i
ca. I
t
s
how
s
t
ha
t
for La
ti
n
m
en
i
mm
i
gra
ti
on
i
s
a
ss
oc
i
a
t
ed w
it
h
t
he
m
u
s
t
t
o un-
der
t
ake
j
ob
s
be
l
ow
t
he
i
r qua
li
f
i
ca
ti
on
s
, de
s
k
illi
s
a
ti
on and degrad
i
ng
m
ob
ilit
y down
t
he
s
oc
i
a
l
l
adder, wh
i
ch
i
s
,
a
m
ong o
t
her
s
,
t
he con
s
equence of rac
i
sm
-re
l
a
t
ed
s
egrega
ti
on on
t
he A
m
er
i
can
l
abour
m
arke
t
. Th
i
s
re
s
u
lt
s
i
n
t
he re
l
uc
t
ance of La
ti
n
m
en
t
o
s
e
ttl
e and
t
he fee
li
ng
t
ha
t
t
he
i
r
s
t
ay
i
s
t
e
m
porary, even
i
f
t
hey have
s
pen
t
m
any
year
s
abroad. The re
l
uc
t
ance
t
o engage
i
n
l
oca
l
ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
i
s
,
t
herefore,
t
he re
s
u
lt
of
s
uch exper
i
ence
s
. However,
t
he exper
i
ence
s
of wo
m
en,
i
.e. w
i
ve
s
of
i
mm
i
gran
t
s
, are co
m
p
l
e
t
e
l
y d
i
fferen
t
. W
it
h
m
i
gra
ti
on, wo
m
en exper
i
-
ence
m
ob
ilit
y up
t
he
s
oc
i
a
l
l
adder and ga
i
n re
l
a
ti
ve
i
ndependence. Th
i
s
i
nvo
l
ve
s
ga
i
n
i
ng acce
ss
t
o pa
i
d ac
ti
v-
iti
e
s
, even
i
f
t
hey are
s
till
re
l
a
t
ed
t
o car
i
ng and c
l
ean
i
ng. In add
iti
on,
t
he car
i
ng ro
l
e
s
t
ha
t
t
hey perfor
m
i
n
t
he
i
r
hou
s
eho
l
d
s
a
s
w
i
ve
s
and
m
o
t
her
s
i
nvo
l
ve
t
he
m
m
ore effec
ti
ve
l
y
i
n
t
he
li
fe of
l
oca
l
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
i
n
t
egra
t
ed
around
s
choo
l
s
, p
l
ayground
s
,
s
oc
i
a
l
we
l
fare and re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
. A
ll
t
h
i
s
t
ran
s
l
a
t
e
s
i
n
t
o a be
tt
er adap-
t
a
ti
on
t
o
t
he new env
i
ron
m
en
t
and
i
n
t
o
t
he re
l
uc
t
ance
t
o re
t
urn
t
o
t
he ho
m
e coun
t
ry. Wo
m
en are
m
ore
li
ke
l
y
t
han
m
en
t
o engage
i
n ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
of re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
t
ha
t
s
o
l
ve
l
oca
l
prob
l
e
ms
(Hardy-
F
an
t
a 1993) and
m
uch
m
ore of
t
en
t
han
m
en ob
t
a
i
n U
S
c
iti
zen
s
h
i
p (
J
one
s
-
C
orrea 1998).
M
ehrdad Darv
i
s
hpour (2002) who
exa
m
i
ne
s
ca
s
e
s
of pa
t
r
i
archa
l
Iran
i
an fa
m
ili
e
s
li
v
i
ng
i
n
t
he ega
lit
ar
i
an
i
sm
-or
i
en
t
ed
S
weden no
ti
ced a
s
i
m
il
ar
pheno
m
enon. The re
s
earcher
s
t
re
ss
e
s
t
ha
t
m
o
t
her
s
wan
t
t
o
i
n
t
egra
t
e
m
ore c
l
o
s
e
l
y w
it
h
t
he cu
lt
ure and
s
oc
i
e
t
y
of
t
he coun
t
ry
t
ha
t
ha
s
beco
m
e
t
he
i
r new ho
m
e
t
han
m
en. Th
i
s
m
ay be
s
een on
t
he exa
m
p
l
e of d
i
fferen
t
ap-
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ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
of e
t
hn
i
c churche
s
and re
li
g
i
ou
s
congrega
ti
on
s
can be perce
i
ved a
s
exe
m
p
li
f
i
ca
ti
on of new po
s
iti
on
s
t
ha
t
wo
m
en ho
l
d no
t
on
l
y
i
n
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
, bu
t
a
l
s
o
i
n
t
he pub
li
c
s
phere.
Gende
r
ed change
s
t
h
r
ough
r
e
li
g
i
on a
s
t
he e
ff
ec
t
o
f
bo
tt
om-up p
r
e
ss
u
r
e. Be
li
e
f
s
, p
r
ac
ti
ce
s
and
r
o
l
e
s
i
n
l
ay and
r
e
li
g
i
ou
s
o
r
gan
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n m
i
g
r
a
ti
on p
r
oce
ss
e
s
The change
s
i
n gender po
s
iti
on
s
and func
ti
on
s
i
n re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
m
p
l
y a
l
s
o change
s
i
n
s
ecu
l
ar
i
n
s
tit
u-
ti
on
s
t
ha
t
are c
l
o
s
e
l
y re
l
a
t
ed
t
o
t
he
m
,
s
uch a
s
fa
m
il
y
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on
s
and broad
l
y def
i
ned gender ro
l
e
s
.
S
u
s
anna
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ha
t
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ran
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na
ti
ona
l
m
o
t
her
s
, who co
m
p
l
e
t
e
l
y
revo
l
u
ti
on
i
s
ed
t
he
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
on of
m
o
t
herhood and gender
s
y
s
t
e
ms
i
n
t
he
i
r co
mm
un
iti
e
s
, ex
i
s
t
ed a
s
ear
l
y a
s
i
n
t
he 17
t
h cen
t
ury. The
s
e were fe
m
a
l
e Quaker
s
N w
i
ve
s
and
m
o
t
her
s
N who
i
ndependen
tl
y and on
t
he
i
r own
i
n
iti
a
ti
ve, fo
ll
ow
i
ng
t
he
i
r voca
ti
on, wen
t
on
l
ong-
t
er
m
fore
i
gn
m
i
ss
i
on
s
. The revo
l
u
ti
on
t
hey
i
n
iti
a
t
ed wa
s
s
pec
t
acu
l
ar N
t
hey
m
anaged
t
o crea
t
e
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
ng
li
ke
t
he ro
l
e of
s
ub
s
tit
u
t
e
m
o
t
her
s
i
n
t
he co
mm
un
it
y, and
t
he
i
r
ro
l
e of
t
he wo
m
an who
i
s
a
l
s
o a
m
o
t
her
t
ran
s
po
s
ed
i
n
t
o
t
he
l
eg
iti
m
a
t
e and ad
m
i
red ro
l
e of
t
he
s
p
i
r
it
ua
l
m
o
t
her

C
en
t
r
a
l
and Ea
s
t
e
r
n Eu
r
opean M
i
g
r
a
ti
on Rev
i
e
w
119
of
t
he co
mm
un
it
y.
C
er
t
a
i
n
l
y,
t
he
s
e were no
t
s
uch
m
a
ss
m
i
gra
ti
on
s
a
s
m
odern one
s
of wo
m
en worker
s
,
t
ran
s
-
na
ti
ona
l
w
i
ve
s
and
m
o
t
her
s
who
l
eave beh
i
nd
t
he
i
r fa
m
ili
e
s
i
n
t
he coun
t
ry of or
i
g
i
n for
m
any year
s
. There
were few fe
m
a
l
e Quaker
s
who wen
t
on
m
i
ss
i
on
s
abroad and
t
he
i
r
t
r
i
p
s
were perce
i
ved a
s
p
i
oneer
i
ng even
i
n
t
he
i
r co
mm
un
iti
e
s
. However,
t
he
s
e ca
s
e
s
s
how a huge ro
l
e of re
li
g
i
on a
s
a
m
ean
s
of
l
eg
iti
m
a
ti
ng
m
i
gra
ti
on
(pu
s
h
f
ac
t
o
r
) and
i
n
s
tit
u
ti
ona
l
change
s
and, a
s
s
hown above, of
m
a
t
erna
l
prac
ti
ce
s
and change
s
i
n gender pa
t
-
t
ern
s
of
s
end
i
ng co
mm
un
iti
e
s
.
Si
m
il
ar proce
ss
e
s
m
ay be found
i
n
m
odern re
s
earch. An
t
hropo
l
og
i
s
t
C
a
t
har
i
na W
illi
a
ms
(2008), who re-
s
earched do
m
e
s
ti
c worker
s
fro
m
Indone
s
i
a,
s
howed how re
li
g
i
ou
s
be
li
ef
s
and
s
p
i
r
it
ua
lit
y can
s
erve wo
m
en a
s
a
s
ource of power
i
n
t
ran
s
for
m
i
ng pa
t
r
i
archa
l
ro
l
e
m
ode
l
s
and ho
m
e po
s
iti
on
s
a
ss
i
gned
t
o wo
m
en
i
n
t
he co
m
-
m
un
it
y. Wo
m
en
j
u
s
ti
fy
t
he
i
r
i
n
t
en
ti
on
t
o e
m
i
gra
t
e
i
n fron
t
of
t
he pa
t
r
i
archa
l
O
t
her
s
:
fa
t
her
s
, hu
s
band
s
and
m
e
m
ber
s
of
l
oca
l
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
by g
i
v
i
ng reference
s
t
o
t
he w
ill
of God and
t
he
t
rad
iti
ona
l
ro
l
e of wo
m
en a
s
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and fa
it
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o per
s
uade fa
t
her
s
t
o
l
e
t
t
he
m
go. They conv
i
nce
t
he fa
m
il
y
t
ha
t
God w
ill
l
ook af
t
er
t
he
m
a
s
t
hey
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r fa
it
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e
l
f
t
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t
it
en
t
a
il
s
(G
i
b
s
on 2001
;
G
i
b
s
on-Graha
m
2006)
m
u
s
t
be
t
aken
i
n
t
o accoun
t
i
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ncrea
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i
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on by focu
s
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ng on
t
he
m
u
t
ua
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re
l
a
ti
on
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be
t
ween re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
and
t
he gendered
l
abour
m
arke
t
.
B
o
t
h
t
he
s
e
s
phere
s
, a
s
s
hown
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a
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2008), reproduce each o
t
her and
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m
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i
m
por
t
an
t
i
n
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er
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nked (bu
t
no
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l
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it
e
s
of ongo
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ng gendered
s
oc
i
a
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change
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on.
Fi
r
s
tl
y, new gendered re
li
g
i
ou
s
i
den
titi
e
s
t
ha
t
can be redef
i
ned
i
n ex
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l
s
o crea
t
ed a
s
a reac
ti
on
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o
t
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ne
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s
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ill
ega
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t
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and re
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ll
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l
d
s
re
s
u
lt
i
n
m
any wo
m
en
s
eek
i
ng a
m
ean
i
ng of
li
fe
i
n re
li
g
i
on, beg
i
nn
i
ng
t
o
i
den
ti
fy w
it
h
s
a
i
n
t
f
i
gure
s
s
uch a
s
St
M
ary or
J
e
s
u
s
and
i
n engag
i
ng
i
n
t
he
li
fe of
P
o
li
s
h re
li
g
i
ou
s
co
mm
un
iti
e
s
.
C
a
t
har
i
na W
illi
a
ms
(2008) wr
it
e
s
abou
t
a
s
i
m
il
ar
s
it
ua
ti
on. Do
m
e
s
ti
c worker
s
fro
m
Indone
s
i
a de
s
cr
i
bed
i
n her paper
s
carry ou
t
i
nd
i
v
i
dua
l
and
co
mm
on re
li
g
i
ou
s
r
it
ua
l
s
, wor
s
h
i
p
s
erv
i
ce
s
and prayer
s
a
s
a cop
i
ng
m
echan
i
sm
a
t
every
s
t
age of
m
i
gra
ti
on,
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F
or exa
m
p
l
e, V
i
v
i
anne
J
ack
s
on (2013)
s
how
s
how
t
he re
s
pon
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t
her per
s
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t
he e
t
h
i
c
s
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liti
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re
s
i
s
t
ance, e.g.
t
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t
e
s
t
s
of
m
i
gran
t
worker
s
a
t
t
he border be
t
ween
M
ex
i
co and
t
he U
S
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(Hondagneu-
S
o
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e
l
o, Gaud
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C
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for
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s
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s
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t
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y,
t
he rea
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ver
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e
s
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s
t
t
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en who are do
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s
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nd
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n care. The
e
m
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m
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of wo
m
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t
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s
a change
i
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l
e
s
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n
ti
m
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e and fa
m
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l
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on
s
h
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ch
i
s
d
i
ff
i
cu
lt
t
o
accep
t
by
m
en. And
m
en
m
ore and
m
ore of
t
en exper
i
ence
t
he degrada
ti
on of
s
t
a
t
u
s
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
t
o
t
he po
s
iti
on
before depar
t
ure a
s
we
ll
a
s
s
oc
i
a
l
i
nv
i
s
i
b
ilit
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s
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s
of
m
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s
cu
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n
it
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n
t
h
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s
s
it
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m
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e de
m
on
s
and
t
he need for re
li
g
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ou
s
r
it
ua
l
s
of pur
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f
i
ca
ti
on. In
t
h
i
s
con
t
ex
t
,
churche
s
,
i
n add
iti
on
t
o beco
m
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ng a p
l
ace for e
s
t
ab
li
s
h
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ng
i
n
ti
m
a
t
e re
l
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s
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s
for
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s
, are
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o
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t
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func
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on
s
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ype of prac
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ce and
s
pec
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or ab
s
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t
r
i
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s
of
or
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m
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s
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oo
l
for
m
anag
i
ng re
l
a
ti
on
s
and gender
i
n e
m
i
gra
ti
on (
R
ey 2013). The
s
a
m
e happen
s
w
it
h
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na
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Co
n
c
lu
s
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n
In
t
he
s
t
udy of
s
oc
i
a
l
change per
t
a
i
n
i
ng
t
o gender
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on proce
ss
e
s
,
t
he re
li
g
i
ou
s
d
i
m
en
s
i
on appear
s
re
l
a
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ve
l
y rare
l
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it
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s
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ll
y
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ake
s
t
he for
m
of
t
he a
ss
u
m
p
ti
on
t
ha
t
m
en and wo
m
en co
m
e
fro
m
con
s
erva
ti
ve re
li
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background
s
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lt
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t
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ms
e
l
ve
s
fro
m
t
he
s
e cu
lt
ure
s
by
m
ean
s
of
m
i
gra
ti
on. The rev
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t
he few
s
t
ud
i
e
s
t
ha
t
i
nc
l
ude re
li
g
i
o
s
it
y revea
l
s
a nu
m
ber of pheno
m
ena
t
ha
t
m
ake
it
ea
s
i
er
t
o under
s
t
and
m
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gra
ti
on proce
ss
e
s
, e
s
pec
i
a
ll
y
t
he
i
n
t
r
i
n
s
i
c co
m
p
l
ex
it
y and a
m
b
i
va
l
ence of change
s
a
t
t
he
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
on of gender and
m
i
gra
ti
on. I
t
m
ay be c
l
ear
l
y
s
een
t
ha
t
of
t
en
t
h
i
s
agency
i
ngra
i
ned
i
n re
li
g
i
ou
s
ne
ss
and
s
p
i
r
it
ua
lit
y, bu
t
a
l
s
o cap
it
a
l
s
a
ss
oc
i
a
t
ed w
it
h be
l
ong
i
ng
t
o re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
a
s
a
ti
on
s
, can ca
t
a
l
y
s
e change
l
ead
i
ng
t
o ega
lit
ar
i
an
i
sm
.
S
uch
s
t
ud
i
e
s
revea
l
a
m
ore co
m
p
l
e
t
e p
i
c
t
ure of agency
;
a re
li
g
i
ou
s
re
s
ource,
i
.e.
be
li
ef
s
, prac
ti
ce
s
, aff
ili
a
ti
on
s
are a
t
t
he core of cop
i
ng
s
t
ra
t
eg
i
e
s
a
t
every
s
t
age of
m
i
gra
ti
on. De
s
p
it
e
t
h
i
s
,
t
hey
are rare
l
y
i
nc
l
uded
i
n
t
he ana
l
y
s
i
s
of
m
i
gra
ti
on
m
o
ti
va
ti
on
s
(pu
s
h-pu
ll
t
heo
r
y). Wha
t
i
s
m
ore,
i
nc
l
ud
i
ng
t
he
s
e
d
i
m
en
s
i
on
s
a
l
s
o a
ll
ow
s
u
s
t
o go beyond
t
he
li
m
it
a
ti
on
s
for
m
u
l
a
t
ed by
M
ar
i
a Kon
t
o
s
, Kry
s
t
yna
Sl
any and
M
ar
i
a
L
i
ap
i
(2010). The re
s
earcher
s
a
ss
e
ss
i
ng
t
he
s
t
a
t
e of
lit
era
t
ure
i
n
t
he
s
t
ud
i
e
s
on gender and
m
i
gra
ti
on po
i
n
t
ou
t
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earch
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s
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ba
s
ed on gender
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ereo-
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ype
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s
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t
s
be
i
ng perce
i
ved
t
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ti
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t
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ezo
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i
ch concern
s
t
he gendered change
s
i
n
m
i
gran
t
re
li
g
i
ou
s
organ
i
s
a
ti
on
s
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
t
o new
gender po
s
iti
on
s
on
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
,
i
n
t
he
m
i
gran
t
fa
m
il
y and co
mm
un
it
y, revea
l
s
how and why
m
i
gran
t
s
beco
m
e
i
nvo
l
ved
i
n c
i
v
i
c and po
liti
ca
l
ac
ti
v
it
y. Here,
t
he
i
n
t
er
s
ec
ti
on of gender and re
li
g
i
on can he
l
p u
s
un-
der
s
t
and
t
h
i
ng
s
li
ke acce
ss
t
o r
i
gh
t
s
or
s
oc
i
a
l
s
erv
i
ce
s
, c
l
a
i
ms
t
o c
iti
zen
s
h
i
p, or
t
he
i
ss
ue
s
of
l
abour and
m
ob
il
-
it
y. I
t
a
l
s
o prov
i
de
s
under
s
t
and
i
ng of how e
m
power
m
en
t
i
n
t
he
l
abour
m
arke
t
of
t
he ho
s
t
coun
t
ry
i
n re
l
a
ti
on
t
o
t
he po
s
iti
on
i
n
t
he coun
t
ry of or
i
g
i
n affec
t
s
t
he reorgan
i
s
a
ti
on of
t
rad
iti
ona
l
re
li
g
i
ou
s
s
t
ruc
t
ure
s
,
i
.e. new, of
t
en
l
eader
s
h
i
p, po
s
iti
on
s
be
i
ng
t
aken up by wo
m
en w
it
h
i
n
s
uch
s
t
ruc
t
ure
s
.
S
uch re
s
earch wou
l
d
t
herefore g
i
ve
t
he
oppor
t
un
it
y
t
o
s
how a fu
ll
er agency and
i
m
age of gendered change
i
n
m
i
gra
ti
on
t
han on
l
y for
t
he
s
ecu
l
ar
m
i
gra
ti
on ro
l
e
s
of w
i
ve
s
and
m
o
t
her
s
or
t
he a
t
o
m
i
s
ed g
l
oba
l
co
mm
un
it
y of
s
ervan
t
s
. If our re
s
earch
s
k
i
pped
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l
o
s
e
s
i
gh
t
of
t
he d
i
m
en
s
i
on where perhap
s
t
he
m
o
s
t
i
m
por
t
an
t
gender and
s
oc
i
a
l
change occur
s
.
C
on
s
i
der
i
ng
re
li
g
i
on and gender
t
oge
t
her wou
l
d he
l
p u
s
under
s
t
and a
s
pec
t
s
of
m
i
gra
ti
on
t
ha
t
have o
t
herw
i
s
e gone unno
ti
ced
or have been addre
ss
ed
i
n prob
l
e
m
a
ti
c way
s
.
Note
s
1
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