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Implementation of social-ecological management approaches in biosphere reserves in the Mediterranean Basin
... BRs have three main functions: conservation, development and logistic support (Elbakidze et al., 2013). Each of these needs to be balanced (Torralba et al., 2020) and core, buffer and transition zones align to the three functions. The zonation approach allows for a 'gradient of intensity of land uses' that means the BR differs from other kinds of protected areas (Moreno-Ramos & Muller, 2020, p. 256). ...
Biosphere Reserves are learning sites for sustainable development. Although based on specific UNESCO criteria, implementation varies to accommodate regional and national circumstances. The Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea, was designated as an ‘entire nation’ biosphere in 2016 and is governed through a stakeholder partnership, led by the Isle of Man Government Department for Environment, Food and Agriculture. This paper introduces the characteristics of this unique entire nation model based on qualitative interviews that were used to examine the perceptions of the biosphere’s stakeholder partnership. Findings from the research illustrate that stakeholders understand the designation as a ‘holistic’ approach to sustainable development and use the discourse of ‘finding balance’ across sectors. Stakeholders also conveyed some tensions regarding how the biosphere can be interpreted as a reward for the status quo and/or an incentive for change, connected to how the designation is led from within government. The paper concludes that whilst there are circumstances unique to the Isle of Man, many of the challenges perceived by stakeholders are also common to the biosphere model in general.
The Mediterranean region faces significant challenges to supply its growing population with food and living space. The region's potential to do so in the future is even more uncertain in the light of global change effects. Climate change will impact water availability in the region, which is already limited and often used at un-sustainable rates. To investigate the effects of global change and explore alternative development pathways of Mediterranean land use, we simulated two future scenarios with different land, water and biodiversity management transitions. We adopted a land systems approach, where land use and land cover are combined with data on land management, irrigation and livestock density, taking into account the characteristics of Mediterranean multifunctional landscapes, specific agricultural products, such as permanent crops, and irrigation water demands. Future land system changes were explored using the CLUMondo model for different development pathways of the region. We constrained the withdrawal of irrigation water based on existing freshwater resources. In a 'growth' scenario, we simulated a hypothetical future without consideration of environmental constraints and where food production and urban expansion are main priorities. The 'sustain-ability' scenario represents a future where limited water resources are extracted in a sustainable way and where areas of high biodiversity value are protected. The growth scenario projected significant intensification of land management, and loss of agro-silvo-pastoral mosaic systems. To achieve this, we calculate that the region would need to increase water withdrawal for irrigation significantly, resulting in increased pressure on freshwater resources. The sustainability scenario presents a way of increasing food production and at the same time improving the state of water resources, wetlands and traditional landscapes. Achieving this future would require improvements of yields of rain-fed systems and efficiencies of irrigated systems. The results indicate that coordinated environmental policy together with appropriate market access are needed to steer the regions land management towards a more sustainable future while ensuring food production.
Powerful states and elites frequently manage protected areas with little or no concern for historic land uses, people, or governance practices, justified by ideologies that portray these areas as “pure nature” to be protected from humans. New international participatory platforms, such as the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Program, coupled with strategic active agency, have provided an opportunity for challenging the fortress model of conservation in Israel. We examine the change in Israel’s government ecological policies following its failure in managing the Carmel forests, whereby its bargaining power with the local Druze-Arab minority was significantly reduced, opening a window of opportunity for the Druze to take advantage of new UNESCO rules on local participation to create management institutions for the local forest commons.
This paper reviews how well Biosphere Reserves are prepared to respond to the challenges of the new era of the Anthropocene, including the expected breaching of some planetary boundaries. In this context, the endeavour of sustainable development requires critical re-examination and Biosphere Reserves should move further towards embracing more integrated and effective forms of sustainable livelihoods for their inhabitants. This means placing people even more at the heart of Biosphere Reserve policy and management, and enabling people to become pioneers and ambassadors for realizing effective sustainability in all Biosphere Reserves. This also means that Biosphere Reserves and related institutions have to work towards true integration of their ecological, social and economic potentials, and set up a framework of genuine sustainability governance. This paper widens the concept of Biosphere Reserves to provide creative transformation towards more liveable, sustainable landscapes as a global network. If this is achieved, it will be easier for Biosphere Reserves to pursue and nurture the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as their renewed central purpose.
Biosphere reserves are an example of social-ecological systems that combine biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic development with knowledge generation and dissemination (both scientific and local). We review lessons learned from case studies biosphere reserves in western African and France, highlighting the importance of early stakeholder engagement to build knowledge for achieving sustainable development. We discuss the evolution of the concept of biosphere reserves and its application over time in different socioeconomic and cultural settings. The diversity of stakeholders and their different needs and perceptions about nature conservation complicate implementation processes, sometimes resulting in conflicts about the objectives and zonation of biosphere reserves. Dialogue among the different stakeholders must start at an early planning phase and be based on the principle of social and ecological solidarity. Dialogue must then be pursued, formalized, ritualized, and translated both in terms of biosphere reserve management and in terms of political support. Tools and methods exist that can facilitate such dialogue and colearning.
Humanity has emerged as a major force in the operation of the biosphere. The focus is shifting from the environment as externality to the biosphere as precondition for social justice, economic development, and sustainability. In this article, we exemplify the intertwined nature of social-ecological systems and emphasize that they operate within, and as embedded parts of the biosphere and as such coevolve with and depend on it. We regard social-ecological systems as complex adaptive systems and use a social-ecological resilience approach as a lens to address and understand their dynamics. We raise the challenge of stewardship of development in concert with the biosphere for people in diverse contexts and places as critical for long-term sustainability and dignity in human relations. Biosphere stewardship is essential, in the globalized world of interactions with the Earth system, to sustain and enhance our life-supporting environment for human well-being and future human development on Earth, hence, the need to reconnect development to the biosphere foundation and the need for a biosphere-based sustainability science.
The research and policy landscape for biodiversity conservation is changing. Protected areas are now expected to meet a broad range of objectives including effective and equitable management. In this new landscape, organizations strive to find ways to ensure the rights of local and Indigenous peoples are respected while conservation scientists have endorsed the need for platforms for international research and practice. For 40 years, a growing international network of sites support such research and practice, yet, it has been underutilized and largely ignored by scientists and decision-makers alike. To better understand this paradox, this article explores the evolution of the World Network of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves internationally and its application in Canada. Analysis of archived materials, a national survey of practitioners, and interviews with past and present members of Canada's national committee reveals an expanded mandate for biosphere reserves beyond conservation science and biodiversity protection. The article recommends that to support the expanded conservation agenda, biosphere reserves work with governments and conservation scientists to connect more effectively with global concerns and initiatives such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Development Goals; establish appropriate, reliable, and active transdisciplinary partnerships; and meaningfully engage a broader range of knowledge holders.
Protected areas (PAs) remain central to the conservation of biodiversity. Classical PAs were conceived as areas that would be set aside to maintain a natural state with minimal human influence. However, global environmental change and growing cross-scale anthropogenic influences mean that PAs can no longer be thought of as ecological islands that function independently of the broader social-ecological system in which they are located. For PAs to be resilient (and to contribute to broader social-ecological resilience), they must be able to adapt to changing social and ecological conditions over time in a way that supports the long-term persistence of populations, communities, and ecosystems of conservation concern. We extend Ostrom's social-ecological systems framework to consider the long-term persistence of PAs, as a form of land use embedded in social-ecological systems, with important cross-scale feedbacks. Most notably, we highlight the cross-scale influences and feedbacks on PAs that exist from the local to the global scale, contextualizing PAs within multi-scale social-ecological functional landscapes. Such functional landscapes are integral to understand and manage individual PAs for long-term sustainability. We illustrate our conceptual contribution with three case studies that highlight cross-scale feedbacks and social-ecological interactions in the functioning of PAs and in relation to regional resilience. Our analysis suggests that while ecological, economic, and social processes are often directly relevant to PAs at finer scales, at broader scales, the dominant processes that shape and alter PA resilience are primarily social and economic.
The concept of Ecological Solidarity (ES) is a major feature of the 2006 law reforming National Park policy in France. In the context of biodiversity conservation, the objectives of this paper are to outline the historical development of ES, provide a working definition, and present a method for its implementation that combines environmental pragmatism and adaptive management. First, we highlight how ES provides a focus on the interdependencies among humans and non-human components of the social-ecological system. In doing so we identify ES within a framework that distinguishes ecological, social-ecological and social-political interdependencies. In making such interdependencies apparent to humans who are not aware of their existence, the concept of ES promotes collective action as an alternative or complementary approach to state-based or market-based approaches. By focusing on the awareness, feelings and acknowledgement of interdependencies between actors and between humans and non-humans, we present and discuss a learning-based approach (participatory modeling) which allows stakeholders to work together to construct cultural landscapes for present and future generations. Using two case studies we show how an ES analysis goes beyond the ecosystem management approach to take into account how human interactions with the environment embody cultural, social and economic values and endorse an ethically integrated science of care and responsibility. ES recognizes the diversity of these values as a practical foundation for socially engaged and accountable actions. Finally, we discuss how ES enhances academic support for a social-ecological systems approach to biodiversity conservation and promotes collaboration with decision-makers and stakeholders involved in the adaptive management of protected areas and their surrounding landscapes.
Managing multiple ecosystem services (ES), including addressing
trade-offs between services and preventing ecological surprises, is
among the most pressing areas for sustainability research. These
challenges require ES research to go beyond the currently common
approach of snapshot studies limited to one or two services at a
single point in time. We used a spatiotemporal approach to examine
changes in nine ES and their relationships from 1971 to 2006 across
131 municipalities in a mixed-use landscape in Quebec, Canada. We
show how an approach that incorporates time and space can
improve our understanding of ES dynamics. We found an increase
in the provision of most services through time; however, provision
of ES was not uniformly enhanced at all locations. Instead, each
municipality specialized in providing a bundle (set of positively
correlated ES) dominated by just a few services. The trajectory of
bundle formation was related to changes in agricultural policy and
global trends; local biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics
explained the bundles’ increasing spatial clustering. Relationships
between services varied through time, with some provisioning
and cultural services shifting from a trade-off or no relationship
in 1971 to an apparent synergistic relationship by 2006. By imple-
menting a spatiotemporal perspective on multiple services, we
provide clear evidence of the dynamic nature of ES interactions
and contribute to identifying processes and drivers behind these
changing relationships. Our study raises questions about using
snapshots of ES provision at a single point in time to build our
understanding of ES relationships in complex and dynamic social-
ecological systems.
Protected areas (PAs) are a key strategy for protecting biological resources, but they vary considerably in their effectiveness, and are frequently reported as having negative impacts on local people. This has contributed to a divisive and unresolved debate concerning the compatibility of environmental and socioeconomic development goals. Elucidating the relationship between positive and negative social impacts and conservation outcomes of PAs is key for the development of more effective and socially just conservation. Here, we conduct a global analysis of how PAs affect the wellbeing of local people, the factors associated with these impacts, and crucially the relationship between PAs' conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Our results show that PAs reporting positive socioeconomic outcomes are more likely to report positive conservation outcomes. We find positive conservation and socioeconomic outcomes are more likely to occur when PAs adopt co-management regimes, empower local people, reduce economic inequalities and maintain cultural and livelihood benefits. While the strictest regimes of PA management attempt to exclude anthropogenic influences to achieve biological conservation objectives, our study provides evidence that PAs that explicitly integrate local people as stakeholders tend to be more effective at achieving joint biological conservation and socioeconomic development outcomes. Strict protection may be needed in some circumstances, yet our results demonstrate that conservation and development objectives can be synergistic and highlight management strategies that increase the probability of achieving win-win scenarios that maximize conservation performance and development outcomes of PAs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Managing human-dominated landscapes such as agroecosystems is one of the main challenges facing society today. Decisions about land-use management in agroecosystems involve spatial and temporal trade-offs. The key scales at which these trades-offs occur are poorly understood for most systems, and quantitative assessments of the services provided by agroecosystems under different combinations of land uses are rare. To fill these knowledge gaps, we measured 12 ecosystem services (ES), including climate regulation, gas regulation, soil stability, nutrient regulation, habitat quality, raw material production, food production, fishing, sports, recreation, education, and social relationships, in seven common land-use types at three spatial scales, i.e., patch, municipality, and landscape, in a riparian floodplain in Spain. We identified the provision of each ES in each land-use type either by direct measurement or from public databases. We analyzed the interactions, i.e., trade-offs and synergies, among ES across land uses and spatial scales and estimated ES provision in several land-use change scenarios. Our results illustrated that each land-use type provides unique bundles of ES and that the spatial scale at which measurements were taken affected the mixture of services. For instance, a land-use type with low provision of services per hectare but with an extensive area can supply more services to the overall landscape than a land-use type supplying higher values of services per hectare but with a smaller extent. Hence, riparian forest supplied the most service of any land-use type at the patch scale, but dry cereal croplands provided the most services across the municipality and landscape because of their large area. We found that most ES should be managed primarily at the patch scale, but food production, fishing, and social relationships were more relevant to manage at the municipality scale. There was great variability in ES interactions across scales with different causes of trade-offs at each scale. We identified more significant synergies among ES than trade-offs. Trade-offs were originated because some services were mutually incompatible within a given land use, whereas the provision of others depended on land-management decisions within a land-use type. Thus, we propose a classification of ES interactions that incorporates societal values as drivers of management decisions along with biophysical factors as likely causes of ES trade-offs and conclude with practical suggestions to reduce trade-offs and to enhance the supply of multiple ES to society.
Originally conceived to conserve iconic landscapes and wildlife, protected areas are now expected to achieve an increasingly diverse set of conservation, social and economic objectives. The amount of land and sea designated as formally protected has markedly increased over the past century, but there is still a major shortfall in political commitments to enhance the coverage and effectiveness of protected areas. Financial support for protected areas is dwarfed by the benefits that they provide, but these returns depend on effective management. A step change involving increased recognition, funding, planning and enforcement is urgently needed if protected areas are going to fulfil their potential.
Protected areas are the main strategy for the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity. However, changes occurring during
the Anthropocene continue to threaten biodiversity and, therefore, the associated ecosystem services that maintain human well-being.
Despite efforts to integrate protected areas into a wider landscape, most of these areas are still managed as islands within
a matrix of degraded territory; there is no clear conceptual framework that integrates them into the surrounding landscape.
We first review the evolution of the protected-area concept. Then, we acknowledge the main limitations that protected areas face for long-term conservation. Next, we discuss
how the ecosystem service approach could overcome some of these protected-area limitations. Finally, we propose a social–ecological
approach for protected areas to maintain high biodiversity and its associated flow of ecosystem services in the context of
uncertainty.
Indigenous and local knowledge systems as well as practitioners’ knowledge can provide valid and useful knowledge to enhance our understanding of governance of biodiversity and ecosystems for human well-being. There is, therefore, a great need within emerging global assessment programs, such as the IPBES and other international efforts, to develop functioning mechanisms for legitimate, transparent, and constructive ways of creating synergies across knowledge systems. We present the Multiple Evidence Base (MEB) as an approach that proposes parallels whereby indigenous, local and scientific knowledge systems are viewed to generate different manifestations of knowledge, which can generate new insights and innovations through complementarities. MEB emphasizes that evaluation of knowledge occurs primarily within rather than across knowledge systems. MEB on a particular issue creates an enriched picture of understanding, for triangulation and joint assessment of knowledge, and a starting point for further knowledge generation.
We analyzed quantitatively land use changes from 1956 to 2007 inside and around one of the most emblematic protected areas in Europe, the Doñana protected area. Next, stakeholders mapped social values for current ecosystem service delivery with an expert workshop. Using the maps from the workshop, we mapped six ecosystem service spatial indicators: Service Provision Hotspots, Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, Richness and Decline. Then, we performed nonparametric and multivariate statistical analyses to study the associations between land uses, ecosystem service indicators and protection category. Our results highlights the adequacy of the social value approach as a first step toward ecosystem service spatial evaluation.
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has been on the ascendancy for several decades and plays a leading role in conservation strategies worldwide. Arriving out of a desire to rectify the human costs associated with coercive conservation, CBNRM sought to return the stewardship of biodiversity and natural resources to local communities through participation, empowerment and decentralization. Today, however, scholars and practitioners suggest that CBNRM is experiencing a crisis of identity and purpose, with even the most positive examples experiencing only fleeting success due to major deficiencies. Six case studies from around the world offer a history of how and why the global CBNRM narrative has unfolded over time and space. While CBNRM emerged with promise and hope, it often ended in less than ideal outcomes when institutionalized and reconfigured in design and practice. Nevertheless, despite the current crisis, there is scope for refocusing on the original ideals of CBNRM: ensuring social justice, material well-being and environmental integrity.
For sites designated within international networks, reporting processes have been established to ensure that these sites continue to exhibit their special characteristics and contribute to the goals of their respective network. One such network is the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR), composed of sites designated under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere programme. This paper summarises the evolution of the concept and the realities of biosphere reserves since 1976; describes the introduction of the Statutory Framework for the WNBR, which formalised the concept and introduced a periodic review process to provide oversight of its implementation; evaluates the extent to which, since 1996, this process has been successful in achieving its aims; discusses changes which have been proposed and implemented; and provides suggestions for future action.
The call for integrated social–environmental science, complete with outreach to applications and solutions, is escalating worldwide. Drawing on several decades of experience, researchers engaged in such science, completed an assessment of the design and management attributes and impact pathways that lead to successful projects and programs and to understand key impediments to success. These characteristics are delineated and discussed using examples from individual projects and programs. From this, three principal lessons leading to successful efforts emerge that address co-design, adaptive or flexible management, and diversity of knowledge. In addition, five challenges for this science are identified: accounting for change, addressing sponsorship and timelines, appreciating different knowledge systems, adaptively communicating, and improving linkages to policy.
The argan tree is only endemic in Morocco. Argan oil is produced by cold-pressing kernels obtained from argan tree fruit. Roasted kernels deliver an oil of edible quality whereas unroasted kernels afford an oil of cosmetic quality. Argan oil preparation has been accomplished following a traditional process for years. This process had to be improved to satisfy international regulation standards. Women cooperatives implanted in the organ forest have taken up the challenge and have been able to produce large quantities of high quality organ oil. In addition, those cooperatives participate in the sustainable development of the organ forest.
Resource management regulations, such as those associated with the establishment of protected areas, can increase vulnerability and compromise individual and collective agency for adaptation. In this article, we comparatively analyse how four rural communities located within two biosphere reserves in Mexico and Bolivia experience vulnerability and adaptation to global change. We use focus groups, interviews and scoring exercises to analyse the influence of reserve management practices on locally perceived changes and stresses on livelihoods, and to discuss communities’ coping and adaptation strategies. We show that both reserves are perceived as a source of stress but somewhat differently. In Mexico, communities feel vulnerable to the reserve's regulations but less to climatic and economic stresses, whereas in Bolivia communities perceive the insufficient enforcement of the reserve's rules as the most relevant stress to their livelihoods. Most of household-based and collective adaptations to environmental change have been adopted without the support of the biosphere reserves. We discuss how and why the biosphere reserves contribute to local vulnerability and why their role in enhancing local adaptation is limited.
Despite growing interest and investment in ecosystem services across global science and policy arenas, it remains unclear how ecosystem services -and particularly changes in those services -should be measured. The social and ecological factors, and their interactions, ...
Growing a resilient landscape depends heavily on finding an appropriate match between the scales of demands on ecosystems by human societies and the scales at which ecosystems are capable of meeting these demands. While the dynamics of environmental change and ecosystem service provision form the basis of many landscape ecology studies, enhancing landscape resilience is, in many ways, a problem of establishing relevant institutions that act at appropriate scales to modify and moderate demand for ecosystem services and the resulting exploitation of ecosystems. It is also of central importance for landscape sustainability that institutions are flexible enough to adapt to changes in the external environment. The model provided by natural ecosystems suggests that it is only by encouraging and testing a diversity of approaches that we will be able to build landscapes that are resilient to future change. We advocate an approach to landscape planning that involves growing learning institutions on the one hand, and on the other, developing solutions to current problems through deliberate experimentation coupled with social learning processes.
The Biosphere Reserve (BR) model of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme reflects a shift towards more accountable conservation. Biosphere Reserves attempt to reconcile environmental protection with sustainable development; they explicitly acknowledge humans, and human interests in the conservation landscape while still maintaining the ecological values of existing protected areas. Conceptually, this model is attractive, with 610 sites currently designated globally. Yet the practical reality of implementing dual 'conservation' and 'development' goals is challenging, with few examples successfully conforming to the model's full criteria. Here, we review the history of Biosphere Reserves from first inception in 1974 to the current status quo, and examine the suitability of the designation as an effective conservation model. We track the spatial expansion of Biosphere Reserves globally, assessing the influence of the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and Seville strategy in 1995, when the BR concept refocused its core objectives on sustainable development. We use a comprehensive range of case studies to discuss conformity to the Programme, the social and ecological consequences associated with implementation of the designation, and challenges in aligning conservation and development. Given that the 'Biosphere Reserve' label is a relatively unknown designation in the public arena, this review also provides details on popularising the Biosphere Reserve brand, as well as prospects for further research, currently unexploited, but implicit in the designation.
The signature and ratification of the convention on biological diversity by the Lebanese government has boosted the declaration
of nature reserves. Cedar forests formed the pilot ecosystems, using international funds, for the implementation of a conservation
programme and development of management plans. Although different in their attributes, all recent nature reserves have the
same basic management objectives and goals but they ignore the idea of taking into account the difference in specific site
features and assets that could boost the success of any management plans. Twelve cedar forests flourish in the Mount Lebanon
chain. These forests are either protected by the forestry law or are declared as nature reserves by the Ministry of Environment.
The results reveal, through Participatory Rural Appraisals and Rapid Rural Appraisals, that religion, geographical location
and land ownership play, to a certain extent, a role in adopting successful management practices of cedar forests. The RRAs
and PRAs spell out the origins of woodcraft, old stories memorized by elderly people and ethnobotanical knowledge. The 4Rs
tools method adopted highlighted the need for more collaboration and synergy of effort between various institutions. The social,
ecological and economic aspects of the regions play a major role in defining the backbone of management plans for cedar forests
in Lebanon. The present paper proposes guidelines for the establishment of a network of cedar nature reserves in Lebanon adopting
collaborative management and assigning a separate role for each reserve; the details rely on the site’s natural features,
as well as socio-economic and cultural characteristics.
Analyzing survey-responses from 146 Biosphere Reserves in 55 countries we investigate how stakeholder participation and adaptive co-management practices are linked to management performance. Effectiveness in conventional conservation was positively affected by participation of scientists, but negatively affected by participation of volunteers. Effectiveness in sustainable development goals was associated to participation by local inhabitants. Adaptive co-management practices were associated with a higher level of effectiveness in achieving development goals, and this higher effectiveness did not seem to be at the expense of biodiversity conservation.
The articles in this special feature challenge the presumption that scholars can make simple, predictive models of social–ecological systems (SESs) and deduce universal solutions, panaceas, to problems of overuse or destruction of resources. Moving beyond panaceas to develop cumulative capacities to diagnose the problems and potentialities of linked SESs requires serious study of complex, multivariable, nonlinear, cross-scale, and changing systems. Many variables have been identified by researchers as affecting the patterns of interactions and outcomes observed in empirical studies of SESs. A step toward developing a diagnostic method is taken by organizing these variables in a nested, multitier framework. The framework enables scholars to organize analyses of how attributes of (i) a resource system (e.g., fishery, lake, grazing area), (ii) the resource units generated by that system (e.g., fish, water, fodder), (iii) the users of that system, and (iv) the governance system jointly affect and are indirectly affected by interactions and resulting outcomes achieved at a particular time and place. The framework also enables us to organize how these attributes may affect and be affected by larger socioeconomic, political, and ecological settings in which they are embedded, as well as smaller ones. The framework is intended to be a step toward building a strong interdisciplinary science of complex, multilevel systems that will enable future diagnosticians to match governance arrangements to specific problems embedded in a social–ecological context.
• commons
• complexity
• governance
• interdisciplinary research
• sustainability science
The Mediterranean Region: Biological Diversity in Space and Time
- J Blondel
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The Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves
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Lima Action Plan for UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and Its World Network of Biosphere Reserves
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