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Can Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Be Part of a Healthy and Sustainable Diet?
Abstract
Diets high in red meat, especially processed meat, have been associated with a wide range of health consequences including obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers. Based on a comprehensive review of epidemiologic evidence, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meats such as hot dogs, bacon, and sausages as carcinogenic to humans for colorectal cancer, and unprocessed red meats, such as beef and pork, as “probably carcinogenic.”¹ In addition, there is growing concern that industrial meat production can contaminate natural resources, including rivers, streams, and drinking water, with nutrients from animal waste lagoons and runoff. There is also concern that the raising of livestock can lead to the loss of forests and other lands that provide valuable carbon sinks as well as the large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to the ongoing environmental and climate-related issues.
... Traditional plant-based protein foods such as pulses (i.e., beans, peas, and lentils), nuts, and seeds have been staple food products in dietary patterns in countries worldwide for centuries [40]. PBMA products that aim to mimic the appearance, taste, texture, and overall sensory eating experience of traditional meat products have proliferated in the U.S. marketplace over the past two decades [41,42]. ...
... Novel PBMA products have been proposed as more sustainable alternatives to conventional meat products [39,[43][44][45]. However, U.S. consumers and experts have diverse views about these products' contribution to a healthy and environmentally sustainable diet [6,10,34,41]. Additionally, research on the benefits of these products over animal-sourced proteins has been largely funded or commissioned by the PBMA industry [34]. ...
... While increasing consumption of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains is a component of plant-rich dietary patterns, U.S. and global campaigns with solely this focus (i.e., Five a Day for Better Health, Fruits & Veggies-More Matters) were considered beyond the scope of this study and have been described elsewhere [54]. Novel PBMA products were defined as those that were designed to mimic the sensory attributes of RPM products [41,42]. Campaigns for cultivated or cultured meat products, defined as products that are produced in a lab using animal stem cells grown in bioreactors [34], were beyond the scope of this study. ...
United States (U.S.) and global experts recommend that populations reduce red and processed meat (RPM) intake and transition to plant-rich, sustainable diets to support human and planetary health. A systematic scoping review was conducted to identify the landscape of media campaigns that promote plant-rich dietary patterns, traditional plant proteins, and novel plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) and that encourage or discourage RPM products to Americans. Of 8321 records screened from four electronic databases, 103 records were included, along with 62 records from gray literature sources. Across 84 media campaigns (1917–2023) identified, corporate marketing campaigns (58.6%) were most prevalent compared to public information (13.8%), corporate sustainability (12.6%), countermarketing (5.7%), social marketing (4.6%), and public policy (4.6%) campaigns. Findings indicate that long-running corporate RPM campaigns, many with U.S. government oversight, dominated the landscape for decades, running alongside traditional plant protein campaigns. Novel PBMA campaigns emerged in the past decade. Many civil society campaigns promoted plant-rich dietary patterns, but few utilized social norm or behavior change theory, and only the Meatless Monday campaign was evaluated. The U.S. government, academia, businesses, and civil society should commit more resources to and evaluate the impact of media campaigns that support a sustainable diet transition for Americans, restrict and regulate the use of misinformation in media campaigns, and prioritize support for plant-based proteins and plant-rich dietary patterns.
... Beef burgers are the most popularly consumed and studied meat analogues [2,3]. There is relatively less data available for pork and chicken analogue products, but comparisons generally indicate equal or less protein than their TMP counterparts [4,15], recognizing that a lot of variability is expected depending on PBMA formulation and selection of the comparator product. ...
... The widespread use of certain additives in PBMA has also raised concern, both among researchers and consumers seeking cleaner food labels [2,59]. Common binding agents such as guar gum and methylcellulose are unfamiliar to the general consumer and, along with other chemical-sounding ingredients, are considered problematic [56,59]. ...
... This identified 19 major PBMA companies selling a wide variety of products, including lunch meats, roasts, steaks, burgers, sausages, minces, meatballs, nuggets, and prepared plant-based meat meals (Supplementary material). Global market analyses consistently indicate that burger patties are the most popular type of PBMA[2,3,67]. Out of the global plant-based meat market size estimated at 5.06 billion USD in 2021, the plant-based burger segment had the largest share of 29.2% [68]. According to a Mintel Market Analysis titled Burger Trends-US, burgers are the defining product of quick-service restaurants as 89% of Americans report having bought or consumed a burger in 2020[69]. ...
... PBM has become a trending topic among academics, delineating various emphases on this subject [10]. Plant-based livestock alternatives benefit both human health and the environment [1,11]. Several studies in developed nations have modeled the potential health benefits of PBM [12]. ...
... Several studies in developed nations have modeled the potential health benefits of PBM [12]. These benefits include investments in PBM by large food companies [3], fresh meat market demand systems [10], and systems for assessing the sustainability of PBM products [11]. Consumption of PBM can enhance public health, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, and preserve natural resources [7]. ...
... Thus, researchers have revealed that consumers increasingly prefer PBM over conventional meat owing to its perceived health benefits [18]. The perceived benefits of PBM, in terms of safety, quality, and environmental friendliness, have attracted consumers [7,11]. The factors influencing PBMs' consumption levels vary based on consumer perceptions of the products, even if they are introduced with the same objective of promoting sustainable consumption behavior [19]. ...
The rising demand for plant-based meat (PBM) has the potential to minimize environmental degradation and save the lives of numerous animals. Furthermore, the intention to consume eco-friendly products triggers people to consume PBM. However, it is essential to understand the factors that influence consumer intentions and actual PBM consumption to enhance its adoption. By incorporating the Theory of Consumption Value, this study examines the impact of health consciousness, health motivation, personal innovativeness, perceived critical mass, perceived cost, and perceived product value on the intention to consume PBM. The impact of intention to consume PBM on actual consumption is also analyzed. Furthermore, the mediating role of the intention to consume PBM in the relationship between these factors and actual consumption behavior is investigated. Using a cross-sectional research design, 978 responses were obtained from Indonesia. The data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The results showed that health motivation, perceived critical mass perceived cost, and perceived product value were significant predictors of the intention to consume PBM. However, health motivation and personal innovation had insignificant effects on the intention to consume PBM. Moreover, the intention to consume PBM translated into actual consumption behavior. Furthermore, the intention to consume PBM significantly mediated the relationship between actual consumption behavior and factors other than health motivation, personal innovation, and perceived product value. The findings offer valuable insights for industry, policymakers, and producers interested in PBMA markets in developing focused marketing strategies, improving consumer perceptions, and addressing barriers, such as perceived costs to promote PBM consumption, particularly in emerging markets. Integrating the theory of consumption value and PLS-SEM provides a comprehensive understanding of the underlying dynamics and sheds light on the unique factors driving PBM consumption behavior.
... The food industry is developing a variety of PBMA products that are usually designed to mimic the appearance, texture, mouthfeel, and taste of real meat products. Consumers are increasingly adopting these products because of their concerns about the health [2], environmental [3], and animal welfare [4] impacts of traditional meat. The current patterns of meat consumption have been linked to undesirable environmental consequences (like greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and biodiversity loss), as well as deleterious human health effects (like cardiovascular disease, cancer, and obesity) [5]. ...
... [16] Discuss that understanding the mechanism of the gastrointestinal fate of PBMAs is of paramount importance to gain a better understanding of their digestibility and bioavailability. 2 Curtain and Grafenauer, 2019 [17] Analyze 137 PBMAs (61% Australian made) and found these products to be higher in carbohydrates, sugars, and sodium. PBMAs lack equivalence with similar meat products and fall short of key nutrients. ...
... Enhanced attention is required for the preparation, processing, and storage of PBMAs to ensure their safety. 2 Hadi and Brightwell, 2021 [44] Discuss that plant-based meat can potentially harbor pathogenic bacteria originating from the raw ingredients used in PBMAs. Note that some endospore-forming bacteria, such as Clostridium spp. or Bacillus spp., may withstand the extrusion process' heating, posing health risks. ...
The market for plant-based meat alternatives is growing to meet consumer demands for a more sustainable, ethical, and healthy diet, as well as to address global food security issues linked to an increasing global population and climate change. Increased consumption of plant-based meat products raises questions about potential food safety risks, including concerns about allergenicity, toxicity, foodborne pathogens, and adequate nutritional composition. From a public health perspective, there has been limited research on the nutritional and health aspects of plant-based meat products, and studies of potential food safety risks of these novel protein sources are not well documented. Much of the research on the nutrition and safety of these foods has been commissioned or funded by companies developing these products, or by other organizations promoting them. This article reviews the existing literature and analyses the potential food safety and health risks associated with plant-based meat products, including nutritional, chemical, microbiological, and allergen concerns. This review has revealed several research gaps that merit further exploration to inform the conversation around the future development and commercialization of plant-based meat substitutes. Further research, technological advancements, food standards, and risk assessment and a multidisciplinary approach are essential to address safety concerns and facilitate the responsible use of new-generation plant-based meat alternatives, particularly for emerging foods with limited knowledge of their risks and benefits.
... Some studies have focused on quality characteristics such as texture [31,32] and flavor [33,34] of plant-based meat analogs. With the increasing supply and sales, more and more people pay attention to the nutritional properties of plant-based meat analogs [35,36] . ...
... Among them, the maximum number of literature involving INS was 162, and there were 58, 54 and 52 publications related to CRP, C10orf90 and FAT1, respectively. Other genes covered in at least 30 publications included IL6 (37), TNF (34), and NDUFB3 (30) (Fig. 8a). Enrichment analysis of all genes found that these genes were significantly enriched in terms of molecular function (MF), cellular component (CP) and biological process (BP). ...
Plant-based meat analogs have become an important topic in recent years. To scientifically understand the research situation of plant-based meat analogs, we analyzed 2,595 publications from January 2000 to October 2023 by bibliometric method based on the PubMed database. The results showed a gradual rise in the number of annual publications, with the fastest growth rate of 58.5% in 2021. The country with the most publications was the United States (685, 24.87%), followed by China (242, 8.79%) and the United Kingdom (196, 7.12%). The University of Helsinki, Texas A&M University and the University of California were core research institutions. Popular and important journals were mainly Foods, Nutrients, Meat Science, Food Research International, and Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. Current research topics focused on alternative proteins and their functional and nutritional characteristics, as well as sustainable development. The research interests have gradually expanded from quality characteristics to nutritional characteristics. Further improving the quality, controlling natural toxin contamination, as well as systematically investigating the effects on health were future research trends. The effects of plant-based meat analogs on metabolic pathways and diseases were important clues in the study of nutritional health. This bibliometric analysis comprehensively and quantitatively presents the research landscape and hotspots, and further suggests future research directions. These findings can benefit researchers in selecting appropriate journals and finding potential collaborators to achieve in-depth research in this field.
... [13][14][15] Plant-based meat alternatives (plant-meat) mimic the appearance, aroma, taste, and texture of animal meat; however, it is not known whether plant-meat is healthier than animal meat because plant-meat contains high levels of purified plant protein, sodium, and phosphorus additives. 16,17 No study has yet compared effects of consuming plant-meat products with animal meat on urinary markers of dietary acid load. ...
Background
Consuming excess animal meat may exacerbate kidney disorders such as urinary stone disease and chronic kidney disease. Plant-based meat alternatives imitate animal meat, and replace animal with vegetable protein, but it is unclear whether eating plant-meat confers similar health benefits as eating whole vegetables. We hypothesized that eating plant-meat when compared with animal meat decreases dietary acid load but increases dietary phosphorus and nitrogen.
Methods
SWAP-MEAT was a randomized eight-week, crossover trial (NCT03718988) of participants consuming > 2 servings/day of either plant-meat or animal meat for each eight-week phase. We measured urine sulfate, ammonium, pH, phosphorus, urea nitrogen, citrate, and creatinine concentrations, and serum creatinine and bicarbonate concentrations from stored participant samples from each phase.
Results
At a single site, we enrolled 36 generally healthy participants (mean±SD age 50.2 ± 13.8 years, 67% women, and 69% White). Eating the plant-meat diet vs. eating the animal meat diet was associated with lower mean concentration of urine sulfate (-6.7 mEq/L; 95% CI -11.0, -2.4), urine ammonium (-4.2 mmol/L; 95% CI -8.2, -0.1), urine phosphorus (-9.0 mg/dL; 95% CI -17.5, -0.5), and urine urea nitrogen (-124.8 mg/dL; 95% CI -226.9, -22.6). Eating plant-meat compared with eating animal meat was associated with higher mean urine pH (+0.3 units; 95% CI 0.2, 0.5) and mean urine citrate/creatinine ratio (+111.65; 95% CI 52.69-170.60). After participants consumed a plant-meat diet compared with when they consumed an animal meat diet, mean serum creatinine concentration was lower (-0.07 mg/dL, 95% CI -0.10, -0.04), whereas mean serum bicarbonate concentration was not different.
Conclusions
Eating plant-based meat products, compared with eating animal meat, was associated with lower urinary excretion of sulfate, ammonium, phosphorus, and urea nitrogen and higher urinary excretion of citrate. Our findings provide rationale for examining whether plant-based meat will benefit patients with kidney disease.
... Health-promoting plant-based diets have been found to offer protective benefits. However, it is essential to note that plant-based diets that are characterized by the consumption of convenience foods and ultra-processed foods do not appear to vary significantly from diets of animal origin in terms of their impact on health (Gomez-Donoso et al., 2019;Hu et al., 2019). The data presented above highlight a remarkable observation: Although the proportion of individuals identifying as vegans or vegetarians reaches a maximum of 10% of the population, there is a significantly larger section, approximately 30-40%, consisting of consumers who consider themselves flexitarians or express an interest in lowering their meat consumption. ...
Food shortage is a primary challenge as the human population is increasing rapidly. Therefore, the world is looking for ways to establish sustainability in the food system to generate nutritious food with better sensory qualities. To fulfill the animal protein requirements of the world, different meat alternatives are available in the market, like cultured meat, mycoprotein, and insects, but from a sustainable point of view, plant-based meat alternatives are the most suitable. However, in producing these alternatives, industrialists need to be aware of particular challenges and opportunities in production and marketing while manufacturing. The major challenge for industrialists is the consumer acceptance rate, which depends on plant-based products' physical appearance and taste. They can improve the marketing of plant-based meat products by improving plant-based meat alternatives' physical and sensory characteristics. The focus of this paper is to discuss the technologies necessary for the production of plant-based meat alternatives. The current findings suggest that the market scenario will change for plant-based meat producers, in which customer preference and beliefs will have a massive role in the acceptance and marketing of this meat. The development of plant-based meat alternatives is the first step to achieving the goal of sustainable food; more innovations are needed to establish a healthier and sustainable food system as this type of food has a low carbon footprint compared to other products available. Keywords: Plant-based meat, sustainability, food shortage, consumer preference, opportunities, challenges.
... Much less is known about how message-framing techniques can be wielded to promote egoistic behaviour like plant-based meat consumption. Different from other environmentally sustainable actions, plant-based meat consumption appears to reduce risk more for individuals than for society and the environment(Hu, Otis, & McCarthy, 2019). Specifically, compared to environmental information, health information was more effective in altering respondents' CI and $WTP towards plant-based meat consumption, expanding the literature on health behaviour and communication to understand message framing from an egoistic perspective(Wen & Lee, 2020).Third, in addition to message-framing theory, we turned to regulatory fit theory, construal level theory, and means-end theory to clarify three-way interaction effects among message framing (i.e., gain vs. loss), message information (i.e., health vs. environment), and message description (i.e., attribute vs. benefit). ...
Drawing on regulatory fit theory, construal level theory, and means-end theory, this research examined the effects of message framing, message information, and message description on restaurant diners’ consumption intentions (CI) and the amount they would be willing to pay more ($WTP) for a plant-based diet. The study employed a mixed between-within-group methodology with a micro-longitudinal 2 (gain vs. loss framing) × 2 (health vs. environment information) × 2 (attribute-based vs. benefit-based description) scenario-based experimental design. An analysis of 361 survey responses revealed that health information should be conveyed through gain-framed messages with benefit-based descriptions, whereas environment information should be conveyed through loss-framed messages with attribute-based descriptions. These results enriched our understanding of diners’ attitudes towards plant-based meat consumption. Findings laid a theoretical foundation for future studies and present practical implications for the hospitality industry.
... The best plan of action for lessening environmental effects is a diet high in vegetables. To examine the sustainability of veggie meat products, Hu et al. (2019) used life cycle impact assessment methods. The production of microalgae and fungi-based meat analogs has significant economic importance as it provides a sustainable and cost-effective source of protein (Singh & Sit, 2022). ...
Concerns about the environmental effects of livestock production and the health effects of consuming red and processed meat are driving up demand for meat substitutes. To produce meat analogs with appropriate nutritional and sensory qualities, two types of materials can be used viz., microalgae and fungus. High concentrations of proteins, omega-3 fatty acids, and other necessary nutrients can be found in microalgae. They can be grown using a variety of techniques and processed into powders or pastes that can be added to meat substitutes. Fungi, on the other hand, are a good source of protein, fiber, and flavorings. They are capable of being cultivated on a variety of substrates and can be converted into protein concentrates or used as mycelia. Incorporating microalgae and fungus into meat substitutes can enhance their overall health profile and provide a variety of nutritional advantages in addition to offering distinctive aromas and textures that closely resemble those of meat. Overall, they use less land, water, and other resources and are more sustainable than traditional meat production. To fully realize their potential and ensure the creation of premium microbial meat products, additional study is required. This chapter serves to give an insight into what is known in the usage of fungi and microalgae in producing meat alternatives, their nutritional overview, and their potential impact on health, nutrition, and the environment.
... Due to changing consumer trends toward dietary decisions based on health, ethical, and/or religious preferences (e.g., vegetarianism/veganism, allergies, and genetic modification), as well as toward more environmentally sustainable options (Dekkers et al., 2018;Hopkins & Dacey, 2008;Hu et al., 2019;Pihlanto et al., 2017), the food industry has been looking for protein-rich foods to replace those derived from animals in the form of meat analogs, wheat, and soy (Sun et al., 2021). The reliability of meat substitutes/analogs derived from microbial, microalgae, insect protein, and cultured meat has been established (Hara, 2020;Yesuraj et al., 2022). ...
The need for plant-based meat analogs (PBMAs) is warranted to reduce meat consumption and also to cater to the demands of pro-vegetarian or vegan populations who are looking for new products of choice. Moreover, the increasing population excessively depending on animal products for food is unsustainable and also will burden the planet with excess demands of arable land, fodder, and water resources. Attempts are underway to develop a range of PBMAs using plant protein sources, and pea is one of the popular legumes of choice. This review provides an overview of plant legumes with special reference to peas as ingredients of PBMA with reference to its nutritional value, textural advantages, health benefits, and the processing technologies involved in its production.
... Conversely, the proportion of animal-based food in the diet of decile 10 of the "High animal-based food" pattern was 19.0%, the highest among the four derived dietary patterns. Although increasing the consumption of beef is not recommended from the perspective of environmental or nutritional health (Hu et al., 2019), this association reflects the inverse association between beef and other types of animal protein sources in current Chinese diets. ...
... One promising avenue to reduce meat eating is shifting consumption toward meat alternatives, which have the potential for improving men's health (Chriki & Hocquette, 2020;Hu et al., 2019;Sadler, 2004), as well as environmental outcomes (Lynch & Pierrehumbert, 2019;Post, 2012;Tuomisto & Teixeira De Mattos, 2011), and animal welfare (Sexton et al., 2019). However, early research indicates that consumption of plant-based meat alternatives is low (Hagmann et al., 2019; and that many men harbor negative attitudes toward such foods (Michel et al., 2021). ...
Men historically consume more meat than women, show fewer intentions to reduce meat consumption, and are underrepresented among vegans and vegetarians. Eating meat strongly aligns with normative masculinities, decisively affirming that “real men” eat meat and subordinating men who choose to be veg*n (vegan or vegetarian). The emergence of meat alternatives and increasing environmental concerns may contest these long-standing masculine norms and hierarchies. The current scoping review addresses the research question what are the connections between masculinities and men’s attitudes and behaviors toward meat consumption and veg*nism? Using keywords derived from two key concepts, “men” and “meat,” 39 articles were selected and analyzed to inductively derive three thematic findings; (a) Meat as Masculine, (b) Veg*n Men as Othered, and (c) Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity. Meat as Masculine included how men’s gendered identities, defenses, and physicalities were entwined with meat consumption. Veg*n Men as Othered explored the social and cultural challenges faced by men who adopt meatless diets, including perceptions of emasculation. Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity was claimed by men who eschewed meat in their diets and advocated for veg*nism as legitimate masculine capital through linkages to physical strength, rationality, self-determination, courage, and discipline. In light of the growing concern about the ecological impact of meat production and the adverse health outcomes associated with its excessive consumption, this review summarizes empirical connections between masculinities and the consumption of meat to consider directions for future men’s health promotion research, policy, and practice.
... Plant-based meat-alternative products are mainly made with textured vegetable protein (TVP)-based soy, and wheat proteins are specifically designed to imitate the experience and taste of eating meat while being marketed to possibly replace animal-based products. 5 However, TVP does not meet consumers' sensory expectations because of its uniform texture, high springiness and dryness. 6 Plant-based meat markets are expected to increase from $4.6 billion in 2018 to $85 billion by 2030. ...
BACKGROUND
Understanding the relationship between perceived sensory attributes and measurable instrumental properties is crucial for replicating the distinct textures of meat in plant‐based meat analogs. In this study, plant‐based patties composed of textured vegetable protein (TVP) and 10%, 20% and 30% TVPs were substituted with fibers from sweet potato stem (SPS), and their instrumental texture and sensory properties were evaluated.
RESULTS
Samples with 20% SPS showed hardness, cohesiveness and chewiness, which are the mechanical indicators most similar to those of meat. A descriptive sensory analysis by ten trained participants indicated that the SPS‐supplemented meat analog patties exhibited characteristics similar to pork patties in terms of firmness, toughness, cohesiveness and smoothness compared to the TVP‐only sample. A strong positive correlation between instrumental hardness and sensory firmness was observed (P < 0.01); however, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness did not show any correlation between instrumental and sensory analyses. Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values showed positive correlations with sensory cohesiveness, chewiness, toughness, fibrousness, moistness, firmness and springiness (P < 0.05).
CONCLUSION
The results demonstrated the feasibility of physically treated fibers from SPS as a partial substitute for TVP in developing meat analogs. Additionally, this study suggested that instrumental hardness and WBSF measurements can be sound parameters for representing sensory texture characteristics while further developing plant‐based meat analogs. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
... However, the associations between these food groups and CVD risk factors were inconclusive in the present study. However, the impact of these products on human health are still not well investigated, as they vary greatly in composition and many are highly processed, containing high levels of salt, sugar, and/or saturated fat [79,80]. These ingredients have been associated to a higher CVD risk, but their overall effects are still debated [81][82][83]. ...
Background
The growing trend towards conscious and sustainable dietary choices has led to increased adoption of flexitarian diets, characterised by plant-based eating habits with occasional consumption of meat and processed meat products. However, the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors associated with flexitarian diets compared to both vegans and omnivores remain underexplored.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, 94 healthy participants aged 25–45 years, categorized into long-term flexitarians (FXs ≤ 50 g/day of meat and meat products, n = 32), vegans (Vs, no animal products, n = 33), and omnivores (OMNs ≥ 170 g/day of meat and meat products, n = 29) were included. Various CVD risk factors were measured, including fasting blood samples for metabolic biomarkers, body composition analysis via bioimpedance, blood pressure measurements, arterial stiffness evaluated through pulse wave velocity (PWV) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) severity was determined using browser-based calculations (MetS-scores). Dietary intake was assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), diet quality was calculated with the Healthy Eating Index-flexible (HEI-Flex), while physical activity levels were recorded using the validated Freiburger questionnaire.
Results
The data showed that FXs and Vs had more beneficial levels of insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol compared to OMNs. Notably, FXs revealed the most favorable MetS-score results based on both BMI and waistline, and better PWV values than Vs and OMNs. In addition, FXs and Vs reported higher intake rates of vegetables, fruit, nuts/seeds and plant-based milk alternatives.
Conclusion
The flexitarian diet appears to confer cardiovascular benefits. While Vs had the most favorable results overall, this study supports that reducing meat and processed meat products intake, as in flexitarianism, may contribute to CVD risk factor advantages.
... Some concerns exist about the use of additives in meat substitutes (Hu et al. 2019;Rubio et al. 2020). ...
The nutrient composition of plant-based burgers is a key factor when making their purchase/ consumption decision to maintain a balanced diet. For this reason, ingredient list and nutritional information of burgers launched in the global market were retrieved from their labels. Products were classified based on the technology development, market position and region of the manufacturer. From the ingredient analysis, we observed a high heterogeneity in the ingredients used, a predominance of soy and wheat as main sources of proteins, and the increasing use of new protein sources (e.g., peas, other types of beans and pseudo-cereals). Oil was the most cited ingredient followed by salt. Nutritional composition varied mainly depending on the region with no clear pattern among countries. To less extent, technology development resulted in traditional products with lower amounts of protein and higher amounts of carbohydrates. Vegan and vegetarian products showed limited differences due to the high intra-heterogenicity.
... According to a report by Bloomberg in 2021 [1], the plant-based food market is expected to reach a value of up to USD 162 billion by 2030 from USD 29.4 billion in 2020 globally as the concept of flexitarian (a casual vegetarian) is becoming quite popular among the younger generations with 14% identifying as vegetarian or vegan and 15% as flexitarian, which represents approximately 29% of the total population [2]. Additionally, people who are suffering from different health-related issues like lactose intolerance or malabsorption, or high cholesterol intake, are also finding their way to plant-based alternative products [3]. ...
Globally, the demand for plant-based meat is increasing rapidly as these products are becoming quite popular among vegans and vegetarians. However, its development is still in the early stage and faces various technological challenges; the imitation of the sensory profile of meat is the most challenging part as these products are meant to be an alternative to animal meat. The development of a product similar to meat requires accurate selection of ingredients and processing techniques. An understanding of the relevant sensory profile can help in constructing products and technologies that are consumer-centric and sustainable. In this review, we focus on the comparative differences in the sensory profiles of animal meat and plant-based meat alternatives, particularly regarding the color, texture, and flavor, along with the methods used to compare them. This paper also explains the sensory evaluation and how it affects consumer preference and acceptability. Additionally, a direction for further research on developing better plant-based meat products is suggested.
... According to a report by Bloomberg in 2021 [1], globally the plant-based food market is expected to reach up to $162 billion by 2030 from $29.4 billion in 2020 because as the concept of flexitarian (a causal vegetarian) is getting quite popular in today's generation with 14% vegetarians or vegan and 15% flexitarians, which is approximately 29% of total global population [2]. Additionally, the people those are suffering from different health related issues like lactose intolerance or malabsorption, high cholesterol intake are also finding their ways to plant based alternative products [3]. ...
Globally, the demand for plant-based alternative food is increasing rapidly as these products are getting quite popular in vegan and vegetarians. However, it is still in the early stage and faces various technological challenges, but the imitation of sensory profile is the most challenging part as the products are meant to be an alternative of meat. The development of similar product to meat requires an accurate selection of ingredients and processing. An understanding about the sensory profile can help to construct the product and technologies that are consumer centric and sustainable. In this review, we focus on the comparative differences in the sensory profile of animal meat and plant-based meat alternative specially in the color, texture and flavor, along with the method used to resemble them. The paper also explains about the sensory evaluation and how it affects the consumer preference and acceptability. Additionally, a direction to further research for developing better plant-based alternative products has also been suggested.
... The production of animal-derived products, particularly meat, has a significant impact on the environment. This impact is evident in the emission of greenhouse gases, extensive use of land and water resources, and high energy consumption (Steinfel et al., 2006;Stoll-Kleemann and O'riordan, 2015), along with implications for human health (Hu et al., 2019;Gibbs and Cappuccio, 2022;Grasso et al., 2021;Perraud et al., 2023). As a result, the shift from an animal-based diet to a pea protein-based diet is becoming increasingly important in addition to the valuable ingredients contained, such as carotenoids, polyphenols, and dietary fiber, that are beneficial for human health (Tuso et al., 2015;Kahleova et al., 2020;Messina et al., 2023). ...
... Considering that the fossil energy to animal protein ratios as of now are at their lowest in the case of broilers (4:1) and at their highest in the case of lamb (57:1) it can be concluded that traditional meat production systems are also associated with energy inefficiencies, which only aggravate the summarized environmental concerns [4]. 2 Furthermore, even though animal meat is the most accessible source of essential nutrients, the production and consumption of meat, has been reported to also causes negative effects on human health. For example, there are reports that consumption of red and processed meat increases the risk of developing colon, lung, pancreatic and prostate cancers [5][6][7][8][9][10] and other chronic diseases [6,9,11]. ...
Soy leghemoglobin (LegH) has been gaining interest over the last years as an efficient flavor and aroma compound in plant-based meat substitutes. Hence, in the following article we demonstrate the methods for LegH production using a recombinant Komagataella phaffii strain. Multiple fed-batch fermentation with an alternative to BSM medium, where glucose was used as the main carbon source, were implemented and the growth kinetics, e.g., maximal specific biomass growth - 0.239 g·g−1·h−1, biomass yield from substrate - 0.298 g·g−1 and maximal specific substrate consumption rate - 0.81 g·g−1·h−1, were identified. Leghemoglobin production resulted in a yield of 0.513 mg·gDCW 1, while the highest biomass density achieved in the study was 121.80 gDCW·L 1. The applied medium showed potential for additional optimization studies, as in contrast to BSM, made it possible to separate pH control from nitrogen supply, does not affect medium turbidity measurements and does not induce metabolite synthesis during yeast biomass growth.
... The safety of carrageenan has long been debated, with attention being focused on potential adverse effects on adverse effects on gastrointestinal health (Almela et al., 2002, David et al., 2018. Additionally, because it is extracted from algae, heavy metal accumulation is a risk (Besada et al., 2009;Hu et al., 2019). ...
All over the world, the development of products that resemble meat but contain predominantly plant‐sourced ingredients is a prime focus. Meat obtained by rearing animals is associated with a range of important issues related to the sustainability of the planet. Locally, the topic is trending and the cause of various debates among industry role players. This study aimed to explore and analyze plant‐based meat alternative (PBMA) products in the South African retail market as well as review internal (nutritional content and ingredients) and external (country of origin, cost/kg, and label claims) factors of the products. This study also compared the nutritional content of PBMA and comparative meat products. Seventy‐eight PBMA products were included: plant‐based sausages ( n = 23), burgers ( n = 31), chicken‐style ( n = 11), mince ( n = 8), and an “other” ( n = 5) category providing for a variety of product lines. Information from product packaging (total fat, saturated fat, fiber, protein, sugar, sodium, carbohydrates, and energy density) was extracted for all PBMA ( n = 78) and comparative meat product lines ( n = 28). Meat products tended to be comparatively higher in saturated fat, while PBMAs were higher in carbohydrate, sugar, and dietary fiber content. Sodium content of plant‐based mince was approximately five times higher than beef mince. On‐pack claims for PBMAs included vegetarian/vegan/plant based (80% of products), high in/source of protein (48%), containing no genetically modified organisms (GMOs; 16%), and gluten free (26%). The plant protein trend has prompted innovation in PBMAs, however, wide nutrient ranges and higher sodium levels highlight the importance of nutrition guidelines for their development to ensure healthier product offerings to consumers. The findings of this study may assist in exploration of consumers' preferences/attitudes or engagement with PBMA products, which could, in turn, guide new product development within the category. However, information about possible barriers, drivers, consumer expectations, and attitudes toward these products is also required.
... Public health approaches have had limited success in inducing meaningful population level transitions to plantbased eating, due to culinary traditions, taste preferences, and social and cultural norms [15][16][17][18]. Meat alternativesi.e., vegetarian and/or vegan foods designed to mimic meat, yet devoid of animal meat (vegetarian) or any animal derivative (vegan)-offer an effective approach to curtail meat consumption without drastically altering meal patterns and dietary habits [19,20]. Mycoprotein is a sustainable protein derived from the continuous cultivation of Fusarium venanatum, which is high in protein and fibre, while low in fat [21][22][23]. ...
Purpose
Mycoprotein is a relatively novel food source produced from the biomass of Fusarium venenatum. It has previously been shown to improve CVD risk markers in intervention trials when it is compared against total meat. It has not hitherto been assessed specifically for benefits relative to red and processed meat.
Methods
We leveraged samples from Mycomeat, an investigator-blind randomised crossover controlled trial in metabolically healthy male adults (n = 20), randomised to consume 240 g/day of red and processed meat for 14 days followed by mycoprotein, or vice versa. Blood biochemical indices were a priori defined secondary endpoints.
Results
Mycoprotein consumption led to a 6.74% reduction in total cholesterol (P = 0.02) and 12.3% reduction in LDL cholesterol (P = 0.02) from baseline values. Change in fasted triglycerides was not significantly different between diets (+ 0.19 ± 0.11 mmol/l with mycoprotein, P = 0.09). There was a small but significant reduction in waist circumference for mycoprotein relative to meat (− 0.95 ± 0.42 cm, P = 0.04). Following the mycoprotein diet, mean systolic (− 2.41 ± 1.89 mmHg, P = 0.23) and diastolic blood pressure (− 0.80 ± 1.23 mmHg, P = 0.43) were reduced from baseline. There were no statistically significant effects of the intervention on urinary sodium, nitrite or TMAO; while urinary potassium (+ 126.12 ± 50.30 mmol/l, P = 0.02) and nitrate (+ 2.12 ± 0.90 mmol/l, P = 0.04) were both significantly higher with mycoprotein relative to meat. The study population comprised metabolically healthy adults, therefore, changes in plasma lipids had little effect on cardiovascular risk scores (− 0.34% FRS for mycoprotein P = 0.24).
Conclusions
These results confirm potential cardiovascular benefits when displacing red and processed meat with mycoprotein in the diet. Longer trials in higher risk study populations are needed to fully elucidate suggested benefits for blood pressure and body composition.
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03944421.
... Animal husbandry practices have also resulted in many environmental challenges stemming from the high consumption of fresh water, disruption of nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, as well as its undesirable impacts on biodiversity [3][4][5][6]. Suitable alternatives will need to be considered to meet the growing demand for meat and prevent further acceleration of environmental damage [5,7]. ...
Background
The transition towards sustainable nutrition as well as the exploration of alternative sources of protein have been at the forefront of thinking in the 21st century. However, further research is required to ascertain if a diet composed of alternative plant-based proteins has similar nutritional advantages to a plant-based diet. This study aims to model the replacement of a diet consisting of animal-based proteins with plant-based alternatives (PBA), in a group of Asians.
Methods
A 4-day food record was collected from 50 individuals residing in Singapore and nutrient profiles were generated for each individual. Food records were analysed, and meat, dairy, and seafood ingredients were substituted gram-for-gram with their PBA. The original and replaced nutrient profiles were compared against each other and the differences in macro and micronutrients were analysed.
Results
A significant increase in carbohydrates, dietary fibre, as well as in micronutrients such as sodium and calcium was observed. Conversely, there was a significant decreased intake in overall energy, protein and fat (p < 0.005).
Conclusions
The significant nutritional impact of substituting animal-based proteins for PBA may present benefits for bone health and individuals on a caloric restriction diet. However, higher sodium levels may be undesirable for individuals with cardiovascular conditions and hypertension, and the low bioavailability of iron in plant-based sources may present issues for iron deficient populations. Bearing some of these key findings in mind, researchers and manufacturers need to consider these when developing alternative protein products to meet consumer demands for palatable and nutritious plant-based products.
... Scholars and policymakers therefore advocate for a reduction in meat consumption [1,6], especially in Western countries [49] where meat consumption is deeply rooted in society [50]. Eco-labels can draw attention to more sustainable "meat alternatives", products that try to imitate animal-based products in all sensory aspects based on environmentally friendly proteins [51,52]. Shifting from niche to mainstream, the meat alternatives market in Europe is predicted to grow from 1.5 € bn in 2018 to € 2.4 bn by 2025 [53]. ...
Eco-labels are an instrument for enabling informed food choices and supporting a demand-sided change towards an urgently needed sustainable food system. Lately, novel eco-labels that depict a product’s environmental life cycle assessment on a multi-level scale are being tested across Europe’s retailers. This study elicits consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for a multi-level eco-label. A Discrete Choice Experiment was conducted; a representative sample (n = 536) for the Austrian population was targeted via an online survey. Individual partworth utilities were estimated by means of the Hierarchical Bayes. The results show higher WTP for a positively evaluated multi-level label, revealing consumers’ perceived benefits of colorful multi-level labels over binary black-and-white designs. Even a negatively evaluated multi-level label was associated with a higher WTP compared to one with no label, pointing towards the limited effectiveness of eco-labels. Respondents’ preferences for eco-labels were independent from their subjective eco-label knowledge, health consciousness, and environmental concern. The attribute “protein source” was most important, and preference for an animal-based protein source (beef) was strongly correlated with consumers’ meat attachment, implying that a shift towards more sustainable protein sources is challenging, and sustainability labels have only a small impact on the meat product choice of average consumers.
Dietary haem iron intake is linked to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D), but the underlying plasma biomarkers are not well understood. We analysed data from 204,615 participants (79% females) in three large US cohorts over up to 36 years, examining the associations between iron intake and T2D risk. We also assessed plasma metabolic biomarkers and metabolomic profiles in subsets of 37,544 (82% females) and 9,024 (84% females) participants, respectively. Here we show that haem iron intake but not non-haem iron is associated with a higher T2D risk, with a multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio of 1.26 (95% confidence interval 1.20–1.33; P for trend <0.001) comparing the highest to the lowest quintiles. Haem iron accounts for significant proportions of the T2D risk linked to unprocessed red meat and specific dietary patterns. Increased haem iron intake correlates with unfavourable plasma profiles of insulinaemia, lipids, inflammation and T2D-linked metabolites. We also identify metabolites, including l-valine and uric acid, potentially mediating the haem iron–T2D relationship, highlighting their pivotal role in T2D pathogenesis.
Sales of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) are increasing ⁽¹⁾ . While these products are becoming more popular, little is known about their impact on health ⁽²⁾ . Therefore, the aim of this work was to systematically review the evidence on PBMA consumption and associated health outcomes.
A wider systematic review looking at the environmental impact, ingredient composition, nutritional impact and health outcomes associated with PBMAs was conducted. A search strategy combined terms “meat alternatives” AND “environment” OR “ingredients” OR “nutrition” OR “health.” Five databases were searched, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus and Greenfile, as well as reference lists of relevant articles. All study designs reporting primary data were included, except for animal studies and in vitro studies. Non-English studies and studies published before 2011 were excluded (PROSPERO Registration Number: CRD42021250541).
2184 papers were identified, 1802 papers remained after duplicates were removed, 1536 were excluded at title and abstract screen stage, 266 full texts were assessed for eligibility and 54 papers were included in the analysis for all outcomes investigated. Ten studies examined the impact of PBMA vs. meat consumption on health outcomes. Three studies measured postprandial response to single test meals (3–5) , four studies were longer-term RCTs (6–8) with two further separate publications reporting on different outcomes for the same RCT (9,10) . One study was a prospective cohort ⁽¹¹⁾ and one a cross-sectional study (12).
Of the single test meal studies, no significant differences were observed for glucose levels in 2/2 studies (100%) (3,5) , PYY and GLP-1 levels in 2/2 studies (100%) (3,4) and self-reported hunger/fullness in 3/3 studies (100%) (3–5) . Significantly lower insulin concentrations and subsequent energy intakes were both reported in 1/2 studies (50%) following consumption of mycoprotein vs. chicken meals ⁽³⁾ .
Longer-term full and partial replacement of meat with PBMAs resulted in significantly lower body weight (kg) in 2/2 studies (100%) (6,10) , significantly lower saturated fat intakes in 2/2 studies (100%) (6,10) , significantly higher fibre intakes in 2/3 studies (67%) (6,7) , improvements in plasma lipid profile in 2/3 studies (67%) (7,10) and positive changes in gut microbiota in 1/2 studies (50%) ⁽⁸⁾ compared to meat diet phases/control groups with no restrictions on meat intakes. There were no significant differences in protein intakes in 3/3 studies (100%) (6,7,10) , energy, total fat and carbohydrate intakes in 2/2 studies (100%) (6,7) , blood pressure in 2/2 studies (100%) (6,10) , glucose levels in 2/2 studies (100%) (7,10) and insulin levels in 2/2 studies (100%) (7,10) .
No definitive conclusions can be made on the impact of PBMAs on health outcomes due to the small number of studies and variation in study designs, outcomes measured and the type of PBMA used. From the limited evidence available, no negative health effects from PBMA consumption were observed, however, further longer-term RCTs are needed to confirm this.
This study examines the relationship among animal‐based meat and plant‐based meat alternatives (PBMAs) using a basket‐and‐expenditure‐based choice experiment. In particular, we examine whether animal‐based meat products are substitutes or complements with PBMAs. Further, we incorporate consumer beliefs about their diet and environmental attitudes into the analysis. What we find is that PBMAs are not substitutes but rather complements or independent from one another. We also find that environmental and diet beliefs positively contribute to consumer utility for plant‐based alternatives. This study also demonstrates the strength of a basket‐based approach to examining complex consumer choices that require both discrete and continuous decisions in food purchasing.
Background: The interest in meat alternatives has increased over the years as people embrace more varied food choices because of different reasons. This study aims to analyse the nutritional composition of ready-to-use meat alternatives and compare them with meat (products). Methods: Nutritional composition values were collected in 2022 of all ready-to-use meat alternatives in Belgian supermarkets, as well as their animal-based counterparts. A one-sample t-test was performed to test the nutritional composition of ready-to-use meat alternatives against norm values, while an independent samples t-test was used to make the comparison with meat. Results: Minced meat and pieces/strips/cubes scored favourably on all norm values. Cheeseburgers/schnitzels, nut/seed burgers and sausages contained more than 10 g/100 g total fat. The saturated fat and salt content was lower than the norm value in each category. Legume burgers/falafel contained less than 10 g/100 g protein. Vegetarian/vegan minced meat and bacon contained fewer calories, total and saturated fat, and more fibre compared to their animal-based counterparts. Conclusions: Minced meat and pieces/strips/cubes came out as the most favourable categories regarding nutritional composition norm values. Vegetarian/vegan steak came out the least favourable compared to steak, while vegetarian/vegan minced meat and vegetarian/vegan bacon came out the most favourable compared to their animal-based counterparts.
Context
Shifting from current dietary patterns to diets rich in plant-based (PB) foods and lower in animal-based foods (ABFs) is generally regarded as a suitable strategy to improve nutritional health and reduce environmental impacts. Despite the recent growth in supply of and demand for novel plant-based foods (NPBFs), a comprehensive overview is lacking.
Objectives
This review provides a synthesis of available evidence, highlights challenges, and informs public health and environmental strategies for purposeful political decision-making by systematically searching, analyzing, and summarizing the available literature.
Data Sources
Five peer-reviewed databases and grey literature sources were rigorously searched for publications.
Data Extraction
Study characteristics meeting the inclusion criteria regarding NPBF nutrient composition and health and environmental outcomes in high-income countries were extracted.
Data analysis
Fifty-seven peer-reviewed and 36 grey literature sources were identified; these were published in 2016–2022. NPBFs typically have substantially lower environmental impacts than ABFs, but the nutritional contents are complex and vary considerably across brands, product type, and main primary ingredient. In the limited evidence on the health impacts, shifts from ABFs to PB meats were associated with positive health outcomes. However, results were mixed for PB drinks, with links to micronutrient deficiencies.
Conclusion
If carefully selected, certain NPBFs have the potential to be healthier and nutrient-rich alternatives to ABFs and typically have smaller environmental footprints. More disaggregated categorization of various types of NPBFs would be a helpful step in guiding consumers and key stakeholders to make informed decisions. To enable informed policymaking on the inclusion of NPBFs in dietary transitions as part of a wider net-zero and health strategy, future priorities should include nutritional food standards, labelling, and subdivisions or categorizations of NPBFs, as well as short- and long-term health studies evaluating dietary shifts from ABFs to NPBFs and standardized environmental impact assessments, ideally from independent funders.
Soy leghemoglobin (LegH) has been gaining interest over the last years as an efficient flavor and aroma compound in plant-based meat substitutes. Hence, in the following article, we demonstrate the methods for LegH production using a recombinant Komagataella phaffii strain. Multiple fed-batch fermentation with an alternative to a BSM medium, where glucose was used as the main carbon source, was implemented and the growth kinetics, e.g., a maximal specific biomass growth of 0.239 g·g−1·h−1, a biomass yield from the substrate of 0.298 g·g−1, and a maximal specific substrate consumption rate of 0.81 g·g−1·h−1 were identified. Leghemoglobin production resulted in a yield of 0.513 mg·gDCW−1, while the highest biomass density achieved in this study was 121.80 gDCW·L−1. The applied medium that showed potential for additional optimization studies, which, in contrast to BSM, made it possible to separate pH control from nitrogen supply, does not affect medium turbidity measurements and does not induce metabolite synthesis during yeast biomass growth.
Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) could be a promising source for protein intake and reduce the dependence on unsustainable meat production and consumption. However, the concern about the production and processing of PBMAs persists, besides the consumers' attitude. The opinion about scientific evidence among stakeholders on the promotion of PBMAs differ. This study presents the trends in consumer perception and preference toward PBMAs and suggests a facilitating policy framework for promoting consumption. The study mainly focused on (1) exploring the publication trends, geographic focus of research, and a comprehensive review of the consumers’ perception of and preference for PBMAs, (2) identifying PBMAs research hotspots and emerging themes, (3) evaluating the wholistic nature of PBMAs research, and (4) offering policy framework for the promotion of production and consumption of the PBMAs. Bibliometric analysis was performed using the Scopus database sourcing literature published till December 2022 and analyzing the identified 1964 publications deploying VOSviewer software through the topic-based search strategy of phrases corresponding to PBMAs perception and preference. The search query retrieved 1,964 publications that showed an increasing trend in research on consumers’ preference towards PBMAs. The positive affirmation by consumers is mainly by personal decisions on health benefits, a shift to veganism, ethical concerns, and sustainability. The preference was in proportion to the articulation of the possible merits of the PBMAS, price discounts, and media-influenced consumption. The USA, China, and Germany led, respectively, in active institutions, per research output and per capita GDP publication. The chief sources of funds for research on PBMAs consumption, perception, and attitudes were the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the European Commission, and the National Key Research and Development Program of China. Research outputs on PBMA foods, consumers' acceptance, and preferences are mounting; however, the United States Department of Agriculture and Wageningen University led in the publications revealing that rigorous research efforts for producing and promoting PBMAs need to be executed in developing economies. Although research output on PBMAs food, consumers’ acceptance and preferences are increasing, a majority of publications emerge from organizations in developed nations like the United States Department of Agriculture and Wageningen University. The research effort is yet to be intensified to produce and promote PBMAs in developing countries. We suggest a policy framework for research-, agri-food industries-, and society to be implemented by the stakeholders to ensure the production and consumption of PBMAs as well as to promote such products on the sustainability front.
There is a need for transformational innovation within the existing food system to achieve United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 2 of ending hunger within a sustainable agricultural system by 2030. Mycelium, the vegetative growth form of filamentous fungi, may represent a convergence of several features crucial for the development of food products that are nutritious, desirable, scalable, affordable, and environmentally sustainable. Mycelium has gained interest as technology advances demonstrate its ability to provide scalable biomass for food production delivering good flavor and quality protein, fiber, and essential micronutrients urgently needed to improve public health. We review the potential of mycelium as an environmentally sustainable food to address malnutrition and undernutrition, driven by food insecurity and caloric dense diets with less than optimal macro- and micronutrient density.
Proteins are an important nutrient and ingredient in food as well as in nutritional supplements. The application and take up of food proteins, especially plant proteins, has been limited due to their undesirable sensory properties, e.g. taste, odour, and chalky mouth feel. This will need to change if the availability of meat protein becomes scarcer.
Documenting the latest research, this book is the first overview of the recent advances in flavour research of food proteins, with an emphasis on the major plant proteins, e.g. soy and pulse proteins. The topics to be covered include sensory and instrumental characterization of flavour compounds in food proteins, how flavour profiles in food proteins can be formed or altered, research advances of individual food proteins, the use of food protein products as flavouring ingredients, and future trends of flavouring food proteins.
There is a growing interest in using plant proteins in food formulation and industrial applications, but no book has yet covered this systematically until now. Summarizing research advances in consumer studies and flavour chemistry that focus on food proteins, the book will discuss the flavour properties and problems in each major and novel food protein source for the academic and industry market.
Plant-based meat analogs have been shown to cause less harm for both human health and the environment compared to real meat, especially processed meat. However, the intense pressure to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based meat alternatives has caused their nutritional and safety aspects to be overlooked. This paper reviews our current understanding of the nutrition and safety behind plant-based meat alternatives, proposing fermentation as a potential way of overcoming limitations in these aspects. Plant protein blends, fortification, and preservatives have been the main methods for enhancing the nutritional content and stability of plant-based meat alternatives, but concerns that include safety, nutrient deficiencies, low digestibility, high allergenicity, and high costs have been raised in their use. Fermentation with microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Neurospora intermedia, and Rhizopus oryzae improves digestibility and reduces allergenicity and antinutritive factors more effectively. At the same time, microbial metabolites can boost the final product’s safety, nutrition, and sensory quality, although some concerns regarding their toxicity remain. Designing a single starter culture or microbial consortium for plant-based meat alternatives can be a novel solution for advancing the health benefits of the final product while still fulfilling the demands of an expanding and sustainable economy.
Objective
To evaluate the association of changes in red meat consumption with total and cause specific mortality in women and men.
Design
Two prospective cohort studies with repeated measures of diet and lifestyle factors.
Setting
Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, United States.
Participants
53 553 women and 27 916 men without cardiovascular disease or cancer at baseline.
Main outcome measure
Death confirmed by state vital statistics records, the national death index, or reported by families and the postal system.
Results
14 019 deaths occurred during 1.2 million person years of follow-up. Increases in red meat consumption over eight years were associated with a higher mortality risk in the subsequent eight years among women and men (both P for trend<0.05, P for heterogeneity=0.97). An increase in total red meat consumption of at least half a serving per day was associated with a 10% higher mortality risk (pooled hazard ratio 1.10, 95% confidence interval 1.04 to 1.17). For processed and unprocessed red meat consumption, an increase of at least half a serving per day was associated with a 13% higher mortality risk (1.13, 1.04 to 1.23) and a 9% higher mortality risk (1.09, 1.02 to 1.17), respectively. A decrease in consumption of processed or unprocessed red meat of at least half a serving per day was not associated with mortality risk. The association between increased red meat consumption and mortality risk was consistent across subgroups defined by age, physical activity, dietary quality, smoking status, or alcohol consumption.
Conclusion
Increases in red meat consumption, especially processed meat, were associated with higher overall mortality rates.
We investigated whether ultra-processed foods affect energy intake in 20 weight-stable adults, aged (mean ± SE) 31.2 ± 1.6 years and BMI = 27 ± 1.5 kg/m2. Subjects were admitted to the NIH Clinical Center and randomized to receive either ultra-processed or unprocessed diets for 2 weeks immediately followed by the alternate diet for 2 weeks. Meals were designed to be matched for presented calories, energy density, macronutrients, sugar, sodium, and fiber. Subjects were instructed to consume as much or as little as desired. Energy intake was greater during the ultra-processed diet (508 ± 106 kcal/day; p = 0.0001), with increased consumption of carbohydrate (280 ± 54 kcal/day; p < 0.0001) and fat (230 ± 53 kcal/day; p = 0.0004), but not protein (-2 ± 12 kcal/day; p = 0.85). Weight changes were highly correlated with energy intake (r = 0.8, p < 0.0001), with participants gaining 0.9 ± 0.3 kg (p = 0.009) during the ultra-processed diet and losing 0.9 ± 0.3 kg (p = 0.007) during the unprocessed diet. Limiting consumption of ultra-processed foods may be an effective strategy for obesity prevention and treatment.
The future of meat
Meat consumption is rising annually as human populations grow and affluence increases. Godfray et al. review this trend, which has major negative consequences for land and water use and environmental change. Although meat is a concentrated source of nutrients for low-income families, it also enhances the risks of chronic ill health, such as from colorectal cancer and cardiovascular disease. Changing meat consumption habits is a challenge that requires identifying the complex social factors associated with meat eating and developing policies for effective interventions.
Science , this issue p. eaam5324
Background
Excess iron has been shown to induce diabetes in animal models. However, the results from human epidemiologic studies linking body iron stores and iron intake to the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are conflicting. In this study, we aimed to systematically evaluate the available evidence for associations between iron intake, body iron stores, and the risk of T2DM.
Methods
A systematic search of the PubMed/MEDLINE and EMBASE databases to the end of 22 April 2012 was performed, and reference lists of retrieved articles were screened. Two reviewers independently evaluated the eligibility of inclusion and extracted the data. Pooled relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using random-effects models.
Results
We reviewed 449 potentially relevant articles, and 11 prospective studies were included in the analysis. A meta-analysis of five studies gave a pooled RR for T2DM of 1.33 (95% CI 1.19 to 1.48; P<0.001) in individuals with the highest level of heme iron intake, compared with those with the lowest level. The pooled RR for T2DM for a daily increment of 1 mg of heme iron intake was 1.16 (1.09 to 1.23, P<0.001). Body iron stores, as measured by ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) and the sTfR:ferritin ratio, were significantly associated with the risk of T2DM. The pooled RRs for T2DM in individuals with the highest versus the lowest intake of ferritin levels was 1.70 (1.27-2.27, P<0.001) before adjustment for inflammatory markers and 1.63 (1.03-2.56, P = 0.036) after adjustment. We did not find any significant association of dietary intakes of total iron, non-heme, or supplemental iron intake with T2DM risk.
Conclusion
Higher heme iron intake and increased body iron stores were significantly associated with a greater risk of T2DM. Dietary total iron, non-heme iron, or supplemental iron intakes were not significantly associated with T2DM risk.
Background:
Findings among randomized controlled trials evaluating the effect of red meat on cardiovascular disease risk factors are inconsistent. We provide an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on red meat and cardiovascular risk factors and determine whether the relationship depends on the composition of the comparison diet, hypothesizing that plant sources would be relatively beneficial.
Methods:
We conducted a systematic PubMed search of randomized controlled trials published up until July 2017 comparing diets with red meat with diets that replaced red meat with a variety of foods. We stratified comparison diets into high-quality plant protein sources (legumes, soy, nuts); chicken/poultry/fish; fish only; poultry only; mixed animal protein sources (including dairy); carbohydrates (low-quality refined grains and simple sugars, such as white bread, pasta, rice, cookies/biscuits); or usual diet. We performed random-effects meta-analyses comparing differences in changes of blood lipids, apolipoproteins, and blood pressure for all studies combined and stratified by specific comparison diets.
Results:
Thirty-six studies totaling 1803 participants were included. There were no significant differences between red meat and all comparison diets combined for changes in blood concentrations of total, low-density lipoprotein, or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins A1 and B, or blood pressure. Relative to the comparison diets combined, red meat resulted in lesser decreases in triglycerides (weighted mean difference [WMD], 0.065 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.000-0.129; P for heterogeneity <0.01). When analyzed by specific comparison diets, relative to high-quality plant protein sources, red meat yielded lesser decreases in total cholesterol (WMD, 0.264 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.144-0.383; P<0.001) and low-density lipoprotein (WMD, 0.198 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.065-0.330; P=0.003). In comparison with fish, red meat yielded greater decreases in low-density lipoprotein (WMD, -0.173 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.260 to -0.086; P<0.001) and high-density lipoprotein (WMD, -0.065 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.109 to -0.020; P=0.004). In comparison with carbohydrates, red meat yielded greater decreases in triglycerides (WMD, -0.181 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.349 to -0.013).
Conclusions:
Inconsistencies regarding the effects of red meat on cardiovascular disease risk factors are attributable, in part, to the composition of the comparison diet. Substituting red meat with high-quality plant protein sources, but not with fish or low-quality carbohydrates, leads to more favorable changes in blood lipids and lipoproteins.
Beyond Meat's Beyond Burger Life Cycle Assessment: a detailed comparison between a plant-based and an animal-based protein source
- M C Heller
- G A Keoleian
Beyond Meat's Beyond Burger Life Cycle Assessment: a detailed comparison between a plant-based and an animal-based protein source
- Keoleianga Hellermc