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The influence of task repetition type on young EFL learners’ attention to form

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Language Teaching Research
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María Ángeles Hidalgo at Public University of Navarre
María Ángeles Hidalgo
María del Pilar García Mayo at University of the Basque Country
María del Pilar García Mayo
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Task repetition (TR) is a valuable tool to direct learners’ attention from meaning to language form. The first time learners perform a task their focus is on conveying meaning, whereas during the second enactment they tend to focus on the form of their message. Collaborative writing also promotes learners’ focus on form, allowing extra time to pay attention to language use, and providing multiple opportunities for learners to pool their linguistic resources and co-construct meaning. Despite the increasing body of research on young learners’ (YLs) second language acquisition process, few studies have addressed the effect of the repetition of collaborative writing tasks on this population’s output. The present study aims to fill this gap by analysing the impact of TR on YLs’ (age 11–12) attention to form, operationalized as language-related episodes (LREs). Forty (n = 40) beginner learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) worked with two types of TR: exact TR (ETR), where the participants repeated exactly the same task, and procedural TR (PTR), where the participants repeated task type but with different content. Contrary to most previous research, most LREs were form-focused, and resolved target-like in both groups. The results also revealed a statistically significant decrease in the number of LREs at time 3 in the ETR group, whereas the LREs in the PTR group remained stable. Pedagogical implications of these findings will be discussed.
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https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819865559
Language Teaching Research
2021, Vol. 25(4) 565 –586
© The Author(s) 2019
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DOI: 10.1177/1362168819865559
journals.sagepub.com/home/ltr
LANGUAGE
TEACHING
RESEARCH
The influence of task repetition
type on young EFL learners’
attention to form
María Ángeles Hidalgo
María del Pilar García Mayo
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain
Abstract
Task repetition (TR) is a valuable tool to direct learners’ attention from meaning to language
form. The first time learners perform a task their focus is on conveying meaning, whereas
during the second enactment they tend to focus on the form of their message. Collaborative
writing also promotes learners’ focus on form, allowing extra time to pay attention to language
use, and providing multiple opportunities for learners to pool their linguistic resources and
co-construct meaning. Despite the increasing body of research on young learners’ (YLs)
second language acquisition process, few studies have addressed the effect of the repetition of
collaborative writing tasks on this population’s output. The present study aims to fill this gap by
analysing the impact of TR on YLs’ (age 11–12) attention to form, operationalised as language-
related episodes (LREs). Forty (n = 40) beginner learners of English as a foreign language
(EFL) worked with two types of TR: exact TR (ETR), where the participants repeated exactly
the same task, and procedural TR (PTR), where the participants repeated task type but with
different content. Contrary to most previous research, most LREs were form-focused, and
resolved target-like in both groups. The results also revealed a statistically significant decrease
in the number of LREs at time 3 in the ETR group, whereas the LREs in the PTR group remained
stable. Pedagogical implications of these findings will be discussed.
Keywords
collaborative writing, EFL, LREs, task repetition, young learners
I Introduction
The number of young learners (YLs) of foreign languages is increasing all over the world
(Collins & Muñoz, 2016; Enever, 2018; Pinter, 2017). Consequently, the interest of
researchers in this population is on the rise, and so is the body of research addressing
Corresponding author:
María Ángeles Hidalgo, Public University of Navarre, Ed. Acebos, Pamplona, 31006, Spain.
Email: mangeles.hidalgo@unavarra.es
865559LTR0010.1177/1362168819865559Language Teaching ResearchHidalgo and García Mayo
research-article2019
Article
... In a collaboratively written text, it is not possible to distinguish which part has been written by each writer (Hidalgo & Lázaro-Ibarrola, 2020). CW offers learners the possibility to benefit from the language learning opportunities of collaborative dialogue (interaction, negotiation of meaning, production and resolution of LREs, and co-construction of knowledge), as well as from the learning potential of writing (such as having additional time and increased attention to language form) (García Mayo 2021;Manchón, 2011Manchón, , 2020Storch, 2018;Wigglesworth & Storch 2012). ...
... However, when looking into the focus of the LREs, results are not conclusive. Several studies suggest that children tend to focus more on form than on lexis (Calzada & García Mayo, 2020;Hidalgo & García Mayo, 2021;Hidalgo & Lázaro-Ibarrola, 2020), whereas other studies have reported a greater focus on meaning (García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2019;Villarreal & Munárriz-Ibarrola, 2021). Yet, these differences may be related to the different codification system followed by the different authors: the studies reporting a greater number of formfocused LREs considered discussions over spelling and pronunciation as form-focused, whereas the studies reporting that learners primarily focus on meaning include these aspects in a different category: mechanics-focused LREs. ...
... As for the impact of TR on the process of writing, researchers have focused on the LREs YLs generate during collaborative dialogues. Evidence shows that most LREs are correctly solved in each task performance and that they decrease in each repetition, suggesting that YLs may solve most of their doubts and language problems in the first task iterations and are able to carry this knowledge to the next performance (Hidalgo & García Mayo, 2021;Hidalgo & Lázaro-Ibarrola, 2020;Payant & Reagan, 2018). ...
Talking to Write: Insights into the Oral Interactions of Young EFL Writers Repeating a Collaborative Task
Chapter
  • Feb 2025
Writing and speaking, considered the productive skills, have traditionally been studied in isolation in second language acquisition research. However, these two skills are interwoven in collaborative writing (CW) tasks. In CW, the process of writing a text, traditionally considered a solitary task (Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2023; Storch, 2005), is carried out in collaboration with two or more learners talking to each other to decide what to write and how to write it. Thus, CW tasks enable the very desirable integration of skills, in this case of writing and speaking, for teaching and research purposes (Hirvela & Belcher, 2016; Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2023). The emergence of CW is linked to a new approach to writing. The traditional view in which students needed to ‘learn to write’ has been replaced by the ‘writing-to-learn’ approach (Manchón, 2011) in which students use writing to learn a language. In other words, writing is not simply a product of students’ learning but it is also a valuable learning tool (Harklau, 2002; Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2023; Manchón, 2011, 2020; Ortega, 2011). This new approach has triggered abundant research on the potential of writing in combination with other elements that could increase its benefits. These elements include the aforementioned construct of CW (Storch, 2005), which implies the addition of an oral component (García Mayo & Azkarai, 2016), and also other elements, such as the repetition of writing tasks (Bygate, 2018). Although fairly recent, research on CW has already generated an impressive number of small-scale empirical studies that demonstrate its benefits. When performing CW tasks, adults negotiate for meaning and attend to form more frequently than in oral-only tasks (Ferńandez Dobao, 2012; Teng, 2017). Also, learners talk about a number of issues while writing, paying special attention to the discussion of ideas and the formal aspects of language (Storch, 2005; Wigglesworth & Storch, 2009). As for the products, collaborative writers generate drafts of better quality than individual writers (Ferńandez Dobao, 2012; Villarreal & Gil-Sarratea, 2020; Wigglesworth & Storch, 2009) and improve the quality of their drafts with repetition (Amiryousefi, 2016; Nitta & Baba, 2014). In the case of young learners (YLs), research also suggests that children negotiate and focus on form while talking to write (García Mayo & Azkarai, 2016) and improve the quality of their drafts with task repetition (TR) (Hidalgo & Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2020), although the texts written by YLs are not always superior in quality to those written by individual writers (Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2021; Ĺazaro-Ibarrola & Hidalgo, 2021, 2022). However, little is known about the nature of the dialogues that YLs engage in and whether the foci of their endeavours might evolve with repetition. Thus far, most studies with YLs have focused exclusively on episodes in which the participants discuss language issues, ignoring their focus on other aspects, such as the generation of ideas or the attention paid to aspects such as revision or planning (Storch, 2005; Wigglesworth & Storch, 2009), which are necessary to characterise the interplay between the oral and writing skill (Hirvela & Belcher, 2016; Ĺazaro-Ibarrola & Hidalgo, 2022). In order to better understand the interaction between oracy and writing in the case of YLs, the present study analyses the conversations of 20 Spanish YLs of English as a foreign language (EFL) while talking to write three compositions in pairs. Unlike most studies on CW, which have measured the quality of the written products and/or the language-related episodes (LREs) generated while writing or dealing with feedback, our study delves into the nature of learners’ discussions while writing together. In doing so, we hope to expand our knowledge on the potential of combining oracy and writing through CW in the case of YLs. Finally, this study contributes to research on peer interaction in general and, since the number of YLs of foreign languages is increasing across the world (Enever, 2018), it also contributes to research on this particular population, which belongs to a learning context in need of teaching guidelines (Ergul & Uysal, this volume; Ĺazaro-Ibarrola, 2023).
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... The emphasis on continuous feedback allows students to correct mistakes immediately, fostering confidence and fluency in recitation. This aligns with research highlighting the effectiveness of structured repetition and interactive engagement in language acquisition (Al-Fadhli, et al., 2023;Moulaei, et al., 2023;Hanzawa & Suzuki, 2023;Hidalgo & García, et al., 2021;Zhang, et al., 2021). ...
Application of the Jibril Method to Improving Fashahatul Qiro'ah at al-Qur'an Education Park
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Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
This study analyzes the implementation of the Jibril Method in improving fashahatul qiro'ah (fluency in reading the Qur’an) at Riyadus Sholihin Qur’anic Education Park in Krejengan, Probolinggo. The Jibril Method is an innovative approach that emphasizes interactive learning through repeated practice, alternating reading between the teacher and students, and direct teacher guidance. This research employs a qualitative method with a descriptive approach. Data were collected through observations, in-depth interviews with teachers and students, and analysis of learning documents. The results indicate that the application of the Jibril Method significantly enhances students’ fashahatul qiro'ah, as evidenced by improvements in letter pronunciation, application of tajwid rules, and reading fluency. The method’s success is supported by active teacher involvement, structured repetition, and high student motivation. However, challenges such as differences in students’ initial abilities and limited learning time were also identified. With proper time management and intensive guidance, the Jibril Method proves to be effective in enhancing Qur’anic reading skills. These findings are expected to serve as a reference for other Qur’anic educational institutions in optimizing their learning methods
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... The current study expands research on the effects of distributed practice on writing tasks. While task repetition has received considerable attention, most studies have primarily focused on the oral domain, with fewer exploring its impact on writing (e.g., Abdi Tabari et al., 2024;Hidalgo & García Mayo, 2021;Y. Kim et al., 2022;Nitta & Baba, 2014). ...
Effects of massed and spaced task repetitions on L2 writing task performance and task emotions
Article
Full-text available
Recently, in task repetition research, distributed practice has received considerable attention for its potential impact on learners’ performance (Rogers, 2022). While several studies have begun exploring its effects on oral task repetition, little attention has been paid to the effects of spacing in writing task repetition and its interaction with learners’ emotional states (i.e., enjoyment and anxiety). Focusing on 270 learners studying English as their second language (ESL) in the U.S., the current study examined their writing performance and emotions in the same decision-making task under three different schedules: (1) in one class (massed practice), (2) with a two-day interval (short-spaced practice), and (3) with a one-week interval (long-spaced practice). Following each writing session, learners completed a questionnaire assessing their anxiety and enjoyment during the task. The results showed that the long-spaced group outperformed the other groups after the experiment in general syntactic complexity, phrasal complexity, and lexical diversity, and they also experienced lower anxiety and higher enjoyment. Conversely, the massed group had lower achievements in phrasal complexity and lexical diversity and experienced lower enjoyment and higher anxiety than the other groups. These findings suggest that the interval between task repetitions can significantly influence learners’ writing performance and emotional states.
View
... Fourth, the result may have to with the higher L2 proficiency of the participants of this study compared with previous studies. Some previous studies (Amiryousefi 2016;Carver and Kim 2020;Hidalgo and Garcia Mayo 2021) showed that participants in the identical task repetition group outperformed those in the procedural repetition group in terms of accuracy development. These studies typically involved low level learners, whereas participants in the current study were upper-intermediate and advanced EFL learners, suggesting that individuals with higher proficiency levels might benefit more from repeating different writing tasks. ...
The effects of task repetition and corrective feedback on L2 writing development
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
  • Lang Learn J
This study examines the joint effects of task repetition and corrective feedback on EFL learners' writing accuracy. Two types of task repetition were investigated: identical repetition where learners repeated the same task, and procedural repetition where learners performed tasks with different content following the same procedure. Under each repetition condition, learners received direct correction or metalinguistic feedback on their erroneous use of three linguistic structures: the past tense, articles, and prepositions. 80 Korean university EFL learners were randomly assigned to four groups: identical repetition + direct feedback, identical repetition + metalinguistic feedback, procedural repetition + direct feedback, and procedural repetition + metalinguistic feedback, and received one of the four instructional treatments. The results showed that (1) procedural repetition was superior to identical repetition in enhancing learners' writing accuracy regardless of whether direct feedback or metalinguistic feedback was provided, and (2) there were no significant differences between the two types of feedback despite a trend toward a greater effect for metalinguistic feedback for the past tense and a greater effect for direct correction for articles and prepositions. The results demonstrate the advantage of procedural repetition over identical repetition in enhancing the effects of corrective feedback in L2 writing.
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Task-based language learning among children in an EFL context: Research and challenges
Chapter
  • Apr 2025
First launched in 2005, the biennial International Conferences on Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) have become an established event for a broad range of participants, and a key feature of the conferences has been the invited plenary (keynote) addresses. This edited volume brings together a selection of plenaries given at conferences between 2015 and 2023, and exemplifies the contributions being made by prominent and internationally recognised TBLT scholars on a variety of issues pertinent to TBLT theory and practice. The volume is framed around how the horizon of TBLT has broadened over the past decade, and how the plenaries presented during this past decade have helped to take our knowledge and understanding of TBLT further. This volume will be of interest to a wide range of stakeholders, including teachers, researchers and postgraduate students, who would like to gain an overview of key dimensions of the field in the last decade.
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Examining Young Learners’ Engagement with Language in Task-Based Interaction Across Time
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  • Apr 2025
Engagement with language (EWL) refers to learners’ agency over language and includes cognitive, social and affective dimensions. In collaborative writing (CW) tasks, learners are expected to display high EWL conducive to L2 learning. However, recent research with young learners has shown great variability in their patterns of interaction and metalinguistic discussions while working on such tasks repeatedly, questioning the efficacy of task repetition (TR), a topic that has been overlooked in the EWL literature. This study fills this gap and explores the fluctuations in EWL of young learners of English as a foreign language. Nine pairs in their sixth year of primary school (ages 11–12) in Spain completed different versions of a picture-narration CW task over six weeks. The observation of their interaction and a focus group interview made it possible to obtain a holistic understanding of EWL, including language-related episodes (LREs; i.e., cognitive engagement), patterns of interaction (i.e., social engagement) and learners’ emotions and number of turns (i.e., affective engagement). The results show that while social engagement remained more stable over time, their cognitive engagement and some measures of affective engagement decreased as a consequence of TR, as indicated by the analysis of LREs and turns. However, their views about the task were favourable in general. Moreover, the task content, work distribution and the pre-existing relationship with their partner appear to have contributed to EWL.
View
Enhancing Accuracy Through Model Texts: Long-Term Effects on EFL Children's Oral Interaction
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  • Apr 2025
The current body of research on the use of model texts as written corrective feedback (WCF) primarily comprises one-shot studies that investigate their impact on adult and child learners. However, there is a noticeable lack of emphasis on exploring the long-term effects of this feedback method. This knowledge gap hinders our understanding of how models can enhance accuracy and support sustained language development among English as a foreign language (EFL) children. To address these gaps, the study investigated the potential effects of model texts on children's oral interaction over time, employing collaborative writing as a means to prompt learners’ oral engagement. The study involved 60 Spanish EFL children (aged 11–12) divided into a control group (CG), a treatment group (TG), and a long-term treatment group (LTG) who underwent two three-stage writing cycles. The TG received feedback once per cycle, and the LTG used models during both cycles and the interim period, whereas the CG self-corrected their own texts. Results revealed that model texts increased the occurrence of language-related episodes (LREs) and encouraged a focus on lexical and content aspects. Over time, exposure to models broadened the children’s linguistic consideration, including grammar and discourse. Self-correction, on the other hand, emphasized grammar, spelling, and punctuation, highlighting the value of writing tasks in promoting languaging.
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Researching the role of interaction in young learners’ acquisition of English: An interview with María del Pilar García Mayo
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In this interview, Natsuko Shintani, the Review Editor of Language Teaching for Young Learners , invites Dr. María del Pilar García Mayo to share her expertise as a teacher and researcher. Dr. García Mayo is a Full Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU). She is highly regarded for her extensive research on language teaching and learning for young learners in EFL contexts, with a particular emphasis on the L2/L3 acquisition of English morphosyntax and, more recently, the role of conversational interaction in young learners’ acquisition of English. She has led numerous research projects focused on young learners and has supervised many Ph. D. and Master’s theses, several of which centre on this area of study. See her webpage ( https://laslab.org/staff/pilar/ ) for more information.
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