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Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo
Lameiro, Galicia
A new chronological proposal for the Atlantic rock art
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
is paper presents the results of an archaeological excavation in front of a panel with
designs in the Galician Atlantic rock-art style: cup and ring marks, concentric circles, stags,
hunting scenes, footprints and humans. During this excavation, a layer was found with
archaeological evidence possibly related to the rock carvings. Radiocarbon dating from this
layer gave a late chronology – from the 8th–4th centuries BC. ese results agree with
other data such as the chronology of the riding scenes, labyrinths and small shovels carved
in Galician rock art. We suggest that Atlantic rock art has a lengthy chronology, from the
Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age until the First Iron Age.
Introduction
Although the chronology of Galician rock art has been one of the most widely debated
issues in Galician historiography over the last century, in the last twenty years the
subject has been studied in much greater detail. As an introduction, we would like to
point out that we are going to deal exclusively with what is known as Atlantic rock art,
as many publications have the tendency to lump together carvings of different styles
as if they belonged to one single group; this has only increased the sense of confusion
that exists about this issue. is has led to carvings with cup marks in hillforts and
megaliths being used as chronological data, yet when considering the simplicity of
these carvings, it is not possible to attribute them to any specific style. As rock art as a
generic concept is a phenomenon which, in Galicia, extends from the Neolithic until
at least the Middle Ages, for this reason, we need to restrict the study object, so in this
article we will deal exclusively with the Galician Atlantic rock-art style.
In using the term ‘Atlantic rock art’ we are aware of its implications, as this groups
together petroglyphs ranging from northern Portugal all the way up to Scotland,
including England and Ireland (Santos and Criado 2000). We believe that a group of
carvings in Galicia should be included in this group. Researchers such as Mac White
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 17
(1951) and more recently Bradley (1997) have demonstrated, at least in our opinion,
that formal similarities exist amongst carvings from Europe’s western rim. We should
emphasize that at least the carvings from Britain and the north-western Iberian
Peninsula could coincide in their chronology, because there exist clear similarities in their
emplacement, generally along the coast, and on occasions with very similar compositions
(Bradley 1997). is means that in rock art we would have another witness, along with
pottery and metalwork, of what are known in general terms as ‘Atlantic relations’, with
the likelihood of long-distance maritime trading routes.
is article presents preliminary findings from an excavation carried out in the
area of Campo Lameiro in Galicia, located in the north-western corner of the
Iberian Peninsula, and attempts to analyze the implications these results have with
regard to the chronology of Atlantic rock art. Campo Lameiro is in a zone marking
the transition between the south-western coast of Galicia and its interior, with one
of the highest concentrations of Atlantic-style rock art, including several hundred
rock carvings, outstanding not only for their density, but also for their iconographic
content. e ‘repertoire’ of the Atlantic style includes concentric circles, labyrinths,
footprints, deer, horses, serpents, and weapons such as daggers and swords. It is also
the Galician region with the highest density of narrative compositions, such as deer
hunts and riding scenes.
e excavation in question was carried out as part of a project entitled “Actions for
the documentation of the cultural landscape in the Campo Lameiro Rock Art Park”
carried out by the Landscape Archaeology laboratory of the Padre Sarmiento Institute
of Galician Studies (a joint centre run by the Spanish National Research Council,
CSIC and the Galician government, the Xunta). Also, all archaeological work was
carried out within the “Archaeological Context of Galician Rock Art (ContextArt)”
project, defrayed by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology. Code: HUM
2005–6119/Hist. e aim of this project is to obtain the information necessary to
document the rock art located in Campo Lameiro and provide contents for the museum
to be built on the site.
Excavations in Os Carballos
Obviously, apart from prospecting and documenting the carvings, one of the main
archaeological jobs on the site was to carry out excavation work around the carvings. A
total of seven digs were carried out, five of which failed to offer any results for different
reasons, mainly as a result of erosion having destroyed the archaeological record. Also,
having observed the results obtained in the other two digs, we know that the record
is very fragile and that even moderate erosion is capable of eliminating any remains
associated with the carvings.
We will go on to offer a brief description of the findings from our excavation around
the carving of Os Carballos (Figure 2.1), as here the results were particularly interesting,
mainly in chronological terms.
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
18
Figure 2.1: View from the south of the excavation at Os Carballos and the location of the dated
samples.
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 19
e excavation was carried out in two campaigns in two consecutive years, 2003
and 2004. is is a clear example of indirect dating of a rock carving; in our case
we have dated the context of a petroglyph, dating a deposit associated with a carved
panel. Generally, when we know the chronology of a deposit covering a panel, what
we really know is its minimum age (Chippindale and Nash 2004), although, as we
will see, in the following case we have greater precision, as there is sufficient reason to
interpret one of the deposits as being the original ground level of the time when the
petroglyph was in use.
2003 Campaign
e petroglyph was completely covered, until an unexpected earth movement uncovered
part of the carved surface, and in 1981 work started that would uncover 90 per cent of
the panel we know today (Peña Santos 1982, 1985). In 2003, campaign work started
on re-excavating the surface uncovered in 1981. Excavation work continued until fully
exposing that part of the rock. A test pit was then dug towards the east, in front of the
panel measuring six square metres, and a mechanical trench, seven metres long, was
dug running east to west from the eastern end of the excavation around the petroglyph.
e trench was dug with the aim of obtaining a vertical reading of the surrounding
stratigraphy and the test pit was extended with a 3×3 m section running south. e
aim of the mechanical test pits was to obtain a series of profiles that would allow us
to analyse the stratigraphy and to obtain test columns.
e results of the 2003 campaign allowed us to make the following observa-
tions:
• ere is a very uniform stratigraphy in all profiles, leading to the assumption that all
processes of the soil covering the petroglyph were similar.
• e petroglyph was covered by no intentional processes, although anthropic actions may well
have caused them (increased erosion, possibly as a result of removing the plant cover). e
studies about the erosive and soil formation processes were carried out by M. Costa Casais and
X. Pontevedra Pombal, members of the paleoenvironmental studies team, directed by Antonio
Cortizas of the Heritage, Paleoenvironment and Landscape Laboratory (IIT-USC).
• e covering process of the petroglyph started at its base, at its south-eastern edge, and
that these deposits gradually grew towards the west and north, meaning that the last
carvings to be covered were at the north-western corner.
• 90 per cent of the carvings were already uncovered in 1981, and that from the bottom
of the large deer carving and downwards, there do not appear to be any more carvings,
judging by what has been observed in the trench opened in this sector.
• e trench dug towards the east revealed a deposit immediately under the large deer with
a high concentration of quartz chips, evidence that was interpreted as possible remnants
from the process of making the carving. is deposit coincided with the bottom edge of
the panel, and with the ground line of the large deer.
• Judging by the datings made, it would appear that at least in general terms, the deposition
of material in this zone was a very slow process that took place over a long period.
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
20
Datings
e table below (Figure 2.2) shows the C-14 datings obtained in the site of Os Carballos.
ese datings were analysed at the laboratory of the University of Uppsala. e datings
were obtained by the extraction of organic material from the deposits.
Considering the results from the datings, it would appear to be confirmed that we
are faced with a very lengthy process, from the fifth millennium BC until the transition
between the first and second millennium AD, in which the rock with the carving of
Os Carballos was gradually covered. e surface of the carving has a large number of
Origin Results
Data
calibrated to
2 sigma
Interpretation
MU030807A01a. Deposit
from the northern edge of the
excavation. is deposit was
situated directly over the carved
rock at the height of the large
deer’s head.
Ua-22551
975±40
BP
990–1170
AD (95.4%)
A period when half of the
carving was covered, including
most of the large deer. No
archaeological material.
PRD-II-18. Burnt level which
extended over all of the area
excavated. Taken from a sample
column five metres from the
carving.
Ua-22555
1835±40
BP
300–320
AD (95.4%)
Indication of a fire when at
least one fifth of the carving
was buried. is may be
the same period as the fire
damages. No archaeological
material
PRD-II-25.
Ua-22556
3055±40
BP
1140–1130
BC (95.4%) Corresponding to a level that
was burnt. A deposit without
archaeological material, 15 cm
below the lower limit of the
carvings.
PRD-II-25C. Deposit with
numerous small charcoal pieces
mixed with earth. Taken from
the same column as PRD-II-18.
Ua-22559
3125±45
BP
1280–1260
BC (95.4%)
MU030904K04. Earth deposit
situated directly over a number
of natural slabs located a few
centimetres over the substrate.
Ua-22553
3360±40
BP
1740–1520
BC (95.4%)
Period when the last stones
from the bottom of the
excavation were covered. No
archaeological material.
MU030904K02 Deposit
over which the slabs from the
bottom of the excavation are
situated.
Ua-22552
3640±40
BP
2140–1880
BC (95.4%)
Intermediate period in which
the substrate was covered. No
archaeological material.
PRD-II-39. Deposit covering
the substrate at the south
eastern corner.
Ua-22558
5350±50
BP
4260–4040
BC (95.4%)
Start of the erosive processes
possibly caused by humans
(elimination of the plant layer).
No archaeological material.
Figure 2.2: C-14 datings obtained in 2003 campaing in Os Carballos site.
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 21
fire damages particularly in its southern half. All of these are above the burnt level,
meaning it is most likely that the damage was caused by a fire when the soil level
already covered the bottom of the carving.
Observing the panel of Os Carballos, we see that much of the surface was profusely
decorated, with hardly any ‘blank’ spaces except in the very top part. ere are even a
large number of carvings superimposing others, something rarely seen in Atlantic rock
art. is profusion of carvings would seem to indicate that the makers of the panel
used the entire surface that was available at the time, as there is not only a profuse
agglomeration of carvings on one sector of the rock, but also, from the height of the
large deer’s feet, the carvings disappear abruptly. is sudden interruption of the carvings
under the deer seems to indicate the lower limit of the space available to make carvings
at a given moment in time, probably the ground level when the carvings started to
be made. is hypothesis appears to be corroborated by the presence of quartz chips
at the foot of the large deer, apparent proof of the carving process, although it was
necessary to extend the excavation at the foot of the panel to find further archaeological
evidence to document the moment of use related to the carving. is was the aim of
the campaign carried out in 2004.
e 2004 Campaign
ree areas were dug around the carving, to the north, the south, and to the east. e
east dig was an extension of the excavation made in 2003. e results of the northern dig
were all negative. From the test pit running south, the only discovery worth noting was
what may possibly be a vague, zoomorphic carving. e only results of real importance
were found in the eastern dig, just in front of the panel.
e eastern dig measured six metres from north to south, and three and a half
metres from east to west. It was located in front of the carved panel, and had three
levels. e first corresponded to the route of an ancient roadway used until recent
times, identified by the presence of longitudinal, highly compact stratus one and a half
metres wide. Under this level, a burnt surface was found occupying the whole area,
corresponding to the same burnt level where sample PRD-II-18 was taken. is means
that the fire occurred at the end of the Roman period, when part of the carving was
already covered. Under this level, coinciding with the lower limit of dispersion for the
carvings (as no more were found below this deposit), the only level with archaeological
evidence was found. is was identified as a result of it being more compact and sandy
than the deposits above it and below. Here a possible posthole was found, a fragment
of alochthonous clay, a percussive tool made from a rolling stone, and various quartz
flakes. Alochthonous clay is a mineral that is not found in the area around the park:
the closest area was in ‘As Canles’ in San Isidro de Montes (2.5 km away). Quartz
flakes were also found in the southern half together with a rock crystal and a small
open channel in the ground, and the remains of a hearth, shown by an accumulation
of charcoal. Subsequent analyses have possibly revealed that this hearth was the result
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
22
of cutting a hole in the ground, throwing in shrub branches, and then setting them
on fire. e results of the datings for this bonfire were 860+35 cal. BP, around the
eleventh century AD. e anthracological analyses made by María Martín Seijo from
the University of Santiago de Compostela indicated a clear predominance of shrub
species, with the possibility that the bonfire had been made as part of work to clear
away undergrowth on the hillside. From below this level down to the rocky substrate,
there are numerous shallow deposits without any archaeological material.
e interesting thing about the findings made in the only level of occupation around
the panel was that it coincided perfectly with the lower limit of distribution for the
carvings, and was situated in the same deposit in which the concentration of quartz
fragments was found. Furthermore, no archaeological material was found either above
or below this level. Everything would appear to indicate that this deposit, some 15 cm
deep, represented the ground level formed when the carving started to be made, until
the moment when the first designs began to be covered. Samples were therefore taken
from this deposit in order to obtain datings.
Datings
e most surprising thing about the results from the excavation was that the
archaeologically ‘fertile’ zone was situated above the deposit where samples PRD-II-
25 and PRD-II-25C, dated between 1140–1260 cal BC, were found, meaning that
a carving supposedly belonging to the Bronze Age could have been made and in use
around the first millennium BC, an extremely late date.
e samples taken from the archaeologically fertile zone were sent to the laboratory
in Uppsala and the Rocasolano Institute of the Spanish National Research Council
(CSIC). e results are shown in the table below (Figure 2.3).
Interpretation of the results
As an initial interpretation, it seems that there is one single moment of use for the
area immediately around the carvings that may be directly related to their presence.
is moment of use is represented in the archaeological record by a deposit of
chronological depth ranging from the 8th to the 4th centuries BC (Figure 2.4). e
stratigraphy is presented in a contiguous manner, where the deposits with archaeological
evidences are situated above others without any interruption in the area in front of
the panel, this means that all layers have archaeological materials. No layers empty
of archaeological materials exist between them. e deposits coincide with the lower
limit of the distribution of the carvings. It should be remembered that the petroglyph
of Os Carballos is full of carvings, where the carvers used the entire uncovered stone
surface at a time that would have coincided with the only anthropological level of the
excavation; below this level the carvings disappear in the same way as the remains of
cultural material.
e results of the excavation from the area immediately around the petroglyph of
Os Carballos would therefore seem to indicate that it must have been made and used
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 23
Origin Results Dating calibrated
to 2 sigma Interpretation
MU040727A05 soil covering the
open channel in the deposit that
served as the lower limit of the
carvings.
CSIC-2005
2350±29 BP
512–381 cal BC
(95.4%)
Moment when the
channel was abandoned.
MU040831A01 was taken from the
same layer and just a few centimetres
from where a series of stone chips
were found, a striking tool and a
fragment of clay. It also corresponds
to the deposit that marked the lower
limit of the carvings.
Ua-22558
23400±40 BP
539–357 cal BC
(95.4%)
Moment when the
materials were deposited
in the soil, and therefore
from a moment when the
petroglyph was in use.
MU030905K05 taken in the layer
situated immediately below the large
deer.
CSIC-1959
2531±42 BP
799–521 cal BC
(95.4%)
Soil level when the
petroglyph was in use.
MU040806A07 taken in the same
layer very close to the posthole.
CSIC-1985
2470±38 BP 637–480 cal BC Date when the posthole
was opened
Figure 2.3: C-14 datings obtained in 2004 campaign in Os Carballos site.
Figure 2.4: View from the south of the excavation at Os Carballos and the location of the dated
samples.
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
24
towards the end of the Late Bronze Age, and throughout the First Iron Age.
Further information on the chronology of the Atlantic Style in Galicia
e datings obtained in the excavation made it necessary to review other information
about the chronology of the Atlantic style in Galicia, which as we will see, are perfectly
compatible with each other. We find two types of information in Galicia: one based
on iconography, and the other on stratigraphy.
Relationships in stratigraphy
Several cases exist of the use of carvings in the Atlantic Style in a number of hillfort
constructions from the Iron Age, although in this case the problem lies in the lack
of chronological precision; in some cases the hillfort has not been excavated, and
in others, the work was carried out in the past and did not date the stratigraphy
associated with the petroglyph with the necessary precision. As a clear terminus ante
quem, we have several examples in the Iron Age hillfort of Santa Tegra, in the south-
west of Galicia, with constructions superimposing these types of carvings. However,
due to the imprecision of the chronology of these constructions, we are only able to
guarantee that the concentric circles and spirals found are previous to the final stage
of occupation of the hillfort, around the second and third centuries AD. In the case
of Alto do Castro (near Campo Lameiro), we did have a reliable dating for the stratus
in which a rock was found with a cup mark surrounded by a simple circle; this level
of occupation corresponded to the second to first centuries BC (Cobas Fernández and
Parcero Oubiña in press). is series of findings indicate that at least in the final stage
of the hillforts’ settlement, during the time of the Roman occupation and very possibly
during the second Iron Age (fourth to first centuries BC), the concentric circles – the
most characteristic designs of the Atlantic Style – were in some cases destroyed and
apparently ignored by the inhabitants of the hillforts.
However, we have a less precise frontier for the terminus post quem. In the north-
western Iberian Peninsula we only have one case, that is the tumulus of Buriz (in Lugo),
found during archaeological excavations (García 1975). e context of this finding is
still problematic, but judging by the photos published, the petroglyph appears to have
been placed intentionally by the door leading to the corridor of the megalith. View
photo in Santos (2008, 148, fig. 11.5) Whatever the case, since we lack any report
from this excavation and have not got sufficient information, any conclusion would
be highly problematic.
Chronological analysis of the designs
Some carvings exist with designs allowing them to be identified as elements repeated in
or on other material culture, particularly metallic, which are datable. In the first group
we have weapons and what are known as ‘shovels’. Most archaeologists agree that the
majority of the carvings of weapons found belong to the Early Bronze Age, generally
consisting of halberds, daggers and short swords with triangular blades. Yet perhaps
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 25
these designs are not the most suitable when gathering chronological information on
the Atlantic style, as curiously they are only associated with motifs from the Atlantic
Style on very rare occasions; from 34 known rocks with carvings of weapons, they only
appear on ten occasions on the same panels as circular combinations or animal figures,
and normally no rocks with typical motifs of the Atlantic style appear immediately in
the vicinity around petroglyphs with weapons. Furthermore, the few weapons that do
appear associated with circular combinations, like the three rocks found in Matabois
(Campo Lameiro) and Pedra das Ferraduras (Cotobade), are of different types, and
above all have types of handles with nails in the base that were not developed until
well into the Mid Bronze Age. ere is a definitive tendency for carvings with weapons
from the Early Bronze Age to be disassociated from the typical motifs of the Atlantic
style, although seven exceptions do exist. ere is also a clear tendency for carvings of
swords and daggers, from at least the last half of the Bronze Age, to share panels with
circular combinations.
Elsewhere we have possible representations of shovels, although this identification
is not without controversy, as no similar models have been found in the Iberian
Peninsula to those known in the Vilanova culture (Figure 5.1). is type of figure is
only documented in four stations in the north-western Iberian Peninsula: in Laxe da
Chan (Cangas), Campo de Matabois (Campo Lameiro), Portela da Laxe (Cotobade)
and Outerio Machado (Chaves). e parallels between these figures and others found
in such great abundance in Valcamonica have already been explored by other authors
(Peña and Vázquez 1979). ere are certainly strong formal similarities between the
designs seen in Galicia and Italy, and if they do represent the same type of object this
would help us to date carvings of this type with a degree of precision. Datings have
placed the metallic shovels from Italy around the first half of the 9th century BC (Farina
1998), either at the end of the Bronze Age or the beginning of the Iron Age. However,
based on the context in which the carvings from Valcamonica appear, associated with
figures from the First Iron Age, we believe it is more reasonable to date the Italian
carvings to this period. In any case it is important to be cautious when identifying
these objects, meaning that although these facts are important to bear in mind, they
should not form the essential basis of our argument.
irdly, it is important to indicate the presence of labyrinth representations in
Galician rock art of Atlantic style as 12 carvings of this type have been found.
Many of the representations of labyrinths found in Europe and the Near East have
been dated more or less precisely to a period from the 12th century BC until Roman
times, with most belonging to the first half of the first millennium BC. Perhaps the
oldest representation is found on a fragment of clay from the palace of King Nestor
in Pylos, dated to 1200 BC (Kern 2000) or on a jar from Tell Rifa’at in Syria, from
the 12th century BC; another well dated labyrinth is the figure on the oinochoe from
Tagliatella, dating from the 7th century BC. In any case, this design would survive until
Roman times or even the early Middle Ages in northern Europe (Saward 2003).
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
26
Finally, we have horse riding scenes, which are relatively frequent in Galician rock
art. e presence of carvings of this kind was used by Peña Santos and Vázquez Varela
(1979) as well as García Alén and Peña Santos (1981) to date a number of petroglyphs
from the first millennium BC, as there are no representations or evidence of horse riding
in Europe or the Iberian Peninsula before the first millennium BC (Drews 2004). It is
important to note that it is not possible to date the introduction of horse riding from
the presence of horse bits, as these were frequently used with light carts. In any case,
there are no representations of horse riding in Western Europe that date from before
the first millennium BC.
Consequences
In fact, the presence of riding scenes and labyrinths in Galician Atlantic rock art would
indicate that at least one of the moments in which this series of carvings was ‘in use’ dates
from the first half of the first millennium BC. It was in 1980s when the chronology of
Iron Age in Galicia was defined as we know it nowadays. e chronology was suggested
by excavations carried out at the hillfort of Penarrubia (Lugo) from the 6th century BC
(Arias 1979), the Penalba hillfort (Campo Lameiro), from the 6th century BC (Álvarez
1986) and the Torroso hillfort (near Vigo), from the 7th century BC (Peña 1992), as
well as the ‘rejuvenation’ of the start of the Iron Age in northern Portugal, with some
authors referring to an Iron Age starting in the 8th century BC (González 2003). en,
the traditional chronology for Galician Atlantic rock art begins and finishes within the
same frame of the Bronze Age: 2400–800 BC (Santos 1998, 2004).
However, in the 1990s Peña Santos and Rey García (1993) presented a new
chronological hypothesis. ey proposed the so-called ‘short chronology’. Based on a
typological analysis of the halberds and daggers, they attributed them to a chronology
ranging from the second half of the third millennium BC to the start of the second.
It is possible that the presence of halberds may reveal the presence of an early
chronology for some of the petroglyphs with weapons although under no circumstances
may we affirm that the use of these carvings was limited to the chronological period
in which they were supposedly made. Also, Peña Santos and Rey García based their
‘short chronology’ hypothesis on the supposed relationship that existed between
settlements from the end of the third millennium BC and the start of the second.
We do not agree with this proposal for several reasons. Firstly, they include in the
list of settlements places with isolated and de-contextualised findings, such as a
metallic punch, small groups of pottery and burial sites, without offering any type of
indication that may lead us to suppose that these are domestic sites; secondly, there
is no criteria for the selection of the petroglyphs that they analysed, leading to the
inclusion in their study of panels from different periods and styles. Neither do they
offer any explanation as to why the proximity in some cases between rock carvings
and supposedly domestic areas is an indicator of contemporaneity. Furthermore,
they situate locations where bell-beaker pottery was found in this period, when the
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 27
latest data available indicates that this style of pottery continued in use until the
Middle Bronze Age (Méndez 1994, Prieto 1999). Finally, these authors refer to a
supposed crisis in the Mid-Bronze Age whose true dimensions are still unknown,
although this would be the reason why we have not found any settlements from this
period, a statement that has been proved false as a result of a series of investigations
carried out in the Serra do Bocelo hills (Méndez 1994) and in monitoring public
works projects (Lima 2000). is presumed crisis would have led to the disappearance
of the tradition of carving rocks, although it fails to explain the cause-effect
mechanism between this enigmatic crisis and the disappearance of rock art. In our
opinion, the proposal of Peña Santos and Rey García should be viewed positively
in terms of demonstrating that some carvings were made in the early Bronze Age,
meaning most of the carvings of weapons, but that they do not provide sufficiently
solid arguments to suggest why rock art was no longer made from the Mid-Bronze
Age onwards.
Taking into account the results of the excavation in Os Carballos, the chronology
of horse-riding scenes and the labyrinths, the destruction of some carvings in Second
Iron Age hillforts, and the chronology of weapons on the Galician panels, we suggest
the existence of, at least, two different groups that could very possibly be related to
two phases of production within the Atlantic Style.
We would therefore have a first group with two kind of panels, one with a cup
and rings (as in Ireland and the United Kingdom) and with weapons, possibly made
during the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, although this is difficult to know with any
real precision; and a second group with cup and ring depictions, hunting scenes and
riding, labyrinths and shovels made between the eighth and fifth to fourth centuries
BC. Basically, this means that this second group would be from the same time as
when the oldest hillforts in the north-western Iberian Peninsula were occupied. If this
chronological proposal is correct, we are faced with an iconographic and chronological
panorama very similar to that defined for the area of Valcamonica, where we have
compositions from the Bronze Age dominated by the presence of weapons in vertical
panels, and a second, more narrative group, with scenes of deer hunting, shovels and
labyrinths belonging to the First Iron Age (Figure 2.5).
In this case it is possible that three of the great open air rock engraving areas:
Scandinavia, Valcamonica and Galicia were contemporary in the first half of the first
millennium BC. is new proposal creates a chronological context what would make
possible contacts between different European rock art regions as Fredell proposes in
this volume. e case of the British Isles and Ireland is more problematic; we know
that at least some of the engravings were made in the Early Bronze Age (Bradley
1997, Beckensall 2002), these panels are similar to the first stage with just cup and
rings in Galician rock art, but there are no figurative designs like in northwest Iberia.
Anyway, in the Early Bronze Age the four great areas, including in this case United
Kingdom and Ireland, were contemporary. But, does the British rock art disappear
Manuel Santos Estévez and Yolanda Seoane Veiga
28
in the end of Early Bronze Age? Or has the British rock art the same chronology as
that in continental Europe but without changes in its iconography?
Acknowledgements
To the team in Campo Lameiro: Juan Anca, Elena Cabrejas, Charo Canicova, Manuela
Costa, Teresa Espejo, Mikaela Fransson, Åsa Fredell, Leonardo González, Radoslaw
Grabowski, David Hernández, Sara Hjalmarsson, John Holmblad, Ellionor Johansson,
Craig Mac Donald, Indira Montt, Xabier Pontevedra, Antón Pereira, Gonzalo Pimentel,
Fernando Quintás, Frida Palmo, David Rodríguez, Ronny Smeds, Elena Taboada,
Ida Tegby, Eduardo Velázquez, the Archaeology Laboratory at the Padre Sarmiento
Institute and the Laboratory of Heritage, Paleoenvironment and Landscape and omas
Larsson.
Figure 2.5: Iconographic and chronological comparison between Galicia and Valcamonica.
Rock Art and Archaeological Excavation in Campo Lameiro, Galicia 29
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