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Consumption of Bottled Water at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Who Purchases First?

August 2019
Journal of Macromarketing 40(9):027614671986689

DOI:10.1177/0276146719866890

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CC BY-NC 4.0

Authors:

Rachel Howell

Delft University of Technology

Natascha Wagner

Erasmus University Rotterdam

Neelke Doorn

Delft University of Technology

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While consumer and marketing research in developed markets is an established field, research on consumers in an Bottom of the Pyramid (BoP) setting is less established and mostly conceptual or qualitative. This paper examines the individual heterogeneity and the local context of BoP consumers with an empirical study on consumption of low cost bottled water on the Kenyan coast and the capitals of Uganda and Rwanda. The empirical analysis builds on existing research exploring consumer behavior, and it studies a database of 713 bottled water consumers in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda. Consumers with a higher level of education were less likely to be late consumers. Additionally, early consumers were more likely to purchase due to a purposeful search for a bottled drinking water solution. Since we control for location specific effects we highlight the importance of supply driven consumption in the BoP market. Furthermore, the results suggest that the two water companies may not be reaching their targeted low-income consumers but rather middle class consumers. The research contributes to the larger BoP debate by presenting evidence that consumers in a BoP setting may purchase more on the basis of supply of a product rather than other socio-demographic factors such as income.

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Empirical Results of Determinants of Consumption of Bottled Water in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda: Multinomial Logit Estimates.

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Article

Consumption of Bottled Water at the Bottom

of the Pyramid: Who Purchases First?

Rachel Howell,

Kinsuk Mani Sinha,

Natascha Wagner,

Neelke Doorn,

and Cees van Beers

Abstract

While consumer and marketing research in developed markets is an established field, research on consumers in an

Bottom of the Pyramid (BoP) setting is less established and mostly conceptual or qualitative. This paper examines the

individual heterogeneity and the local context of BoP consumers with an empirical study on consumption of low cost

bottled water on the Kenyan coast and the capitals of Uganda and Rwanda. The empirical analysis builds on existing

research exploring consumer behavior, and it studies a database of 713 bottled water consumers in Kenya, Uganda and

Rwanda. Consumers with a higher level of education were less likely to be late consumers. Additionally, early consumers

were more likely to purchase due to a purposeful search for a bottled drinking water solution. Since we control for

location specific effects we highlight the importance of supply driven consumption in the BoP market. Furthermore, the

results suggest that the two water companies may not be reaching their targeted low-income consumers but rather

middle class consumers. The research contributes to the larger BoP debate by presenting evidence that consumers in a

BoP setting may purchase more on the basis of supply of a product rather than other socio-demographic factors such

as income.

Keywords

emerging markets, consumption, BoP consumers, bottled water, sub-Saharan Africa

Introduction

While the last decade of research brought attention to the

potential for businesses reaching the large and untapped market

of low income consumers, it is debated whether businesses can

be both profitable and meet needs for low income consumers

(Agnihotri 2012; Karnani 2007; Meagher 2018; Prahalad 2005;

Ramani and Mukherjee 2014). In order for businesses offering

Bottom-of-the-Pyramid (BoP) innovations to be profitable and

self-sustainable their innovations need to be widely adopted

and consumed (Hall, Matos, and Martin 2014; Ramani and

Mukherjee 2014). Although research examining marketing and

consumption habits in developed markets is well established,

consumers and their consumption decisions in the BoP is a less

studied yet relevant focus as increasingly western firms target

BoP markets (Agnihotri 2012; Kotler et al. 2006; Sheth 2011;

Silvestre and Neto 2014). The seminal work of Prahalad and

others (Montgomery, Peredo, and Carlson 2012; Prahalad

2005) implies that consumers at the BoP are homogenous,

however more recent research points towards a more hetero-

geneous group of BoP consumers (Chikweche, Stanton, and

Fletcher 2012; Guarı´n and Knorringa 2014; Kotler et al.

2006; Marinakis, Walsh Prof dr, and Harms dr 2016). In par-

ticular, much of the BoP literature focuses on the Asian context

with less work looking at African markets and consumers (Mair

and Marti 2009; Prahalad 2012; Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duy-

sters 2012). However, as a recent African Development Bank

report highlighted, GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa has out-

paced other regions in the last 15 years, creating opportunities

for market development (AfDB 2016). This paper contributes

empirical evidence to the debate on BoP consumer hetero-

geneity with a focus on the African context, by investigating

characteristics of BoP customers who consume fresh drinking

water in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda.

While marketing literature has increasingly looked at new

markets in Asia and Africa, focusing on the potential for busi-

ness, there is still limited understanding of how markets and

Faculty of Technology, Policy, and Management; Delft University of Technology,

Delft, Netherlands

School of Social Sciences; Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands

Institute of Social Studies; Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Hague,

Netherlands

Corresponding Author:

Rachel Howell, Faculty of Technology, Policy, and Management, Delft

University of Technology, Jaffalaan 5, Delft, Netherlands.

Email: r.j.howell@tudelft.nl

Journal of Macromarketing

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consumers in these markets differ from developed markets

(Kotler et al. 2006; Sheth 2011). Authors have highlighted the

issue of poverty changing the way consumers make purchase

decisions (Bonsu and Polsa 2011; Chikweche and Fletcher

2011a). Additionally, other authors have criticized businesses

seeking to reach poor consumers, arguing that they are often

not being reached and may instead be exploited (Hahn 2009;

Karnani 2007, 2009; Meagher 2018) . Developing a better

understanding of these aspects requires a deeper look into how

consumers at the BoP are heterogeneous and how this influ-

ences the timing of their consumption decisions. Possible ways

to understand consumers’ consumption behavior is to analyze

individual characteristics, the local context in which the con-

sumer is embedded and finally, the cultural context that shapes

the local understanding (Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters

2012; Zanello et al. 2016). Despite the seeming resemblance,

the various factors affecting the decision process of a BoP

consumer are considerably different than the traditional con-

sumers. One way to look at consumer heterogeneity is through

timing of purchase and how BoP consumers may differ based

on their time of purchase. Timing is relevant due to the severe

budget and income constraints BoP consumers face that affect

timing of purchase (Viswanathan et al. 2014; Yurdakul, Atik,

and Dholakia 2017).

The study at hand contributes to the scarce literature on BoP

consumer heterogeneity by assessing the characteristics of con-

sumers based on their time of purchase and whether there are

systematic differences between groups. Two types of charac-

teristics are analyzed – individual characteristics such as edu-

cation and income, and features of the local context such as

how the consumer received information about a product. The

following research question is addressed: What is the effect of

BoP consumer characteristics on their timing of consumption?

The research contributes to BoP marketing literature in two

ways: 1) it exposes the heterogeneity amongst BoP consumers

by focusing on timing of consumption, 2) quantitative study on

consumers in three countries. The context under study is the

consumption of bottled water – of two different socially

oriented companies (Dutch Water Limited and Jibu, LC3) in

urban East Africa (Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda). The first is a

Dutch founded water company on the Kenyan coast and the

second an American founded “social enterprise” in the capitals

of Rwanda and Uganda. We study 713 bottled water consumers

breaking them apart by their time of purchase. This research

aims to address the gap in empirical work at the BoP by

focusing on differences between consumers based on their

time of purchase and not at differences between consumers

versus non-consumers, thus exposing BoP consumer hetero-

geneity. The study shows that late consumers have a lower

level of education whereas earlier consumers are more likely

to have purposefully searched for bottled drinking water. A

novel feature of our analysis is that we can control for entry

into different sales areas/zones. Controlling for location spe-

cific effects we demonstrate that consumption at the BoP is

highly supply driven. Most importantly, the research suggests

that unlike traditional consumers in developed markets,

consumption of bottled water for BoP consumers does not

seem to be influenced by wealth.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows:

Section 2 provides an overview of existing literature on

macromarketing at the BoP, BoP consumer studies and

bottled water consumption. Section 3 presents the conceptual

model. The study context is set up in section 4 and the vari-

ables and empirical model are detailed in Section 5. Results

are presented in section 6 and the last two sections provide the

discussion and conclusions.

Literature Review

Macromarketing at the BoP

The advent of three changes have brought increasing attention

to the importance of business in emerging markets and the BoP.

First, besides Prahalad’s initial opening of the possibilities at

the large and untapped BoP market, growth in emerging mar-

kets has occurred due to economic reforms in these countries.

Second, due to the limited demand in advanced economies

because of aging populations, BoP markets have been brought

to the forefront. Finally, the advent of free trade and a rising

new middle class have increased business opportunities at the

BoP (Sheth 2011). Therefore, understanding how marketing

and consumer behavior is different in BoP markets has become

a growing area of research (Bonsu and Polsa 2011; Davies and

Torrents 2017; Jagadale, Kadirov, and Chakraborty 2018; Jais-

wal and Gupta 2015; Kotler et al. 2006; Yurdakul, Atik, and

Dholakia 2017). Besides the business opportunities in these

new markets, there is the question of how marketing to these

new demographics plays a role in poverty alleviation (Kotler

et al. 2006). Therefore marketing literature on the BoP can be

divided into two streams: case studies on specific markets (Alur

and Schoormans 2013; Banbury, Herkenhoff, and Subrahman-

yan 2015; Chikweche and Fletcher 2011a; Davies and Torrents

2017; Jagadale, Kadirov, and Chakraborty 2018; Viswanathan

et al. 2014; Viswanathan and Rosa 2010), and how marketing

strategies and consumer behavior more generally might differ

in these markets (Agnihotri 2012; Bonsu and Polsa 2011;

Kotler et al. 2006; Piacentini and Hamilton 2013; Sheth

2011; Subrahmanyan and Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008; Yurda-

kul, Atik, and Dholakia 2017).

Focusing on the second stream of literature within market-

ing and consumer studies, highlights a few points about oper-

ating within BoP markets. First, authors have illuminated the

issue of heterogeneity at the BoP both in terms of markets and

consumers (Kotler et al. 2006; Sheth 2011). Prahalad’s work

overlooked the heterogeneity of this demographic (Agnihotri

2012; Kotler et al. 2006). Rather than being one homogenous

group with similar purchasing power, BoP consumers are dri-

ven to purchase products for different reasons and have differ-

ent socio-demographic characteristics that drive them to make

purchase decisions (Jagadale, Kadirov, and Chakraborty 2018;

Sheth 2011). In addition to consumer heterogeneity, markets

themselves are heterogeneous in the sense that one particular

2Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

geographically demarcated market can be made up of consu-

mers that have means to purchase and those who do not (Sheth

2011). Second, marketing scholars emphasize that poverty lim-

its consumers from being part of a consumer society (Yurdakul,

Atik, and Dholakia 2017). Consumption decisions are made

less from the perspective of choices but more from immediate

needs which challenges Prahalad’s notion of freedom of choice

and individual empowerment through marketplace participa-

tion (Bonsu and Polsa 2011; Viswanathan et al. 2014). Related

to the issue of participation in a consumer society, other

research has exposed that purchase decisions may be driven

more by availability of products than specific desires (Chik-

weche and Fletcher 2011b). Finally, studies that have focused

on specific emerging/BoP markets have illustrated the lack of

branding in many BoP markets (Sheth 2011) and the problem

of distribution and the importance of social networks and local

entrepreneurs in overcoming this problem (Alur and Schoor-

mans 2013; Chikweche and Fletcher 2011b; Davies and

Torrents 2017).

Existing marketing literature on BoP markets exposes two

areas for future research: unpacking consumer heterogeneity in

BoP markets from an empirical perspective, and understanding

better what drives consumers to purchase particular products,

especially products that could be considered basic needs like

clean drinking water (Kotler et al. 2006; Sheth 2011; Yurdakul,

Atik, and Dholakia 2017). This paper will explore consumer

heterogeneity from a marketing perspective.

Consumer Studies at the BoP

BoP literature following Prahalad’s seminal work, emphasized

both the need to define the poor and acknowledge their hetero-

geneity (Agnihotri 2012; Karnani 2007; Kotler et al. 2006).

Investigating these two aspects requires a look at consumption

at the BoP and what drives BoP consumers to make purchasing

decisions. The literature on consumers and purchasing deci-

sions at the BoP is mostly dominated by qualitative work

(Chikweche, Stanton, and Fletcher 2012; Nakata and Weidner

2012; Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters 2012; Subrahmanyan

and Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008) with fewer quantitative inves-

tigations (Ernst et al. 2015). While the focus of this research is

on consumption of goods not adoption of innovations, there is

some overlap in factors driving these decisions. Adoption

implies a time dimension and looking at the overall market,

whereas consumption is an instantaneous purchase decision.

Therefore, an overview from both types of literature is given.

First an overview of qualitative work on adoption of innova-

tions at the BoP, BoP consumers and their purchasing decisions

is given and second the limited quantitative work is described.

Zanello et al. (2016) conducted a systematic literature

review looking at factors influencing purchase decisions at the

BoP. The review highlights the importance of individual char-

acteristics like education and financial means in a consumers’

choice. The characteristics of consumers that allow them to use

a particular innovation to their advantage play a key role in

creating demand at BoP (Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters

2012). An understanding of the nature and process of demand

creation is important to understand the needs of the customers

at BoP. The discrepancy in the perception of needs as expe-

rienced by the BoP and as perceived by a supplier is one of

the main obstacles for purchase at the BoP (Zanello et al.

2016). The needs mismatch can be observed in case of

technology design, product design and delivery design

(Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters 2012). Chikweche and

Fletcher (2012) also stress the lack of contextualized and

local knowledge possessed by foreign firms seeking to oper-

ate in developing countries.

Nakata and Weidner (2012) developed a conceptual model

that looked at adoption of products at the BoP. The model

emphasized adoption as a two-stageprocess:symbolicand

material. Symbolic means a new product is “wanted/desired”,

while material is the actual purchasing of the product (Sen

2001).

According to the model, usually poor consumers

desire/want a product, but the product is not purchased due to

poverty. Therefore, both stages of adoption do not always occur

at the BoP. Nakata and Weidner’s (2012) model for new prod-

uct adoption considered the effect of social context, poverty,

marketing environment, and new product attributes.

Furthermore, a limited number of studies have looked at the

specificities of consumers in a BoP context, like the role played

by family in the purchase decision making process. Chikweche,

Stanton, and Fletcher (2012) highlight how BoP markets have

different characteristics through a case study about the role of

family decision making in purchasing in Zimbabwe. Unlike

developed markets, at the BoP the decision making for con-

sumption of goods is a more of a joint process, with possibly

different roles for different family members. Sometimes these

roles overlap between individuals but the frequent difference

between user and decision maker or even buyer plays a role for

marketing and design of products. Another important observa-

tion that likely applies in other BoP contexts is the different

types of purchasing decisions. Products are either bought

instantaneously as they are needed, when the product is actu-

ally available, or when the household can afford products

(Chikweche, Stanton, and Fletcher 2012; Viswanathan et al.

2014). Education and information available to the consumer

play a role in purchase decisions (Adkins and Ozanne 2005;

Nakata and Weidner 2012; Prahalad and Hammond 2002;

Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters 2012). Those with higher

levels of formal education may make earlier purchase deci-

sions. Finally, linking consumption to the discussion of timing

of purchase also requires a look at the search process and the

role of information that consumers seek out or receive (Chik-

weche and Fletcher 2012; Lu

¨thje, Herstatt, and Von Hippel

2005; Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters 2012; Subrahmanyan

and Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008). Authors such as Kotler et al.,

(2006) mentioned the importance of marketing to early adop-

ters of innovations at the BoP because this group can further

diffuse innovations through word of mouth referral.

Focusing on quantitative work, Ernst et al. (2015) studied

the effect of bricolage, local embeddedness and standardization

on product purchase. The quantitative findings from Ernst et al.

Howell et al. 3

(2015) support the qualitative research: bricolage and local

embeddedness are positively related to adoption highlighting the

importance of understanding aspects of local context like the

product design required by the local population, and the social

and cultural aspects of the local setup. Rahman, Hasan, and

Floyd (2013) focus on the role played by brand orientation in

creating a relative advantage at the BoP market of Bangladesh.

Examining consumer data from Grameenphone Community

Information Center, the authors show that brand orientation as

a strategy has a positive effect on adoption of the innovation.

Consumption and Purchase of Clean Water Technologies

At the BoP, where public access to clean drinking water is often

limited, bottled water or other clean water innovations are nec-

essary. From a macro perspective work has looked at the pri-

vatization of water resources and the rise of the bottled water

industry both in developed and emerging markets (Patsiaouras,

Saren, and Fitchett 2015). Specifically, there has been a rise in

multinational companies CSR initiatives in emerging markets

providing bottled drinking water (Brei and Bo¨ hm 2011). These

companies claim to be alleviating poverty through provision of

clean drinking water, but a more critical view suggests that the

companies are also trying to change their image in developed

markets (Brei and Bo¨hm 2011).

Cohen et al. (2017) conducted a quantitative study to inves-

tigate predictors of boiled water and bottled water consumption

in rural China analyzing data from 450 rural households in

Guangxi province. The results show that female-headed house-

holds were more likely to boil water whereas higher-income

households with younger, literate and male heads were more

likely to purchase bottled water. Ritter et al. (2017) tested the

effect of marketing strategies on consumers and suppliers for

the case of household chlorination products employing a ran-

domized controlled trial in rural Haiti. The results of the study

suggest that visits from sales agents may increase purchase of

chlorination products, however, the rise in sales does not cover

the costs of the visit. The authors argue that in developing

countries decisions related to promotion and pricing have long

lasting health implications.

Focusing only on factors driving bottled waterconsumption in

emerging markets, there are a limited number of bottled water

specific studies with mixed results. Research in Guatemala, the

Philippines and Ghana showed that generally smaller, higher

educated and higher income households were more likely to con-

sume bottled water (Francisco 2014; Quansah, Okoe, and Angenu

2015; Va´squez 2017). However in rural Guatemala, Va´squez

(2017) found that income was not a significant driver for smaller

purchases of bottled water. Income also had a minimal effect on

bottled water consumption in the Philippines (Francisco 2014).A

gender effect did not show up in any of the quantitative studies,

but qualitative research on bottled water consumers in Brazil

hinted that women may be important decision makers in the

choice of bottled water (de Queiroz et al. 2013).

Overall, it has been found that the limited uptake of decen-

tralized water solutions like bottled water were due to low

affordability of the products, high income variability of con-

sumers, and the companies’ challenges in communicating their

value proposition (Dahlberg 2017). In summary, the work look-

ing at bottled water consumption highlights the role of house-

hold head gender, education level, and wealth (Francisco 2014;

Quansah, Okoe, and Angenu 2015; Va´squez 2017).

Conceptual Model

Building on literature discussed above, we develop a concep-

tual model and three hypothesis regarding the timing of con-

sumption of bottled drinking water in a BoP context.

Education is considered to be a vital starting point for intro-

ducing change in consumption behavior of BoP consumers for

basic needs like clean drinking water, health care alternatives, to

mention few examples (Prahalad and Hammond 2002; UNDP

2008). Education provided to the consumer can be divided in

two main categories: traditional education and customer educa-

tion. Traditional education comprises of formal education pro-

vided at educational institutes, learning programs available on

online platforms. Usually, BoP consumers have access to a lower

level of education when compared with the main stream con-

sumers (Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters 2012; Nakata and

Weidner 2012). One of the reasons for the low level of education

could be lack of access to up to date formal educational institu-

tions that provide basic education and skill training (Subrahman-

yan and Gomez-Arias 2008). In the presence of lack of basic

education skill set, a BoP consumer may not feel equipped with

sufficient information to make a consumption choice or lack the

required agency to make a decision, in other words a lack of

empowerment (Adkins and Ozanne 2005). Education is one of

the inputs which raises awareness, helps the poor consumer in

understanding different aspects of their decision process like

today’s gain in terms of need fulfillment as a compensation for

today’s financial loss. Education thereby increases the chances

of an informed choice being made by the poor consumer. Hence,

we argue that a high level of education leads to a consumption

choice being made earlier rather than later.

H1: Higher level of education increases the chances of ear-

lier consumption.

Receiving information is one of the first steps in gaining

awareness about a product, especially at the BoP. To under-

stand the structure of information received it is important to

analyze who is bringing the information, to whom the informa-

tion being transferred to and who is responsible for exchange of

the information in a local setup. BoP consumers receive infor-

mation via two means: personal network and in-person promo-

tions. Consumers at the BoP depend on their personal network

comprising of friends, relatives, neighbors while making con-

sumption choices (Nakata and Weidner 2012). Traditional

means of product promotion like advertisements via television

are less influential in the BoP setup, where consumers prefer in-

person promotion (Nakata and Weidner 2012; Chikweche and

Fletcher 2012). Information received through the personal

4Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

network and in-person promotions helps the consumer in

understanding their need requirement. Both personal network

and in-person promotion give the opportunity to receive infor-

mation via personal interaction thereby, providing the possibil-

ity to see another consumer in their use environment.

Understanding of need information and intended use environ-

ment help the consumer in building his/her local information

(Lu

¨thje, Herstatt, and Von Hippel 2005). One of the inputs

affecting accumulation of local information is personal net-

work and chances of early consumer’s personal network know-

ing about the product is less when compared with the network

of late consumer, even if all the consumers had a chance to

attend the product demonstration. Furthermore, given the col-

lectivist culture in a BoP setting, the local information about a

product possessed by late consumers will be greater compared

early consumers. Hence, we argue that receiving local infor-

mation increases the chances of late consumption.

H2: Local information increases the chances of late

consumption.

External information search is one input in the consumer deci-

sion process. Smith and Beatty (1987, p. 85) define external

information search as “the degree of attention, perception and

effort directed toward obtaining environmental data or informa-

tion related to the specific purchase under consideration.” While

gathering information a poor consumerconsiders three main fac-

tors: cost benefit assessment of the purchase choice, factors

related to the local context, and household specific factors (Chik-

weche, Stanton, and Fletcher 2012; Ramani, SadreGhazi, and

Duysters 2012; Subrahmanyan and Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008).

Local factors could include cultural environment, social capital,

family systems and access to distribution systems. Household

specific factors could include tastes, needs and willingness to

explore different alternatives. Given the presence of collectivist

culture at the BoP and the dependence of other consumers on their

cultural environment while making choices, consumers who do

not engage in a search process follow the choices of the majority

BoP consumers or act to fulfill certain aspirational needs (Chik-

weche and Fletcher 2014; Jaiswal and Gupta 2015). Conse-

quently, consumers who engage in purposeful external

information searchto understand consumption options mightgain

exposure to additional sources of information not available in his/

her local context. The additional information may result in an

earlier purchase when compared with other consumers.

H3: External information search increases the chances of

earlier consumption.

Study Context and Sampling

Context

In this section we describe the local context of the three study

countries: Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda.

Like many developing countries, Kenya faces the common

problem of delivering fresh water to the entire population.

Particularly due to urbanization, supply of quality water is a

challenge. Often the quality of piped water is mediocre or

unsafe for drinking. Although one of the Millennium Develop-

ment Goals was improving access to improved water sources

and progress was made in this regard it seems unclear whether

access to an improved water source also implies access to safe

drinking water (WHO et al. 2015). According to available data

from 2014, 67%of the Kenyan population (with higher levels

in urban areas) have access to an improved water source, where

an improved water source is classified as the ‘main source of

drinking water [being] a household connection (piped), public

tap or standpipe, tube well or borehole, protected dug well,

protected spring, rainwater collection, or bottled water’ (Kenya

National Bureau of Statistics et al. 2015). Yet, there is evidence

that many improved sources do have the bacteria e-coli and

other contaminants suggesting that a better definition of

improved water source is needed (Grady et al. 2015). Further-

more, a study for rural Kenya demonstrates that coping with

poor water quality makes households incur further costs (Cook,

Kimuyu, and Whittington 2016). Access to clean water for all

is further put under pressure since Kenya’s water supply was

privatized in 2002 through reforms that decentralized water

provision (Ministry of Water and Irrigation 2017; Water Ser-

vices Regulatory Board 2014).

Piped water delivery in Kampala, Uganda is slightly differ-

ent than in Kenya. The National Water and Sewage Corpora-

tion (NWSC) is responsible for water delivery in Kampala.

NWSC is a parastatal, owned by the government. The costs

of the water corporation are only partially covered by revenues

from consumers. Larger investments come from the govern-

ment through donor funds. NWSC is under the jurisdiction of

the Ministry of Water and the Environment.

The water quality

at the source is managed by the Ministry but tapped water

quality is managed by NWSC. Unlike at the Kenyan coast,

supplyislessofaconcerninKampaladuetosupplyfrom

nearby Lake Victoria. While there are some supply and demand

issues, it is an infrequent occurrence compared to Kenya. Qual-

ity issues in Kampala are mainly due to old piping infrastruc-

ture and illegal tapping of pipes. Yet, water quality issues have

created a large market for bottled water. This market is not

properly regulated leading to cases where branded bottled

water containers are filled with unpurified water and resold.

Due to regulation problems, knowledge on certification in

Kampala seems to be high and consumers desire water that has

been certified by the Uganda Bureau of Standards (UNBS).

While Kigali, Rwanda faces some of the same water deliv-

ery issues as in Kenya and Uganda, the governance of water

delivery is again different. Water delivery is regulated by the

Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency (RURA). Companies

must pay for a license for a particular operating area in order

to delivery water to that region. Although competition is tech-

nically allowed, when a company acquires a license for an area,

no other companies can supply water in the same area. In Kigali

and the major cities of Rwanda, water is supplied by a govern-

ment owned, private company called Water and Sanitation

Corporation (WASAC), which has a monopoly there.

Kigali

Howell et al. 5

is attempting to address existing shortages in water supply.

Two new purification plants are nearly complete that are

expected to fulfill the remaining supply needs of Kigali. Like

in the Kampala and Mombasa area, Kigali’s piping infrastruc-

ture is old and illegal tapping of water is widespread. More-

over, like Mombasa, Kigali has experienced rapid population

growth in particular in the period directly following the geno-

cide of 1994. The existing infrastructure is insufficient for the

current population.

In all three locations, the combination of insufficient

supply, and unsafe quality has created a market for bottled

water. While the underlying factors that have constituted

markets for innovations in bottled water are similar, location

specific factors are likely to have influenced how these

products are consumed.

Case Descriptions

Data for this study was collected from two bottled water com-

panies: Dutch Water Limited (DWL) and Jibu, LC3. While

there is a large market for bottled drinking water in East Africa

(Dahlberg, 2017), the two companies were specifically selected

for their unique business models and explicit social oriented

missions. The two selected companies highlight the ethical

complexities of fresh drinking water provision in an emerging

market setting. Bottled water is traditionally an expensive

product and companies like Coca Cola’s Dasani brand, have

often been criticized for creating markets for bottled drinking

water in areas plagued with water quality and supply issues

(Brei and Bo¨hm 2011). DWL and Jibu are both socially

oriented in their mission yet take a different delivery approach.

Unlike traditional bottled water companies, Jibu and DWL

seek to only use reusable bottles to minimize plastic waste.

DWL is a water company based in Mtwapa, Kenya

foundedin2006throughapartnership and investment from

two Dutch firms: Hatenboer and Reikon. DWL provides

bottled drinking water to three Kenyan counties (Kilifi,

Kwale, and Mombasa) in the region surrounding Mombasa.

DWL’s core low cost product is a 10L reusable jerry can.

DWL’s distribution model is to sell to small shops in the area

through water delivery on tuk-tuks.

Jibu, LC3 (Low profit liability company) is an American

founded “benefit corporation” selling low cost bottled drinking

water in Uganda, Rwanda and Kenya. Jibu was founded in 2012.

It started with simultaneous pilots in Uganda, Rwanda and the

Democratic Republic of Congo in 2013. Jibu’s declared goal was

to find a suitable model to provide low cost drinking water and

shift consumers from boiling to bottled water. In 2014, Jibu

began with a franchise model in Kigali and Kampala. Water

purification is decentralized at each franchise location. Purifica-

tion is done with ultra-filtration technology designed specifically

for the conditions in each city. Franchises purify city water and

package it into various sizes of reusable bottles.

While DWL has the social mission of providing affordable

drinking water, it also has the dual goal of running a financially

sustainable business. In the beginning of 2016, due to changes

in tax law, DWL had to adjust its business activities to accom-

modate a sharp increase in excise taxes on water. Although all

competitor manufacturers of bottled water were initially

affected by the excise tax increase, DWL is the only company

that fully complied, meaning that water prices for a 10L jerry

nearly doubled and DWL now offers a much higher priced

product than competitors.

Jibu provides a contrasting case study in the consumption of

bottled water. Due to Jibu’s social benefit corporation status,

the company aims to provide the lowest cost refill prices for

bottled water in their areas of operation. A social benefit cor-

poration is a relatively new business designation that allows

businesses to incorporate a social mission explicitly into their

strategy, allowing them to accept different types of investments

and zero margins

. Jibu consumers pay a relatively high bottle

deposit fee, then a low refill price. In some cases, because profit

is not the only motive of Jibu, they accept zero margin on their

refill prices to maintain the lowest cost water.

Sampling

Sampling for the two companies was done using stratified ran-

dom sampling to account for demographic differences in the

geographic areas of operation for the two companies. In both

cases randomization occurred at the sales area (DWL) or zone

level (Jibu) where demographic characteristics would be sim-

ilar rather than randomly selecting consumers from the entire

population. This insured that the overall sample was represen-

tative of DWL and Jibu consumers.

Jibu conducted phone interviews with their consumers based

on lists of loyal customers collected from each franchise. Jibu

divides their cities into zones, which are based on population

density. Consumers were randomly selected from the given lists

according to the percentage of sales in each zone. Jibu conducted

data collection in December 2016 (Rwanda) and March 2017

(Uganda). The DWL questionnaire was based on Jibu’s question-

naire for consistency between the three countries. There were 19

and 20 zones in Rwanda and Uganda respectively. The majority

of sampling occurred in Jibu zones within Kigali and Kampala,

but some consumers were sampled from franchises in Busenyi

(North western Rwanda), and Entebbe (near Kampala-Uganda).

These areas are also mostly urban like Kigali and Kampala. In

addition to Jibu’s consumer survey, we collected similar data on

Jibu non-consumers in May 2017. Non-consumers were ran-

domly interviewed at Jibu micro-franchise locations.

Data collection in Kenya was done in March 2017. DWL’s

main factory is in Mtwapa in Kilifi county. From there water is

distributed to six distribution points located in the three coun-

ties of operation. At each of the six-distribution points and the

main factory there are sales areas. Sales areas represent the

routes the water is distributed along using auto rickshaws. In

each sales area there are DWL vendors, usually small kiosks

that sell DWL and other water brands, along with general prod-

ucts. According to DWL, there are roughly 5,000 vendors in

Mombasa, Kilifi, and Kwale counties. Out of the 5,000 ven-

dors, 112 were randomly selected for our study. At each vendor

6Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

three consumers and four non-consumers were interviewed.

During test surveys it was discovered that it can be challenging

to locate consumers, therefore selection was based on proxim-

ity to the vendor.

Consumers were determined by their response to the ques-

tion: “When did you last purchase DWL/Jibu water?” Respon-

dents who purchased DWL/Jibu water in the last year were

considered consumers. Figure 1 gives an overview of the sur-

vey respondents and selection criteria. In Kenya, we have a

sample of 326 consumers, the Rwanda sample consists of

292 consumers, and the Uganda sample of 188 consumers.

Data and Empirical Model

Variable Description

The focus of the study is exposing consumer heterogeneity,

therefore consumers were divided into three categories based

on their time of first purchasing DWL or Jibu water. The

dependent variable is the consumer category. Jibu data was

based on a company survey and the questionnaire used for

DWL was based on Jibu’s survey. The categories of consu-

mers are as follows: (i) Early consumers (first purchase

greater than 2 years) (ii) Middle consumers (first purchase

between 1 and 2 years) and (iii) Late consumers (first pur-

chase from 1 year to present).

To ensure comparability across the empirical analyses of the

three datasets only variables that were measured in all three

datasets were included. In the first specification, only control

variables were included: the gender of household head which is

a binary variable that is equal to 1 for male and zero otherwise,

and the Progress out of Poverty Index (PPI). Chikweche, Stan-

ton, and Fletcher (2012) discuss the role of decision maker and

purchaser gender in African households. The PPI score does

not measure wealth directly but can be viewed as an asset

Panel A: DWL Sampling

Panel B: Jibu Rwanda Sampling

Panel C: Jibu Uganda Sampling

Vendors (N=112): Stratified random sample

Consumers, 3 at each vendor (N=326)

Early

Time of

Purchase> 2

years ago

N= 121

Middle

Time of

Purchase> 1 ≤

2 years ago

N= 97

Late

Time of

Purchase ≤1

year ago

N= 108

Consumers (N=292) : Random selection from consumer lists at each franchise

Early

Time of

Purchase> 2

years ago

N= 68

Middle

Time of

Purchase> 1 ≤

2 years ago

N= 105

Late

Time of

Purchase ≤1

year ago

N= 119

Consumers (N=188) : Random selection from consumer lists at each franchise

Early

Time of

Purchase> 2

years ago

N= 16

Middle

Time of

Purchase> 1 ≤

2 years ago

N= 57

Late

Time of

Purchase ≤1

year ago

N= 115

Figure 1. Sampling in the three countries.

Howell et al. 7

index. A score is assigned to every respondent based on his or

her response to a set of ten questions related to assets and

household demographics.

The PPI allows us to empirically

represent the local context of each country since the question-

naire differs from country to country. It should be noted that the

PPI score is updated regularly based on new household surveys

conducted in each country. For Uganda the 2012 survey was

used, for Kenya 2005, and for Rwanda 2005.

The next three specifications add the independent variables:

education, local information and external information. educa-

tion which consists of two binary variables, one for secondary

education and one for higher education. The excluded category

is made up of individuals with primary or no education. Local

information measures whether the individual had received per-

sonal information about the bottled water under study either

through a company representative or personal recommendation

from a friend or relative. The fourth specification adds the

independent variable of a purposeful search for clean water

which represents the external information search. A table

detailing the different variables, what they proxy, and their

literature motivation is presented in the appendix (Table A1).

All specifications contain controls for the location of the

sales points to capture differences in infrastructure and market

settings across the different sales points that are likely to affect

the decision and timing of uptake of bottled water. Note that

both companies entered different sales areas/zones at different

points in time. Therefore, it is necessary to control for these

regional differences. The location specific effects control for

differences in local infrastructure, local embeddedness, and

local context within each sub-market is represented by the

different sales areas/zones. This takes the work of Ernst et al.

(2015) on local embeddedness a step further. Table A2 in the

appendix shows the relative frequencies for consumer cate-

gories per sales area/zone, demonstrating that there is signifi-

cant variation across sales areas by consumer category. For

example, there is a higher relative frequency of respondents

in the late category for Kilifi as compared to early consumers

because Kilifi is an older market area for DWL. Similar relative

frequencies can be found for the Jibu zones depending on the

entry of the company into the respective zone.

Empirical Model

With the empirical analysis we want to assess the heterogeneity

across consumers by analyzing the determinants of the timing

of initial consumption across our three consumer groups.

Before studying within consumer heterogeneity, we start out

with a comparison between consumers and non-consumers to

set the stage. Standard innovation diffusion literature compares

consumers with non-consumers through a probit or logit model

(Geroski, 2000). We employ the logistic function to model a

binary dependent variable, i.e. the decision to consume bottled

water. For every individual iin location lwe estimate the

following model:

PðYil ¼1Þ¼1=ð1þexpððb0þb1XilÞÞ ð1Þ

where Y

is equal to 1 for consumers and X

contains the

control variables of interest, i.e. gender of the household head,

the education level, an asset index, and location specific

effects. We limit the analysis to this small set of predictors

since we are mainly interested in purchase decisions related

to education, economic wellbeing and easy access to the water,

i.e. being near to the bottled water supply. Standard errors are

clustered at the location level. Imposing the logistic transfor-

mation, we obtain a model that is linear in its predictors. The

model is fit by maximum likelihood.

lnðPðYil ¼1ÞÞ ¼ b0þb1Xil ð2Þ

The outcome of interest (dependent variable) is the category

in which the consumers fall based on their timing of initial

consumption: (i) early consumers, (ii) middle consumers, (iii)

late consumers.

Technically our outcome of interest can be viewed as an

ordinal variable. At the same time, the distance between cate-

gories is not a measure of actual distance. We cannot “rank” the

categories such that we could say late consumers are more

important than early ones. The different consumer groups

merely represent the different points in time when the consu-

mers started purchasing bottled water. Therefore, we decided to

employ a multinomial logistic regression model, which extends

the logit model to a multiclass analysis without taking the

ordering into account. For every class we estimate the effect

of the predictors on the probability of success in that class

compared to the reference class. Each class has its own inter-

cept and regression coefficients meaning that the predictors can

affect each category differently.

We predict the probability

that individual i from location lfalls into consumer class kwith

k¼1,2,3. Since we have 3 possible outcome classes, we run

two binary logistic regression models and treat the third class as

reference against which we regress the other classes. We can

write the probability for every consumer iin location lfalling

into one of the k consumer categories as a set of two indepen-

dent probabilities:

PðYil ¼jÞ¼expðbjXilÞ,1þX

k¼1

expðbkXilÞ

;for j ¼1;2

ð3Þ

Similarly to the basic logit model the above probability

employs a linear predictor function for every consumer iin

location lfalling into consumer category kwe can specify it

as follows:

fðk;i;lÞ¼bkXil ¼b0;kþb1;kmale hhil þb2;kPPIil

þb3;keducationil þb4;kinfoil þb5;kpurposeil

þb6;klocationl

ð4Þ

where the vector b

collects all regression coefficients asso-

ciated with the kth outcome; X

contains the control variables.

We control for gender of the household head (male_hhh

), an

asset index (PPI

), the education level (education

), receipt of

8Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

local information about bottled water (info

), an external infor-

mation search for it (purpose

) and location specific effects

(location

l

). Akin to the basic logit model we apply the logistic

transformation that allows us to model the logarithm of the

probability of seeing a given outcome using the linear predic-

tors. The model is estimated by maximum likelihood. Standard

errors are clustered at the sales point level to account for cor-

related residual variation.

Since the coefficient estimates of a multinomial logit model

cannot be directly interpreted, the marginal effects were com-

puted and are presented (Cameron and Trivedi 2009; Wool-

dridge 2016).

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics for all three countries are presented in

Table 1. DWL entered the market in 2006 so the early con-

sumer category makes up a larger percentage than for Jibu

Uganda and Rwanda. Almost 40%of DWL consumers are

early consumers with a fairly even split in the middle and late

categories. The opposite is true for Jibu due to their market

entry in 2014. For Jibu Rwanda 40%of consumers fall in the

late category, and for Jibu Uganda 61%. Jibu Uganda only has

9%of consumers in the early category whereas there’s a more

even split for Jibu Rwanda between the early and middle cate-

gories (24%and 36%). There is stiff bottled water competition

in Uganda, so it is possible that the customer lists in Uganda

represent more recent Jibu consumers.

Concerning the characteristics of the consumers there are

some demographic differences between the three countries.

The majority of DWL consumers have an education level of

secondary (55%). One quarter of the DWL sample is university

educated. Education levels are even higher for Jibu consumers,

with 40%(Rwanda) and 55%(Uganda) of consumers being

university educated. This finding indicates already that both

companies are not reaching the intended BoP consumers,

which are more likely to be those with no or limited education.

Turning to gender, a lower number of DWL consumers were

both male and the household head (38%)thanJibu(65%-

Rwanda, and 59%-Uganda). Looking at how consumers

received information about DWL and Jibu shows that most

(38%) consumers received information about DWL through

personal interactions (i.e. a friend or a DWL sales representa-

tive) with the remaining consumers either purchasing because

of a purposeful search for clean drinking water or an imperso-

nal source like an advertisement. For Jibu the source of infor-

mation varied between countries. In Rwanda 23%of

respondents received personal information about Jibu versus

65%for Uganda. A purposeful search for a new affordable

clean drinking water brand was highest for Rwanda consumers

(19%) compared to Kenya and Uganda (16%and 13%respec-

tively). Finally, looking at the asset index as a proxy for wealth

of the consumers across the three countries using the PPI score

shows that the average PPI score is at least ten points higher for

Rwandan and Ugandan consumers (70 and 68 respectively)

compared to Kenya (57). Note that higher PPI scores can be

used to indicate higher levels of wealth. The difference in

average PPI score could be due to the sampling differences (for

Jibu mostly loyal customers were interviewed) but also due to

geographic differences since Jibu is located in the capital cities

of Uganda and Rwanda where wealth is likely higher than on

the Kenyan coast.

The distribution of the PPI score is fairly spread for Kenya

and more skewed to the right for Uganda and Rwanda, i.e. the

scores fall toward the higher side of the scale and there are very

few low scores (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows that DWL has a

larger spread of income levels in spite of having the highest

water prices in the coastal region. Using a cut off of $2.50/day

(Prahalad 2005), 42.6%of DWL’s consumers could be classi-

fied as low income. However, a greater percentage would be

considered middle class ($2.50-$8.44/day) and above. In con-

trast to DWL consumers, both Jibu Uganda and Rwanda con-

sumers make up a higher income demographic. The majority of

both country’s consumers would be considered middle class or

higher. The wealth and education related findings are interest-

ing since Jibu is a social business that has an explicit mission

statement targeted at the BoP. The descriptive statistics already

suggest that they might not reach their targeted audience.

Results

The first analysis is the estimation of a logit model of consu-

mers versus non-consumers of the two companies. The logit

model of consumers only is given in the Appendix (Table A3)

and highlights the reason for only focusing on consumers of the

two companies. Because not all non-consumer data was avail-

able for Uganda the logit was only conducted for Kenya and

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics.

Variables

Kenya Rwanda Uganda

Mean

Std.

Dev. Mean

Std.

Dev. Mean

Std.

Dev.

Consumer categories

Early consumer 0.398 0.237 0.093

Middle consumer 0.285 0.360 0.292

Late consumer 0.318 0.403 0.615

Control variables

Male household

head

0.383 0.647 0.590

PPI poverty score 57.193 15.319 70.147 9.706 68.317 8.279

Education (Excluded category: No formal education

and primary education)

Secondary 0.551 0.338 0.280

University 0.252 0.406 0.534

Received personal

information

about water

0.38 0.219 0.652

Purposeful search 0.164 0.212 0.13

Observations 274 278 161

Note: The descriptive statistics were derived based on the regression models

including the full set of covariates.

Howell et al. 9

Rwanda. Additionally, there was no data available for the

household role for Rwanda, so instead of the male household

head variable simply respondent gender was used.

The logit results presented in Table A3 in the appendix show

two findings that help strengthen the argument to further break

apart the consumers of the two companies. First, the results

differ between the two countries. In Rwanda, male respondents

are more likely to purchase water, and those with a university

education are more likely to be Jibu consumers. Additionally,

for Jibu consumers, using the asset index, wealthier consumers

are more likely to purchase Jibu water. The results are different

for Kenya. Gender and wealth have no influence, rather DWL

consumers are merely more likely to have a higher level of

education (secondary or university). Therefore, understanding

the heterogeneity within consumers and between countries is

the focus.

The results of the main multivariate analysis are presented in

Table 2 for each category of consumer. The middle category

was used as the base category but the full regression results are

presented to highlight the differences between the three con-

sumers categories. Four specifications are presented for every

country. They all contain location fixed effects to account for

the fact that DWL and Jibu entered different areas at different

points in time.

Specification 1 focuses on the socio-demographic determi-

nants, ie: wealth and gender. For Jibu Rwanda consumers, early

consumers are about 15 percentage points more likely to be

male household heads. In Uganda, an opposite effect is shown

with middle consumers being less likely to be male by 11

percentage points and late consumers being more likely to be

male by about 9 percentage points. The result does not show up

for Kenya, which could be due to cultural differences between

the three countries. Additionally, note that overall Kenya had a

lower percentage of male household heads (38%) than Rwanda

and Uganda. However, the existing literature also suggests that

women household heads may be less likely to be risk taking in

consumption decisions (Byrnes, Miller, and Schafer 1999).

Finally, it is important to note that the Rwanda dataset had the

highest percentage of male household heads (65%).

Looking at wealth as measured by the asset index PPI score,

overall wealth does not determine consumption decisions in all

countries. For Kenya and Rwanda there is an economically

small wealth effect for late consumers. For both countries weal-

thier respondents are less than 1 percentage point less likely to

be late consumers. Since the wealth effect, if identified at all, is

very small, these results suggest that wealth cannot be consid-

ered an important driver in timing of purchase. Considering

that DWL nearly doubled their water prices during the period

of time for late consumers, the individuals who we identify as

late consumers do not have income as a binding factor to con-

sumption. Overall specification 1 neither supports nor dis-

proves that DWL or Jibu reaches poor households. But taken

with the descriptive statistics, the findings suggest that neither

company are reaching BoP consumers. This result is particu-

larly relevant for Jibu since Jibu income data suggests that Jibu

consumers are at a higher end of the income spectrum.

In the next step (Specification 2), the effect of education is

assessed. There is a small education effect for the middle and

late consumer categories of DWL. For two of the specifications

in the middle category of DWL consumers, having a university

education increases the chance of being a middle consumer by

almost 12 percentage points. However, the education effect

does not show up for Jibu consumers. But it should be noted

that Jibu consumers are on average even higher educated com-

pared to the DWL consumers. Due to a relative lack of varia-

tion in education among Jibu consumers we are unable to

identify an education channel for Rwanda and Uganda. This

could be due to sampling issues and demographic differences

between Jibu being located in capital cities and DWL in a less

educated and less urban region.

In specification 4 we added information related variables,

namely whether the consumer received local information about

Panel A: DWL Consumers

Panel B: Jibu Uganda Consumers

Panel C: Jibu Rwanda Consumers

13.7%

28.9%

20.9%

25.0%

11.5%

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

< $1.25 $1.25 -

$2.50

$2.50 -

$4.00

$4.00 -

$8.44

> $8.44

Percentage of DWL

Consumers

Daily Household Income (2005 PPP)

1% 5% 7%

40%

27%

20%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

< $1.25 $1.25 -

$2.00

$2.00 -

$2.50

$2.50 -

$5.00

$5.00 -

$8.44

> $8.44

Percentage of Jibu Uganda

Consumers

Daily Household Income (2005 PPP)

14%

32%

17%

22%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

< $1.25 $1.25 -

$2.00

$2.00 -

$2.50

$2.50 -

$5.00

$5.00 -

$8.44

> $8.44

Percentage of Jibu Rwanda

Consumers

Daily Household Income (2005 PPP)

Figure 2. Income distribution of consumers.

10 Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

Table 2. Empirical Results of Determinants of Consumption of Bottled Water in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda: Multinomial Logit Estimates.

Variables

Kenya Rwanda Uganda

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Early Consumers

Male household head 0.012 0.018 0.024 0.026 0.156*** 0.152*** 0.149*** 0.146*** 0.025 0.023 0.027 0.024

(0.060) (0.057) (0.053) (0.054) (0.037) (0.043) (0.045) (0.049) (0.037) (0.037) (0.032) (0.031)

PPI score -0.059 0.001 0.001 0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

(0.067) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary -0.017 -0.0133 -0.013 -0.025 -0.028 -0.035 0.008 0.026 0.027

(0.092) (0.097) (0.099) (0.072) (0.073) (0.072) (0.055) (0.054) (0.052)

University 0.060 0.080 0.083 0.003 0.004 0.002 -0.018 -0.007 0.001

(0.095) (0.101) (0.103) (0.046) (0.046) (0.044) (0.031) (0.030) (0.028)

Received personal information about water -0.103 -0.127* -0.023 0.003 0.054 0.086

(0.069) (0.071) (0.053) (0.064) (0.062) (0.064)

Purposeful search -0.067 0.1190.109***

(0.051) (0.076) (0.037)

Middle Consumers

Male household head 0.065 0.084** 0.084** 0.080** -0.092* -0.091-0.083 -0.089 -0.113* -0.110** -0.114** -0.114**

(0.043) (0.039) (0.039) (0.040) (0.054) (0.058) (0.063) (0.062) (0.059) (0.056) (0.055) (0.054)

PPI score -0.055 0.002 0.002 0.003 -0.006** -0.007** -0.007** -0.007** 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

(0.087) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary 0.067 0.066 0.061 -0.032 -0.038 -0.041 -0.054 -0.056 -0.053

(0.074) (0.074) (0.075) (0.077) (0.076) (0.074) (0.120) (0.118) (0.125)

University 0.120* 0.116* 0.106 0.061 0.054 0.057 0.075 0.070 0.072

(0.070) (0.070) (0.069) (0.101) (0.102) (0.103) (0.087) (0.085) (0.092)

Received personal information about water 0.022 0.080 0.105 0.114 -0.037 -0.102*

(0.047) (0.055) (0.076) (0.086) (0.056) (0.061)

Purposeful search 0.186* 0.095* -0.199*

(0.096) (0.056) (0.115)

(continued)

Table 2. (continued)

Variables

Kenya Rwanda Uganda

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Late Consumers

Male household head -0.089 -0.102* -0.108* -0.106* -0.064 -0.060 -0.066 -0.057 0.088* 0.087* 0.087* 0.091*

(0.055) (0.059) (0.057) (0.056) (0.042) (0.044) (0.044) (0.046) (0.052) (0.050) (0.048) (0.049)

PPI score -0.005** -0.004** -0.003** -0.004** 0.008*** 0.009*** 0.009*** 0.009*** -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) (0.006)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary -0.049 -0.053 -0.047 0.057 0.066 0.076 0.046 0.030 0.026

(0.103) (0.109) (0.104) (0.067) (0.067) (0.066) (0.115) (0.122) (0.129)

University -0.180 -0.196-0.189 -0.064 -0.058 -0.060 -0.057 -0.064 -0.073

(0.118) (0.125) (0.123) (0.116) (0.116) (0.116) (0.093) (0.096) (0.099)

Received personal information about water 0.081 0.047 -0.082 -0.117** -0.017 0.017

(0.065) (0.059) (0.064) (0.059) (0.056) (0.053)

Purposeful search -0.119 -0.214*** 0.090

(0.088) (0.070) (0.121)

Sales point/Location FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Observations 274 274 274 274 278 278 278 278 161 161 161 161

Chi2 37.90 43 46.05 52.34 135.39 139.46 142.21 151.31 72.95 75.65 76.66 79.56

p-value 0.036 0.035 0.031 0.013 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003

Pseudo R2 0.064 0.072 0.077 0.088 0.226 0.233 0.238 0.253 0.258 0.267 0.271 0.281

Note: Results from a multinomial logit regression. Standard errors are in parentheses. ***/**/* indicates statistical significance at the 1/5/10% level, respectively; p-value¼12%, p-value¼11%

DWL/Jibu and whether the consumer searched for bottled

water on purpose. Rwandan consumers receiving local infor-

mation are less likely to be late consumers . In Kenya early

consumers were about 13 percentage points less likely to have

received local information. Finally in Uganda, consumers in

the middle category were less likely to have received local

information. This result fits with the market situation in

Rwanda. Jibu entered the market when there was already a

well-established market for bottled water, suggesting that early

consumers would have purchased due to curiosity and not

through local information.

Looking at the consumption decision being made as a result

of a purposeful search for drinking water alternatives shows a

few interesting results. For Uganda, early consumers were 10

percentage points more likely to have conducted a purposeful

search. A nearly significant (p ¼12%) similar result is shown

in Rwanda with early consumers being 11 percentage points

more likely to conduct a purposeful search. For the middle

category of consumers in Uganda and Rwanda, opposite effects

are shown. Uganda middle consumers are less likely to have

been purposefully searching for water (20 percentage points)

and in Rwanda the middle consumers are slightly more likely to

conduct a purposeful search. Finally, Rwandan late consumers

were more than 20 percentage points less likely to have been

purposefully searching for water. In Kenya, purposeful search

only showed up significant for consumers in the middle group

with those purchasing due to a purposeful search being 19

percentage points more likely to be middle consumers. For

DWL consumers, in the last year before data collection water

prices doubled, which means particularly for late consumers

the reasons to purchase DWL water may have changed.

The most important finding is related to the supply side

dimension of consumption and is disguised in the tables pre-

sented. Across all empirical models we include location fixed

effects. The coefficients associated with the location fixed

effects tend to be large in absolute terms and are jointly statis-

tically significant (p-value < 0.000) suggesting that it is loca-

tion characteristics that are the most important determinants of

the consumption of bottled water. Since, the two companies

entered the different sales areas at different moments in time,

the location fixed effects also include market entry and suggest

that the strongest determinant of uptake is the timing of market

entry. This finding shows that at the BoP, due to the many

constraints the individuals and households are facing, the like-

lihood of demand driven consumption is limited.

Concerning the reliability of our results across specifica-

tions, Table 2 shows that there is stability of the coefficient

estimates across models. The stability of the coefficients sug-

gests that the identified pathways are meaningful and not dri-

ven by omitted variables that might appear in the specifications

with a limited number of control variables. Secondly, as a

further robustness check the PPI score was divided into two

categories by using the median PPI score for each country

dataset to construct a binary variable “asset poor” (1 ¼poorer

group, 0 ¼higher group). These results are presented in the

Appendix and show consistency with the main results in terms

of coefficient signs and values.

Discussion

The regression results presented several insights regarding con-

sumer heterogeneity and some differences from the initial

hypotheses. The first hypothesis regarded the role of education

in the timing of purchase. It was hypothesized that those with a

higher level of education would be more likely to be earlier

consumers. Those with a higher level of education will have

higher knowledge of the health impacts of unsafe drinking

water. Because of the already high levels of education of Jibu

consumers there was no education effect for Jibu consumers in

Rwanda and Uganda. However, the consumer logit model did

show that higher educated individuals were more likely to pur-

chase Jibu water. Considering that in Rwanda and Uganda in

particular most individuals were already using either treated or

bottled water, this result suggests that Jibu water might be

considered higher quality by “higher” status individuals. In

Kenya, there was an education effect for middle and later con-

sumers. University education decreased the chance of being a

late consumer, suggesting that earlier consumers could be con-

sidered “higher” status individuals (in terms of education and

knowledge about clean drinking water). University education

also increased the chances of being a middle consumer com-

pared to earlier or later. Ramani, SadreGhazi, and Duysters

(2012) also found the importance of education purchase of

innovations related to health. Previous studies on bottled water

consumption also showed higher education levels increasing

the likelihood of purchasing bottled water (Francisco 2014;

Quansah, Okoe, and Angenu 2015; Va´squez 2017). Therefore,

the education hypothesis was partially corroborated through the

Kenya results.

The second hypothesis looked at the role of local informa-

tion in the timing of consumption. Local information com-

prised of two components: recommendation from friends and

family and being approached by a company representative.

Overall local information had minimal effect on the timing of

purchase. While prior literature suggests that particularly at the

BoP word of mouth information about a product can influence

purchase decision (Kotler et al. 2006; Nakata and Weidner

2012), our results show minimal effects from local information.

This could be possible because of two reasons. Firstly, for

consumer to receive information through word of mouth

enough consumers need to be aware of the product, which will

not be the case if it is a new product. So, word of mouth may

not lead to early purchase but rather to late purchase when

sufficient number of consumers know about it and can spread

the word. Secondly, the minimal and mixed effects may be due

to the features of the markets under study. The last category of

consumers for Kenya were those who first purchased when

DWL water was increased sharply and was the one of the

highest priced in the market. Therefore it is expected that these

consumers would be purchasing for different reasons than ear-

lier consumers. For Jibu consumers, most of them were already

Howell et al. 13

using treated or bottled water indicating that they were already

aware of the health benefits of clean drinking water.

The last hypothesis looked at the role of external informa-

tion search. It was expected that consumers who engaged in a

purposeful search for a clean drinking water alternative would

be earlier consumers. We were able to partially corroborate

this hypothesis. In both Uganda and Rwanda, early consumers

were more likely to have engaged in a purposeful search. For

the consumers who purchased later the results were mixed.

Because Jibu is new to the market in both Uganda and

Rwanda and therefore consumers in these markets are already

familiar with bottled water, it fits that earlier consumers are

those who are curious about drinking water alternatives and

are seeking out another water source. In Rwanda, we also saw

that late consumers were less likely to be purposefully search-

ing for water.

While wealth was not included in our conceptual model and

merely used as a control variable, the results also suggested that

both companies are not reaching their target demographic. The

results fit with literature criticizing western firms who seek to

achieve social missions like reaching low income consumers

and suggest that firms like DWL/Jibu are often reaching con-

sumers at the higher end of the BoP or middle class (Karnani

2007; Meagher 2018).

Finally, the results emphasized the supply driven side of

consumption as backed up by prior literature (Chikweche and

Fletcher 2011b; Sheth 2011; Viswanathan et al. 2014). The

strongest determinant of purchase was from the location

effects, indicating that consumers may purchase based primar-

ily on availability.

Conclusions

To provide clean water is one of the sustainable development

goals (SDGs) set out by the United Nations in 2015. Particu-

larly in the African context where infrastructure is still lacking,

clean drinking water is often an unfulfilled need that is now

creating markets for bottled water companies like DWL and

Jibu (Brei and Bo¨ hm 2011; Patsiaouras, Saren, and Fitchett

2015). A first step in reaching this goal is to understand the

characteristics of consumers living at BoP and the local context

they inhabit. Consumers are usually studied as a homogenous

source of demand (Kotler et al. 2006; Prahalad 2005; Sheth

2011). In this paper, we shed light on the heterogeneity

amongst BoP consumers and highlight features of their local

context by comparing three countries and two firms, with the

help of a multivariate analysis.

The study contributes to the larger picture of marketing at

the BoP by empirically assessing whether the characteristics of

early consumers are systematically different from consumers

who purchase at a later time. First, the role of formal education

on timing of consumption was explored. We have identified

that a higher level of education made it less likely to be a late

consumer. Higher education levels also likely play a role in

purchase of a product like clean drinking water, where educa-

tion would imply a higher level of knowledge about the health

impacts of poor drinking water quality (Ramani, SadreGhazi,

and Duysters 2012). By looking at consumers versus non con-

sumers we also saw that higher educated were more likely to

consume bottled water which fit with previous bottled water

studies. Furthermore, we identified that the information search

process plays a role in the decision to purchase.

In contrast, wealth related factors had little to no influence

on time of purchase. The consumers under study tended to be

wealthier than the average poor person in the countries under

study. BoP innovation literature often focuses on low price

points as a means to reach low income consumers, yet the

results from the DWL and Jibu study suggest that the price

might not be low enough for poor consumers to purchase.

Prior marketing literature also emphasized that poverty is an

inhibitor in participation in a market society (Bonsu and Polsa

2011; Yurdakul, Atik, and Dholakia 2017) which is also sug-

gested by DWL and Jibu’s inability to reach poor consumers.

More importantly the sales area effects are strongest in our

model, which implies that purchase of bottled water is driven

more by supply of bottled water rather than demand. This

result also fits with marketing and consumer literature that

highlighted how BoP consumers tend to make instantaneous

purchase decisions based more on availability of a product

than on demand (Chikweche and Fletcher 2011b; Sheth

2011; Viswanathan et al. 2014).

The BoP literature can be divided in two camps. One camp

focuses on market development and emphasizes the need to

reach the poor consumers (Prahalad 2005; Ramani and

Mukherjee 2014; Sheth 2011). The emphasis on poor consu-

mers is in line with our finding that consumption is driven by

supply. The other camp criticizes businesses seeking to reach

this demographic since they fear the poorest might not be

reached or if targeted successfully might be exploited (Karnani

2007, 2009; Meagher 2018). The results of our study highlight

a third overlooked aspect in the BoP literature. Companies like

DWL and Jibu are reaching more the middle-income category

of consumers, not necessarily the very poorest despite the

stated mission of reaching poor consumers. Moreover, as

exhibited by the differences between consumer categories, con-

sumers at the BoP are not as homogenous as assumed in some

of the earlier BoP literature (Guarı´n and Knorringa 2014).

DWL and Jibu are providing a much-needed good to an under-

served market, even though they are likely not reaching their

original target group.

Future research should continue the quantitative angle on

BoP consumers and further explore the rising “new middle

class” and the role for western companies in reaching this new

demographic. Additionally, to gain a grounded understanding

of the heterogeneity amongst the “new middle class” it is crit-

ical to understand the behavioral aspects that might trigger

consumption and thereby foster the diffusion of clean water

at the BoP. An in depth understanding of consumers’ hetero-

geneous needs is vital for companies marketing to not only the

“new middle class” but also the original target – poor consu-

mers at the BoP.

14 Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

Appendix

Table A1. Selection of Variables.

Variable Description Related literature

Consumer

category

Measured by time of purchase

Decision

making

authority

Household head male (Byrnes, Miller, and Schafer

1999; Chikweche, Stanton,

and Fletcher 2012; Cohen

et al. 2017; de Queiroz

et al. 2013)

Local

information

Received a recommendation

from a friend or relative or

contact with a company

representative

(Chikweche and Fletcher,

2012; Lu¨thje, Herstatt, and

Von Hippel 2005; Ramani,

SadreGhazi, and Duysters

2012; Subrahmanyan and

Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008)

External

information

Purposeful search for bottled

water

(Smith and Beatty 1987)

Wealth/Asset

index

PPI score (Francisco 2014; Quansah,

Okoe, and Angenu 2015;

´squez 2017)

Education

level

Categories of education

(primary, secondary,

university)

(Adkins and Ozanne 2005;

Quansah, Okoe, and

Angenu 2015; Ramani,

SadreGhazi, and Duysters

2012; Subrahmanyan and

Tomas Gomez-Arias 2008;

UNDP 2008)

Sales location DWL sales area (11 locations)

where respondent is

located or Jibu franchise

where water was

purchased, controls for

local context

(Ernst et al. 2015)

Table A2. Frequencies of Consumers Per Category by Sales Area/

Zone.

Variables Consumer Categories per area/zone

Panel A: Kenya Sales Areas Early Middle Late Total

Bamburi 19.83 7.22 12.04 13.50

Kilifi 1.65 4.12 9.26 4.91

Magongo 5.79 11.34 12.04 9.51

Mikindani 2.48 5.15 0.93 2.76

Mtwapa 28.93 15.46 23.15 23.01

Tudor 11.57 13.40 6.48 10.43

Ganjoni 2.48 14.43 13.89 9.82

Ukunda 3.31 1.03 3.70 2.76

VOK 11.57 9.28 8.33 9.82

Ratna 6.61 9.28 4.63 6.75

Mishomoroni 5.79 9.28 5.56 6.75

Total 100 100 100 100

Panel B: Uganda Zones Early Middle Late Total

Bugolobi 0.00 8.77 4.46 5.41

Downtown 6.25 1.75 1.79 2.16

Entebbe 0.00 0.00 5.36 3.24

Ggaba 0.00 1.75 7.14 4.86

Kabale 0.00 0.00 0.89 0.54

Kabuusu 6.25 0.00 2.68 2.16

Kamwokya 6.25 7.02 3.57 4.86

(continued)

Table A2. (continued)

Panel B: Uganda Zones Early Middle Late Total

Kawempe 43.75 10.53 5.36 10.27

Kireka 0.00 7.02 4.46 4.86

Kisaasi 0.00 1.75 2.68 2.16

Kitooro 0.00 1.75 8.04 5.41

Lugala 0.00 1.75 9.82 6.49

Lweza 0.00 3.51 3.57 3.24

Makindye 0.00 5.26 3.57 3.78

Mbarara 0.00 3.51 3.57 3.24

Najjanankumbi 12.50 0.00 1.79 2.16

Namugongo 0.00 1.75 1.79 1.62

Namuwongo 6.25 36.84 19.64 23.78

Nansana 18.75 1.75 3.57 4.32

Ntinda 0.00 5.26 6.25 5.41

Total 100 100 100 100

Panel C: Rwanda Zones Early Middle Late Total

Gatsata 0.00 1.94 0.00 0.69

Gikondo 1.47 5.83 4.27 4.17

Kabeza 7.35 2.91 5.98 5.21

Kabuga 0.00 1.94 2.56 1.74

Kagugu 4.41 1.94 0.85 2.08

Kanombe 7.35 4.85 1.71 4.17

Kibagabaga 0.00 1.94 0.85 1.04

Kicukiro 7.35 9.71 6.84 7.99

Kimironko 22.06 15.53 5.13 12.85

Kimisagara 0.00 5.83 6.84 4.86

Kinamba 26.47 15.53 3.42 13.19

Masaka 0.00 1.94 3.42 2.08

Niboye 1.47 0.97 2.56 1.74

Nyamata 0.00 2.91 5.98 3.47

Nyamirambo 11.76 16.50 16.24 15.28

Rubavu 0.00 0.00 14.53 5.90

Ruyenzi 1.47 0.97 8.55 4.17

Rwamagana 0.00 0.00 2.56 1.04

Sonatube 2.94 2.91 2.56 2.78

Wherever 5.88 5.83 5.13 5.56

Total 100 100 100 100

Note: Shares of consumers are expressed in percentage terms.

Table A3. Logit Model of DWL and Jibu Consumers and Non-

consumers for Kenya and Rwanda.

Variables

Kenya Rwanda

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Male household head 0.058 0.059 0.120** 0.147***

(0.062) (0.060) (0.049) (0.048)

PPI score 0.000 0.014***

(0.001) (0.002)

Low income group -0.002 -0.200***

(0.035) (0.055)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary

education)

Secondary 0.139*** 0.139*** 0.029 0.0347781

(0.033) (0.032) (0.047) (0.048)

University 0.172*** 0.171*** 0.098*** 0.127***

(0.033) (0.035) (0.037) (0.038)

Sales point/Location FE Yes Yes Yes Yes

Observations 630 630 572 572

Howell et al. 15

Table A4. Results from Multinomial Logit of Consumer Categories Using Asset Poor Variable.

Variables

Kenya Rwanda Uganda

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Early Consumers

Male household head 0.012 0.020 0.027 0.029 0.154*** 0.151*** 0.148*** 0.144*** 0.024 0.021 0.025 0.021

(0.060) (0.057) (0.054) (0.056) (0.036) (0.043) (0.045) (0.048) (0.038) (0.039) (0.033) (0.032)

Asset poor -0.059 -0.054 -0.050 -0.051 0.054 0.060 0.060 0.060 -0.004 -0.006 -0.002 -0.008

(0.067) (0.071) (0.069) (0.071) (0.060) (0.059) (0.059) (0.055) (0.043) (0.046) (0.045) (0.043)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary -0.018 -0.014 -0.014 -0.025 -0.028 -0.036 0.003 0.018 0.020

(0.091) (0.097) (0.100) (0.072) (0.072) (0.072) (0.051) (0.050) (0.050)

University 0.059 0.078 0.082 0.010 0.011 0.008 -0.023 -0.014 -0.008

(0.093) (0.099) (0.103) (0.045) (0.045) (0.043) (0.025) (0.024) (0.023)

Received personal information about water -0.104 -0.128* -0.020 0.007 0.050 0.084

(0.068) (0.070) (0.052) (0.065) (0.063) (0.066)

Purposeful search -0.071 0.1190.111***

(0.052) (0.075) (0.036)

Middle Consumers

Male household head 0.065 0.076* 0.074* 0.070* -0.098* -0.097* -0.088 -0.095 -0.109* -0.106** -0.111** -0.110**

(0.043) (0.039) (0.039) (0.040) (0.053) (0.056) (0.061) (0.059) (0.056) (0.054) (0.052) (0.051)

Asset poor -0.055 -0.038 -0.039 -0.040 0.066 0.079* 0.075* 0.080* -0.082 -0.074 -0.081 -0.073

(0.087) (0.087) (0.084) (0.090) (0.049) (0.047) (0.045) (0.049) (0.073) (0.080) (0.081) (0.078)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary 0.077 0.076 0.072 -0.033 -0.039 -0.041 -0.044 -0.046 -0.042

(0.069) (0.068) (0.069) (0.078) (0.076) (0.075) (0.120) (0.120) (0.126)

University 0.137* 0.133* 0.124* 0.058 0.050 0.054 0.079 0.072 0.076

(0.070) (0.069) (0.069) (0.104) (0.105) (0.106) (0.084) (0.082) (0.089)

Received personal information about water 0.021* 0.078 0.108 0.116 -0.049 -0.110*

(0.046) (0.056) (0.075) (0.086) (0.058) (0.062)

Purposeful search 0.184* 0.092 -0.188*

(0.098) (0.057) (0.112)

(continued)

Table A4. (continued)

Variables

Kenya Rwanda Uganda

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Late Consumers

Male household head -0.077 -0.095* -0.101* -0.099* -0.057 -0.054 -0.060 -0.049 0.086* 0.085* 0.086* 0.090*

(0.053) (0.057) (0.056) (0.056) (0.042) (0.044) (0.043) (0.047) (0.051) (0.050) (0.048) (0.048)

Asset poor 0.1140.092 0.089 0.091 -0.121** -0.140** -0.135** -0.140** 0.085 0.080 0.083 0.081

(0.073) (0.061) (0.062) (0.067) (0.049) (0.056) (0.055) (0.055) (0.082) (0.087) (0.091) (0.091)

Education (Excluded category: No formal education and primary education)

Secondary -0.059 -0.062 -0.058 0.058 0.066 0.077 0.042 0.028 0.021

(0.094) (0.100) (0.094) (0.068) (0.068) (0.065) (0.111) (0.119) (0.127)

University -0.196* -0.211* -0.206* -0.068 -0.061 -0.063 -0.056 -0.058 -0.068

(0.109) (0.116) (0.113) (0.124) (0.124) (0.122) (0.084) (0.087) (0.091)

Received personal information about water 0.083 0.050 -0.088 -0.123** -0.002 0.026

(0.062) (0.054) (0.064) (0.059) (0.063) (0.056)

Purposeful search -0.113 -0.211*** 0.077

(0.094) (0.064) (0.121)

Sales point/Location FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Observations 274 274 274 274 278 278 278 278 161 161 161 161

Chi2 35.74 41.78 44.91 50.97 130.20 134.39 137.29 146.22 73.43 75.99 77.01 79.75

p-value 0.058 0.045 0.039 0.018 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003

Pseudo R2 0.060 0.070 0.075 0.085 0.218 0.225 0.230 0.245 0.259 0.268 0.272 0.282

Note: Results from a multinomial logit regression. Standard errors are in parentheses. ***/**/* indicates statistical significance at the 1/5/10% level, respectively; p-value¼12%,  p-value¼11%

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The

research of this study was funded by NWO grant 313-99-314 by the

Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research.

ORCID iD

Rachel Howell https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8729-3771

Notes

1. In economic consumer theory symbolic would be referred to as

“preference” and material as “revealed preference” (Lancaster,

1966).

2. Water delivery is regulated through two agencies under the Min-

istry of Water: Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) and

Water Resources Management Authority (WMRA).

3. https://www.nwsc.co.ug/index.php/faqs accessed 4 May 2017.

4. Interview with the research director of the National Water and

Sewage Corporation (NWSC) on 5 May 2017.

5. http://www.wasac.rw/index.php/about-us. Accessed 11 May 2017.

6. Interview with the director of water regulation from Rwanda Util-

ities Regulatory Agency (RURA) on 11 May 2017.

7. https://benefitcorp.net/

8. For more information see: https://www.povertyindex.org/. Last

accessed: 20 June 2018.

9. The disadvantage of employing the multinomial logit is that we

throw away information about the ordering in time. An ordinal

logit model would preserve that information but imposes stronger

assumptions, i.e. the proportional odds assumption. But, for the

case at hand we consider it as an advantage that the multinomial

logit allows us to estimate different coefficient estimates for the

predictors in every category whereas the ordered logit only identi-

fies individual intercepts for every class but the same predictor

coefficients.

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Author Biographies

Rachel Howell is a PhD candidate in Economics at Delft University of

Technology in the Netherlands; in the Economics section. Her PhD is

part of the Leiden Delft Erasmus Centre for Frugal Innovations in

Africa. She has conducted quantitative research on off grid electrifica-

tion and frugal innovation primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. Rachel’s

research interests are in impact evaluation, innovation management,

development economics, behavioural economics and East Africa.

Kinsuk Mani Sinha is an innovation scholar. Her research interests

lie in inclusive innovation, bio-based innovation, value co-creation

and technological business incubator. She has led and participated

in fieldwork across Eastern Africa, India, USA and the Netherlands

to study the role played by farmers in bio-based innovation, innovation

at Bottom of the pyramid, role-played incubators in fostering local

economic development and the learning process of female farmers.

For purpose of data analysis, Kinsuk applies econometric models,

stakeholder analysis and python codes.

Natascha Wagner is Associate Professor of Development Economics

at the Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam

(Netherlands). Her research interests lie in international economics,

development, health and education. She has participated in various

impact evaluation projects in Africa and Asia ranging from public

health, HIV testing and counselling to support for people living with

HIV as well good governance and rural infrastructure programs. She

has published articles in, among others, Health Economics,Economics

of Education Review,Journal of Development Studies and World

Development.

Neelke Doorn is distinguished Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Professor

“Ethics of Water Engineering” at the Department of Philosophy of

Delft University of Technology and former assistant director of the

3TU. Centre of Ethics and Technology. Together with Diane P.

Michelfelder, Neelke is Editor-in-Chief of the peer-reviewed journal

Techne: Research in Philosophy and Technology. Her research inter-

ests are ethics of water engineering, philosophy of technology, water

ethics, resilience, responsible innovation, philosophy of risk and ethics

and design.

Cees van Beers is Professor of Innovation Management and head of

the section Economics of Technology and Innovations. He is also one

of the co-leaders of the Leiden Delft Erasmus (LDE) Centre for Frugal

Innovations in Africa. He holds a doctorate in economics (Ph.D) from

the Free University Amsterdam. Some of his research interests are

determinants of responsible innovation and entrepreneurship, and

inclusive business models for frugal innovations.

20 Journal of Macromarketing XX(X)

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Article

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Iliana E Aguilar Rodríguez

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Jan 2023
INT J MARKET RES

Africa is home to 27 of the world’s 28 poorest, marginalised and most vulnerable countries. There are limited studies on the challenges and opportunities of researching marginalised consumers in Africa, even though more than 440 million marginalised consumers consume products and services that require market research. This paper aims to critically identify and discuss the challenges and opportunities for researching marginalised consumers in Africa using insights from empirical studies conducted in various countries between 2009 and 2022. The paper proposes a conceptual framework that outlines the methodological and operational challenges and enablers for market research and concludes with practical guidelines of considerations that researchers should take for researching the marginalised in Africa.

Global Bottled Water Industry: A Review of Impacts and Trends

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2023

The report examines facts and perceptions about bottled water in the global context. It analyses the geography, structure, trends, and drivers of the global bottled water market. It examines the existing knowledge on the quality of bottled water, its impacts on water resources, and its role in plastic pollution. It raises the question of the bottled water industry’s contribution to the sustainable development goal on universal access to safe drinking water. The analysis considered only those types of bottled water that have little or no difference in taste from the tap water provided by regular municipal water supply. It is shown that bottled water is widely consumed in the both Global North and South although prices can be orders of magnitude higher than tap water. The current global bottled water sales are estimated at almost 270 billion US$ and 350 billion liters. The report maps and ranked the top 50 countries in the world by total and per capita bottled water sales both in dollars and liters. The Asia-Pacific region constitutes about half of the global bottled water market, and the Global South countries together about 60%. The USA, China and Indonesia combined comprise half of the global market. Germany is the biggest market in Europe, Mexico in the LAC region and South Africa in Africa. Singapore and Australia stand out as the leaders in both annual revenue and volume of bottled water sold per capita, with the USA and China per capita indicators being much smaller. The report indicates that bottled water market drivers differ significantly between the Global North and the Global South. In the former, bottled water is often perceived as a healthier and tastier product than tap water and is more a luxury good than a necessity. In the Global South, bottled water sales are stimulated primarily by the lack or absence of a reliable public water supply. Based on around 60 case studies from more than 40 countries from every region of the world, the report illustrates that there have been numerous cases of inorganic, organic, and microbiological contamination of hundreds of bottled water brands of all bottled water types and that such contamination often exceeded local or global standards. This represents strong evidence against the misleading perception that bottled water is an unquestionably safe drinking water source and argues that the provision of a safe and reliable drinking water supply in any country may not be achieved at the expense of one water source over another. Withdrawals for bottled water can contribute to groundwater resource depletion in areas of bottled water procurement, although case studies that illustrate this are rare. However, even if such withdrawals are small in absolute terms globally or compared to larger water consumers like irrigated agriculture, local impacts on water resources may be significant. The lack of data available on water volumes extracted by the bottled water industry is largely due to the lack of transparency and a legal foundation that would have forced bottling companies to publicly disclose extracted water volumes and assess the environmental consequences of their activities. The Global South, where safe drinking tap water is not always available, represents potential future markets for bottled water. Lack of national policies for water management may promote uncontrolled groundwater withdrawals for bottled water procurement with little or no contribution to a sustainable long-term drinking water supply. The report collates scattered information on plastic pollution associated with bottled water, pointing out that the world currently generates around 600 billion plastic bottles amounting to approximately 25 million tonnes of plastic waste, which is not recycled but is disposed of in landfills or as unregulated waste. While there are signs of growing social awareness of the adverse impacts of plastics on the environment, a breakthrough solution that could radically reduce the environmental impacts of plastics does not yet appear to exist. Hence plastic pollution will likely continue in the years to come. The report argues that while progress toward universal access to safe drinking water for all is significantly off-track, the expansion of bottled water markets slows this progress down, distracting attention and resources from accelerated public water supply systems development. Estimates suggest that less than half of what the world pays for bottled water annually would be sufficient to ensure clean tap water access for hundreds of millions of people without it – for years. There are recent high-level initiatives that aim to scale up financing for the Sustainable Development Goals, including water-related ones. Such initiatives are an opportunity for the bottled water sector to become an active player in this process and help accelerate the progress toward sustainable water supply, particularly in the Global South.

Sustainable Entrepreneurial Ventures and the Bottom of the Pyramid: Creating Sustainable Values and Opportunities

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

There is a need for further research on the value creation from both business and bottom of the pyramid perspectives. In our study, attention was given to this gap and it can be argued that partnerships between sustainable entrepreneurship ventures (SEVs) and bottom of the pyramid (BoP) communities are a relevant approach to creating sustainable value in BoP ecosystems. Accordingly, we propose to find answers to our main research question: How do partnerships between sustainable entrepreneurship ventures (SEVs) and the bottom of the pyramid (BoP) communities create sustainable values and generate benefits and opportunities for BoP? The methodology comprised three case studies of SEV-BoP partnerships in Brazil. Results indicated that SEV-BoP partnerships have the potential to deliver economic, social, and environmental values that enable progress in both businesses and low-income communities. Benefits and opportunities for BoP communities included income generation, professionalization, and business experience, which pushed the BoP communities to develop their enterprises and start new businesses independently. These results show that SEV-BoP partnerships represent an alternative approach to creating sustainable value in the BoP ecosystem, including multidirectional benefits. Keywords: sustainable entrepreneurial ventures; bottom of the pyramid; sustainable values; entrepreneurial opportunities

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Article

Dec 2021

This research reports on a cross-country based investigation of the floating middle class in Africa demonstrating how their behavior and structure influences the design of marketing mix strategies used by marketers. Questionnaires were used to collect data in ten African cities. Key findings include the importance of branding and core drivers for purchase such as durability, origin, popularity, affordability, and a unique circle of quality variables. Innovative adaptations for pricing, distribution and marketing communications are outlined to assist marketers develop appropriate context relevant strategies to target the floating middle class. The discussion also outlines theoretical and practical implications.

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Article

Jul 2023

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BLENDED VALUE PROPOSITION (BVP), TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE (TBL), CREATING SHARED VALUE (CSV) AND BASE OF THE PYRAMID (BOP), WHAT DIFFERENCES? A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS USING THE MORSE METHODOLOGY

Preprint

Full-text available

Feb 2023

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Article

Nov 2021

The Indian bottom of pyramid (BoP) segment contributes around 85% of the total national household market. This study attempts to ascertain the purchase behaviour of customers at the Indian urban BoP. It endeavours to appreciate the viewpoint of the urban BoP consumers in the purchase process with reference to their purchase basket comprising of products mainly across categories such as grocery, perishables and basic consumer durables. The study starts with qualitative grounded theory followed by quantitative survey-based approach. It presents and validates emergent themes to give insights about purchase behaviour of consumers at urban BoP. The empirical findings of the study discovered five consumer motivations through factor analysis. The subsequent result of the cluster analysis showed that the urban BOP market is heterogeneous. Since the size of cluster is substantial, companies must make marketing efforts to target them on a priority basis. The study proposes a conceptual model of consumer motivation supported by the self-determination Theory for the urban BoP market in India.

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Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

In recent years, the “Bottom of the Pyramid” (BOP) market has become an attraction for researchers, business managers, and policymakers. Numerous researchers have contributed theoretically and empirically to the BOP literature, however, little focus is accorded to BOP customers’ buying behavior. It is interesting to study the shopping behavior of BOP customers characterized by low disposable income, poor standard of living, and geographical isolation. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the shopping behavior of BOP customers to identify the drivers and hindrances in the buying decisions. The study follows a qualitative approach by conducting in-depth personal interviews of 100 BOP customers visiting Vishal Mega Marts (VMMs) in a northern Indian city. The results indicate that BOP customers aspire for a better shopping experience like affluent customers, however, income constraint restricts them to buy superior brands. Indeed, BOP customers are persuaded by excessive discounts, gifts, coupons, peer influence, and seasonal offers by VMMs. The study provides implications for researchers, retailers, and policymakers.

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Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017

The subaltern quandary refers to the failure of a fast-growing economy to improve the abysmal living conditions of marginalized groups. To gain a better insight into this issue, we investigate the subaltern group’s experiences of marketing systems in the context of neo-liberal reforms in rural India. The qualitative analysis of subaltern narratives shows that subaltern experiences are shaped by marketization processes that imbue market relations with new stylized meanings of dignity. Despite these meanings perpetuating limited and distorted constructions, subalterns use them, exemplified in their attempts to minimize their perceived dissimilarity to other marketing system actors, in order to gain access to predominant, albeit flawed, marketing systems. Thus, the status quo is rarely challenged. This research suggests that the subaltern quandary can only be resolved when market development initiatives take human worth as a main goal, while subalterns are empowered with market system creation, design and governance capabilities.

Predictors of Drinking Water Boiling and Bottled Water Consumption in Rural China: A Hierarchical Modeling Approach

Article

Full-text available

May 2017
ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL

Approximately two billion people drink unsafe water. Boiling is the most commonly used household water treatment (HWT) method globally and in China. HWT can make water safer, but sustained adoption is rare and bottled water consumption is growing. To successfully promote HWT, an understanding of associated socioeconomic factors is critical. We collected survey data and water samples from 450 rural households in Guangxi Province, China. Covariates were grouped into blocks to hierarchically construct modified Poisson models and estimate risk ratios (RR) associated with boiling methods, bottled water, and untreated water. Female-headed households were most likely to boil (RR=1.36, p<0.01), and among boilers those using electric kettles rather than pots had higher income proxies (e.g., per capita TV ownership RR=1.42, p<0.01). Higher-income households with younger, literate, and male heads were more likely to purchase (frequently contaminated) bottled water, or use electric kettles if they boiled. Our findings show that boiling is not an undifferentiated practice, but one with different methods of varying effectiveness, environmental impact, and adoption across socioeconomic strata. Our results can inform programs to promote safer and more efficient boiling using electric kettles, and suggest that if rural China's economy continues to grow then bottled water use will increase.

Overcoming Institutional Voids in Subsistence Marketplaces: A Zimbabwean Entrepreneurial Case

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2017

Iain Davies

This case study explores an entrepreneurial venture as it deals with the challenges of operating in Zimbabwe, a country with high levels of poverty, limited institutional frameworks, and no national currency. It investigates how the venture has overcome institutional voids to challenge the existing monopoly, and succeeded in establishing itself, and thrived, in a contracting Sub-Saharan economy. In so doing the case has reshaped the existing marketing system by increasing competition, lowering prices, providing income for more than 2,000 people, and better quality products for the urban subsistence community. Specifically this paper looks at what resources are critical to reshaping subsistence marketing systems, and provides insights into the marketing channels and networks that have led to this change.

Factors Affecting Ghanaian Consumers’ Purchasing Decision of Bottled Water

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2015

The objective of the study was to examine the factors influencing consumers’ choice of bottled drinking water. The survey research design was employed. Questionnaire was used as the data collections instrument. The items measuring the constructs were adapted from the extant literature. A sample size of two hundred and forty (240) bottled water consumers answered the questionnaire. Data was analysed using ANOVA and correlation test. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences Software was used to analyse the data. The results show that there is a relationship between age categories, income groups, educational levels and bottled water buying behaviour in the Ghanaian market. Again, the study found a relationship between perception and beliefs of bottled water usage. Furthermore, quality, brand price, availability and package were found to influence consumers’ choice of bottled water. Recommendations have been provided at the end of the study. Studies of this nature are very rare in Ghana making this study novel.

The creation and diffusion of innovation in developing countries: A systematic literature review

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2015
J ECON SURV

In this study, we review the literature on the creation and diffusion of innovation in the private sectors (industry and services) in developing countries. In particular, we collect evidence on what are the barriers to innovation creation and diffusion and the channels of innovation diffusion to and within developing countries. We find that innovation in developing countries is about creation or adoption of new ideas and technologies; but the capacity for innovation is embedded in and constituted by dynamics between geographical, socio-economic, political and legal subsystems. We contextualize the findings from the review in the current theoretical framework of diffusion of innovations, and we emphasize how the institutional context typical of developing countries impacts the diffusion itself.

Cannibalizing the Informal Economy: Frugal Innovation and Economic Inclusion in Africa

Article

Oct 2017

Kate Meagher

This paper argues that, far from collaborating with informal economic systems and actors, frugal innovation tends to treat informal economies as a pool of workers and organizational resources to be tapped for the benefit of corporate actors. I will examine how frugal innovation models selectively transform informal economic and institutional systems around formal economic interests, reconfiguring informal opportunities and the distribution of gains in ways that promote adverse incorporation of informal actors rather than mutual benefit. I will examine four mechanisms of adverse incorporation operating within frugal innovation models: copying, free-riding, bypassing nodes of accumulation and shifting risk. Drawing on case studies of M-Pesa and micro-insurance, I will illustrate the often selective and disempowering effects of frugal innovation, which operate to reconfigure informal economic systems in ways that divert profits and control away from informal operators. © 2017 European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI)

Optimizing Household Chlorination Marketing Strategies: A Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effect of Price and Promotion on Adoption in Haiti

Article

Apr 2017

Household water treatment can reduce diarrheal morbidity and mortality in developing countries, but adoption remains low and supply is often unreliable. To test effects of marketing strategies on consumers and suppliers, we randomized 1,798 households in rural Haiti and collected data on purchases of a household chlorination product for 4 months. Households received randomly selected prices ($0.11–$0.56 per chlorine bottle), and half received monthly visits from sales agents. Each $0.22 drop in price increased purchases by 0.10 bottles per household per month (P < 0.001). At the mean price, each 1% drop in price increased purchases by 0.45% (elasticity = 0.45). There is suggestive evidence that household visits by some sales agents increased purchases at mid-range prices; however, the additional revenue did not offset visit cost. Choosing the lowest price and conducting visits maximizes chlorine use, whereas slightly raising the retail price and not conducting visits maximizes cost recovery. For the equivalent cost, price discounts increase purchases 4.2 times as much as adding visits at the current retail price. In this context, price subsidies may be a more cost-effective use of resources than household visits, though all marketing strategies tested offer cost-effective ways to achieve incremental health impact. Decisions about pricing and promotion for health products in developing countries affect health impact, cost recovery, and cost-effectiveness, and tradeoffs between these goals should be made explicit in program design.

Redefining the bottom of the pyramid from a marketing perspective

Article

Apr 2017
Market Theor

Marketing literature has remained mostly silent on the issue of conceptualization of poverty, relying instead on the available definitions of the bottom-of-the-pyramid (BOP) “poor” from economics and sociology. Consequently, in marketing theory, the analytic bases and the practical implications of poverty-centered discourses sometimes remain ambiguous. This study provides a broader, culture-linked conceptualization of poverty and BOP from a consumer research perspective, initiating a dialogue on bottom-up approaches to understanding what poverty means through the lenses of the poor. Via qualitative methods such as semistructured individual in-depth interviews, observations, and fieldnotes, deeper insights were sought on how poverty can be defined from the perspectives of the poor. Transcending the economic-only approach, this study contributes to the literature by extending the contours of “felt poverty” and of the “poverty line” beyond the biogenic and stark utilitarian needs and incorporates the sociocultural dimensions of consumption. Our contribution comes from including the effects of the global consumer culture as a major source of social deprivation. Furthermore—while supporting the positions that the definitions of BOP are relative to contexts, cultures, and times—we also situate the discussion of BOP within the broader discourse on globalization of markets and consumption practices.

Understanding bottled water consumption in a high-poverty context: empirical evidence from a small town in Guatemala: Understanding bottled water consumption

Article

Nov 2016
Int J Consum Stud

William F. Vásquez

This research investigated the determinants of bottled water consumption using household survey data from a small, poor town in Guatemala. Hurdle (two-part) models were estimated to account for 73.3% of sampled households that did not consume bottled water. Findings indicated that the vast majority of respondents perceived minimal health risks from drinking bottled water. In contrast, few respondents (3.2%) believed that tap water is totally safe to drink. Estimation results indicated that bottled water consumption was positively associated to health risk perceptions, household income, education and market access. Household size had a negative effect on the likelihood of consuming bottled water. However, once the household had decided to consume bottled water, its consumption increased with each additional household member.

The costs of coping with poor water supply in rural Kenya

Article

Feb 2016
WATER RESOUR RES

As the disease burden of poor access to water and sanitation declines around the world, the non-health benefits - mainly the time burden of water collection - will likely grow in importance in sector funding decisions and investment analyses. We measure the coping costs incurred by households in one area of rural Kenya. Sixty percent of the 387 households interviewed were collecting water outside the home, and household members were spending an average of two to three hours doing so per day. We value these time costs using an individual-level value of travel time estimate based on a stated preference experiment. We compare these results to estimates obtained assuming that the value of time saved is a fraction of unskilled wage rates. Coping cost estimates also include capital costs for storage and rainwater collection, money paid either to water vendors or at sources that charge volumetrically, costs of treating diarrhea cases, and expenditures on drinking water treatment (primarily boiling in our site). Median total coping costs per month are approximately US$20 per month, higher than average household water bills in many utilities in the United States, or 12% of reported monthly cash income. We estimate that coping costs are greater than 10% of income for over half of households in our sample. They are higher among larger and wealthier households, and households whose primary source is not at home. Even households with unprotected private wells or connections to an intermittent piped network spend money on water storage containers and on treating water they recognize as unsafe. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Consumption of Bottled Water at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Who Purchases First?

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