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Effects of increasing the surface reflectance over air quality levels using WRF-BEM/AEMM/CMAQ: application over the city of Madrid
Abstract
The effects of increasing the surface reflectance by albedo modifications have been evaluated using an air quality modelling system. We have evaluated the influence over pollutant concentrations of increasing from 0.20 to 0.55 the roof surface albedo (scenario called Albedo1) and increasing from 0.15 to 0.30 the ground surface albedo and from 0.20 to 0.55 the roof surface albedo for all urban categories (scenario called Albedo2). To obtain a better representation of the local processes we have considered very high resolution (333.33 m) and up to 10 different urban categories. Changes in albedo cause changes in different meteorological parameters (planetary boundary layer height, radiation and temperature), modifying the pollutant concentration in every single scenario. Results show that this mitigation measure is effective during summer periods, providing not high NO 2 increments and O 3 reduction on the urban areas of the city of Madrid. Whilst during winter periods the measure induces NO 2 increments over polluted areas with high NO x emissions. In this way, the benefits of the measure, from the point of view of urban heat island effects, are greater than the detriments during summer periods, in comparison with air quality effects. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: González, M.Á., Arasa, R., Gámez, P., Picanyol, M. and Campra, P. (2019) 'Effects of increasing the surface reflectance over air quality levels using WRF-BEM/AEMM/CMAQ: application over the city of Madrid', Int. J. Environment and Pollution, Vol. 65, Nos. 1/2/3, pp.195-210. 196 M.Á. González et al. Biographical notes: M. Ángeles González works as a Project Manager at Meteosim with key responsibilities of managing emission inventories and air quality assessment. She previously worked on air quality modelling for five years in Centre for Energy, Environment and Technology (CIEMAT), where she researched air pollution and heavy metals with chemistry-transport models. She holds a PhD in Physics on Atmospheric sciences specialized on Air Quality, and a MSc in Geophysics and Meteorology (from the Complutense Univ. of Madrid). She has experience in meteorological and air quality modelling systems and has participated in emission inventories development, numerous air quality modelling studies, the model execution, and subsequent processing, and data analysis and graphics. Raúl Arasa is Chief Operations Officer of Meteosim, where he leads the technical department. He holds a PhD degree cum laude in Physics, a Master in Meteorology and a Master in Project Management. He has extensive experience in meteorology, air quality, climate and atmospheric modelling. During his career has worked in the development, implementation and execution of coupled air quality modelling systems, adapting different meteorological and dispersion/photochemical models, and implementing emissions inventories and emissions models. He has worked in more than 15 meteorological and air quality modelling systems in an operational mode and executed meteorological models in more than 100 different regions. He has participated in around 20 scientific peer-review contributions about atmospheric modelling and he has leaded more than 60 projects related to the atmosphere. Pedro Gámez holds an MSc in Meteorology and graduated in Environmental Sciences. He has been working in the fields of climate change and air quality modelling at the University of Barcelona for four years. His main expertise is the analysis of CMIP5 climate projections, photochemical (CMAQ) and meteorological (WRF) models, air quality studies, ozone forecast and development of emission inventories. His education and his experience in programming has enabled Meteosim to develop a new emissions model, to offer new services based on API solutions and to analyze climate models ensembles. Miquel Picanyol has 13 years of experience working in Meteosim. He has large experience with operational forecasting systems for different applications: air quality, weather, risk management, metocean) and with high computing infrastructure. He has been involved in more than 60 operational forecasting projects working with models like CMAQ, CALPUFF, AERMOD, HYSPLIT, MASS, MM5, WW3, SWAN, ROMS and WRF. He is the responsible of the R+D department and modelling activities, that allows to provide and improve the best solution for Meteosim consumers: design web platforms, system configuration, data assimilation, functionalities, etc. He has large experience working for public administration, private companies and research projects for the European Commission. Pablo Campra is a Professor at University of Almeria (Spain) since 2013. He Works in Department of Agronomy, High School of Engineering, with a large experience in assessment of the climatic impact of high albedo surfaces on human settlements. He has participated in many scientific publications related to Surface temperature cooling trends, radiative forcing and case studies on agriculture and greenhouse farming. He previously worked on air resources board, from Environmental Protection Agency, as an expert in potential effects of high albedo surfaces in urban cities. Effects of increasing the surface reflectance over air quality levels 197 This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled 'Effects of increasing the surface reflectance over air quality levels using WRF-BEM/AEMM/CMAQ. Application over the city of Madrid' presented at 18th International Conference on Harmonisation within Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling for Regulatory Purposes (HARMO18),
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As environmental standards become more stringent (e.g. European Directive 2008/50/EC), more reliable and sophisticated modeling tools are needed to simulate measures and plans that may effectively tackle air quality exceedances, common in large cities across Europe, particularly for NO 2. Modeling air quality in urban areas is rather complex since observed concentration values are a consequence of the interaction of multiple sources and processes that involve a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Besides a consistent and robust multi-scale modeling system, comprehensive and flexible emission inventories are needed. This paper discusses the application of the WRF-SMOKE-CMAQ system to the Madrid city (Spain) to assess the contribution of the main emitting sectors in the region. A detailed emission inventory was compiled for this purpose. This inventory relies on bottom-up methods for the most important sources. It is coupled with the regional traffic model and it makes use of an extensive database of industrial, commercial and residential combustion plants. Less relevant sources are downscaled from national or regional inventories. This paper reports the methodology and main results of the source apportionment study performed to understand the origin of pollution (main sectors and geographical areas) and define clear targets for the abatement strategy. Finally the structure of the air quality monitoring is analyzed and discussed to identify options to improve the monitoring strategy not only in the Madrid city but the whole metropolitan area.
This study presents numerical simulations analysing the effect of urban heat island (UHI) mitigation measures on the chemical composition of the urban atmosphere. The mesoscale chemical transport model WRF-Chem is used to investigate the impact of urban greening and highly reflective surfaces on the concentrations of primary (CO, NO) as well as secondary pollutants (O3) inside the urban canopy. In order to account for the sub-grid scale heterogeneity of urban areas, a multi-layer urban canopy model is coupled to WRF-Chem. Using this canopy model at its full extend requires the introduction of several urban land use classes in WRF-Chem. The urban area of Stuttgart serves as a test bed for the modeling of a case scenario of the 2003 European Heat Wave. The selected mitigation measures are able to reduce the urban temperature by about 1 K and the mean ozone concentration by 5 - 8 %. Model results however document also negative secondary effects on urban air quality, which are closely related to a decrease of vertical mixing in the urban boundary layer. An increase of primary pollutants NO and CO by 5 - 25 % can be observed. In addition, highly reflective surfaces can increase peak ozone concentration by up to 12 % due to a high intensity of reflected shortwave radiation accelerating photochemical reactions.
In this contribution we present an evaluation of different mitigation plans to improve NO2 levels in Andalusia, a region in the south of Spain. Specifically, we consider four possible mitigation plans: the effects over NO2 concentration of apply changes in the distribution of Vehicles Park; the effect of realize traffic restrictions (affecting to the density flow of vehicles) over highways and main roads; the effect of replacement of diesel use by natural gas in urban areas; and the effect of apply new velocity limits to access to urban areas. A sophisticated air quality modelling (AQM) system has been used to evaluate these mitigation plans. AQM implemented is composed on WRF meteorological model, an emission model created by the authors and CMAQ photochemical model. AQM analyzes mitigation plans during fifteen episodes of 2011 where NO2 levels were the highest of the year; so we analyze the effect of mitigation plans in worst conditions. Results provided by the AQM system show that: 1-h maximum daily NO2 is reduced to 10µgm-3 near circulation roads when traffic restrictions and velocity limits plans are applied (NOx emissions are reduced in 9-15%); 1-h maximum daily NO2 is reduced to 12µgm-3 affecting all municipalities when changes in the distribution of Vehicles Park are applied (NOx emissions are reduced in 25-26%); and the replacement of fuel of urban buses does not affect considerably NO2 levels.
A long-term local cooling trend in surface air temperature has been monitored at the biggest concentration of reflective greenhouses in the world, at the Province of Almeria, SE Spain, associated with a dramatic increase in surface albedo in the area. The availability of reliable long-term climatic field data at this site offers a unique opportunity to test the skill of meso-scale meteorological models describing and predicting the impacts of land use change on local climate. Using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) mesoscale model, we have run a sensitivity experiment to simulate the impact of the observed surface albedo change on monthly and annual surface air temperatures. The model output showed a mean annual cooling of 0.25 ºC associated with a 0.09 albedo increase, and a reduction of 22.8 W m-2 of net incoming solar radiation at surface. Mean reduction of summer daily maximum temperatures was 0.49 ºC, with the largest single-day decrease equal to 1.3 ºC. WRF output was evaluated and compared with observations. A mean annual warm bias (MBE) of 0.42 ºC was estimated. High correlation coefficients (R2>0.9) were found between modelled and observed values. This study has particular interest in the assessment of the potential for urban temperature cooling by cool roofs deployment projects, as well as in the evaluation of mesoscale climatic models performance.
Based on the need for advanced treatments of high-resolution urban morphological features (e. g., buildings and trees) in meteorological, dispersion, air quality, and human-exposure modeling systems for future urban applications, a new project was launched called the National Urban Database and Access Portal Tool (NUDAPT). NUDAPT is sponsored by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (U. S. EPA) and involves collaborations and contributions from many groups, including federal and state agencies, and from private and academic institutions here and in other countries. It is designed to produce and provide gridded fields of urban canopy parameters for various new and advanced descriptions of model physics to improve urban simulations, given the availability of new high-resolution data of buildings, vegetation, and land use. Additional information, including gridded anthropogenic heating (AH) and population data, is incorporated to further improve urban simulations and to encourage and facilitate decision support and application linkages to human exposure models. An important core-design feature is the utilization of Web portal technology to enable NUDAPT to be a "community" based system. This Web-based portal technology will facilitate the customizing of data handling and retrievals (www.nudapt.org). This article provides an overview of NUDAPT and several example applications.
The surface urban heat island SUHI effect is defined as the increased surface temperatures in urban areas in contrast to cooler surrounding rural areas. In this article, the evaluation of the SUHI effect in the city of Madrid Spain from thermal infrared TIR remote-sensing data is presented. The data were obtained from the framework of the Dual-use European Security IR Experiment DESIREX campaign that was carried out during June and July 2008 in Madrid. The campaign combined the collection of airborne hyperspectral and in situ measurements. Thirty spectral and spatial high-resolution images were acquired with the Airborne Hyperspectral Scanner AHS sensor in a 11, 21, and 4 h UTC scheme. The imagery was used to retrieve the SUHI effect by applying the temperature and emissivity separation TES algorithm. The results show a nocturnal SUHI effect with a highest value of 5 K. This maximum value agrees within 1 K with the highest value of the urban heat island UHI observed using air temperature data AT. During the daytime, this situation is reversed and the city becomes a negative heat island.
Increasing urban albedo can reduce summertime temperatures, resulting in better air quality and savings from reduced air-conditioning
costs. In addition, increasing urban albedo can result in less absorption of incoming solar radiation by the surface-troposphere
system, countering to some extent the global scale effects of increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. Pavements and roofs
typically constitute over 60% of urban surfaces (roof 20–25%, pavements about 40%). Using reflective materials, both roof
and pavement albedos can be increased by about 0.25 and 0.15, respectively, resulting in a net albedo increase for urban areas
of about 0.1. On a global basis, we estimate that increasing the world-wide albedos of urban roofs and paved surfaces will
induce a negative radiative forcing on the earth equivalent to offsetting about 44Gt of CO2 emissions. At ∼$25/tonne of CO2, a 44Gt CO2 emission offset from changing the albedo of roofs and paved surfaces is worth about $25/tonne of CO2, a 44Gt CO2 emission offset from changing the albedo of roofs and paved surfaces is worth about 1,100 billion. Furthermore, many studies
have demonstrated reductions of more than 20% in cooling costs for buildings whose rooftop albedo has been increased from
10–20% to about 60% (in the US, potential savings exceed $1 billion per year). Our estimated CO2 offsets from albedo modifications are dependent on assumptions used in this study, but nevertheless demonstrate remarkable
global cooling potentials that may be obtained from cooler roofs and pavements.
The generation of heat in buildings, and the way this heat is exchanged with the exterior, plays an important role in urban
climate. To analyze the impact on urban climate of a change in the urban structure, it is necessary to build and use a model
capable of accounting for all the urban heat fluxes. In this contribution, a new building energy model (BEM) is developed
and implemented in an urban canopy parameterization (UCP) for mesoscale models. The new model accounts for: the diffusion
of heat through walls, roofs, and floors; natural ventilation; the radiation exchanged between indoor surfaces; the generation
of heat due to occupants and equipments; and the consumption of energy due to air conditioning systems. The behavior of BEM
is compared to other models used in the thermal analysis of buildings (CBS-MASS, BLAST, and TARP) and with another box-building
model. Eventually, a sensitivity analysis of different parameters, as well as a study of the impact of BEM on the UCP is carried
out. The validations indicate that BEM provides good estimates of the physical behavior of buildings and it is a step towards
a modeling tool that can be an important support to urban planners.
Elevated summertime temperatures in urban ‘heat islands’ increase cooling-energy use and accelerate the formation of urban smog. Except in the city’s core areas, summer heat islands are created mainly by the lack of vegetation and by the high solar radiation absorptance by urban surfaces. Analysis of temperature trends for the last 100 years in several large U.S. cities indicate that, since ∼1940, temperatures in urban areas have increased by about 0.5–3.0°C. Typically, electricity demand in cities increases by 2–4% for each 1°C increase in temperature. Hence, we estimate that 5–10% of the current urban electricity demand is spent to cool buildings just to compensate for the increased 0.5–3.0°C in urban temperatures. Downtown Los Angeles (L.A.), for example, is now 2.5°C warmer than in 1920, leading to an increase in electricity demand of 1500 MW. In L.A., smoggy episodes are absent below about 21°C, but smog becomes unacceptable by 32°C. Because of the heat-island effects, a rise in temperature can have significant impacts. Urban trees and high-albedo surfaces can offset or reverse the heat-island effect. Mitigation of urban heat islands can potentially reduce national energy use in air conditioning by 20% and save over $10B per year in energy use and improvement in urban air quality. The albedo of a city may be increased at minimal cost if high-albedo surfaces are chosen to replace darker materials during routine maintenance of roofs and roads. Incentive programs, product labeling, and standards could promote the use of high-albedo materials for buildings and roads. Similar incentive-based programs need to be developed for urban trees.
Greenhouse horticulture has experienced in recent decades a dramatic spatial expansion in the semiarid province of Almeria, in southeastern (SE) Spain, reaching a continuous area of 26,000 ha in 2007, the widest greenhouse area in the world. A significant surface air temperature trend of -0.3°C decade-1 in this area during the period 1983-2006 is first time reported here. This local cooling trend shows no correlation with Spanish regional and global warming trends. Radiative forcing (RF) is widely used to assess and compare the climate change mechanisms. Surface shortwave RF (SWRF) caused through clearing of pasture land for greenhouse farming development in this area is estimated here. We present the first empirical evidences to support the working hypothesis of the development of a localized forcing created by surface albedo change to explain the differences in temperature trends among stations either inside or far from this agricultural land. SWRF was estimated from satellite-retrieved surface albedo data and calculated shortwave outgoing fluxes associated with either uses of land under typical incoming solar radiation. Outgoing fluxes were calculated from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) surface reflectance data. A difference in mean annual surface albedo of +0.09 was measured comparing greenhouses surface to a typical pasture land. Strong negative forcing associated with land use change was estimated all, year round, ranging ftorn -5.0 W m-2 to -34.8 W m-2, with a mean annual value of -19.8 W m-2. According to our data of SWRF and local temperatures trends, recent development of greenhouse horticulture in this area may have masked local warming signals associated to greenhouse gases increase.
Increasing albedo is an effective strategy to mitigate urban air temperature in different climates. Using reflective urban surfaces decreases the air temperature, which potentially reduces the rate of generation of smog. However, for implementing the albedo enhancement, complicated interactions between air, moisture, aerosols, and other gaseous contaminant in the atmosphere should be considered. We used WRF-CHEM to investigate the effect of increasing albedo in Montreal, Canada, during a heat wave period (July 10th through July 12th, 2005) on air quality and urban climate. The reflectivity of roofs, walls, and roads are increased from 0.2 to 0.65, 0.6, and 0.45, respectively. Air temperature at 2-m elevation is decreased during all hours in the simulation period and the maximum reduction is about 1 °C on each day (Tmax is reduced by about 0.7 °C) The concentration of two regulated pollutants −ozone (O3) and fine particulate matters (PM2.5)− is calculated at a height of 5-m above the ground. The maximum decrease in 8-h averaged ozone concentration is about 3% (∼0.2ppbv). 24-h averaged PM2.5 concentration decreases by 1.8 μg/m3. This relatively small change in concentration of pollutants is related to the decrease in planetary boundary layer height caused by increasing the albedo. Additionally, the combined effect of decreased solar heat gain by building surfaces and decreased air temperature reduces the energy consumption of HVAC systems by 2% (∼0.1 W/m2), which exacerbates the positive effect of the albedo enhancement on the air quality.
A three-dimensional photochemical model has been used to interpret aircraft measurements from the Atmospheric Pollution Over the Paris Area campaign near Paris, with special attention to measurements that are related to predicted O3-NOx-volatile organic compound (VOC) sensitivity. The model (CHIMERE) includes a representation of ozone formation over Europe and a more detailed spatial representation of the region around Paris. A series of model scenarios were developed with varying wind speeds and emission rates. Comparisons are shown with measured O3, total reactive nitrogen (NOy), summed VOCs, and isoprene. Results show that model NOx-VOC sensitivity predictions are correlated with the ratio O3/NOy but not with O3/peroxyacetyl nitrate. Measured O3 and NOy on high-ozone days tends to agree with model values when models predict NOx-sensitive or transitional chemistry but not when models predict VOC-sensitive chemistry. Model values for O3/NOy and the O3-NOy slope are lower than measured values, suggesting the possibility of missing, unmeasured VOCs in the Paris plume. Standard performance tests for ozone models, such as normalized bias, show good agreement between models and measurements, even in cases when significant differences appear in the O3-NOy correlation. Model predictions shift slightly toward NOx-sensitive chemistry when model wind speeds are increased. Isoprene represents 20% of total VOC reactivity–weighted carbon in the center of the Paris plume and 50% in the surrounding rural area during high-ozone events.
Changes in land cover affect climate through the surface energy and moisture budgets, but these biogeophysical impacts of land use have not yet been included in General Circulation Model (GCM) simulations of 20th century climate change. Here, the importance of these effects was assessed by comparing climate simulations performed with current and potential natural vegetation. The northern mid-latitude agricultural regions were simulated to be approximately 1–2 K cooler in winter and spring in comparison with their previously forested state, due to deforestation increasing the surface albedo by approximately 0.1 during periods of snow cover. Some other regions such as the Sahel and India experienced a small warming due to land use. Although the annual mean global temperature is only 0.02 K lower in the simulation with present-day land use, the more local temperature changes in some regions are of a similar magnitude to those observed since 1860. The global mean radiative forcing by anthropogenic surface albedo change relative to the natural state is simulated to be −0.2 Wm2, which is comparable with the estimated forcings relative to pre-industrial times by changes in stratospheric and tropospheric ozone, N2O, halocarbons, and the direct effect of anthropogenic aerosols. Since over half of global deforestation has occurred since 1860, simulations of climate since that date should include the biogeophysical effects of land use. Copyright © 2001 British Crown Copyright.
Two of several surface modification (heat-island reduction) strategies, increased surface albedo and urban reforestation,
are evaluated via mesoscale meteorological and photochemical modelling of regulatory episodes in central and southern California.
The simulations suggest that these strategies can have beneficial impacts on air quality, with increased albedo being relatively
more effective than urban reforestation. The simulations also show that air quality indices, such as regional 1-h peaks, area
peaks, 8-h relative reduction factors, 24-h averages, etc., improve for both central and southern California and that for
the range of strategies evaluated here, the improvements in air quality can be significant. The simulations of southern California
suggest that there may be a threshold beyond which further surface modifications tend to produce smaller net improvements in ozone air quality.
The large scale implementation of high-albedo building materials and urban surfaces and the reforestation of low vegetation urban areas are being encouraged as energy-saving measures. These strategies will result in modification of the physical properties of millions of buildings (e.g., roof reflectance) and their microclimates (e.g., shading, wind, and evapotranspiration effects of trees). This paper is about the atmospheric impacts of regional scale changes in building properties, paved-surface characteristics, and their microclimates. It discusses the possible meteorological and ozone air quality impacts of increases in surface albedo and urban trees in California's South Coast Air Basin (SoCAB). The photochemical model simulations of a late August period indicate that implementing high-albedo materials in the SoCAB would have a net effect of reducing ozone concentrations. Domain-wide population-weighted exceedance exposure to ozone above the California Ambient Air Quality Standard would be decreased by up to 12% during peak afternoon hours. With respect to the National Standard, exceedance exposure would be reduced by up to 17%. The simulations also indicate that the net effect of increased urban vegetation is a decrease in ozone concentrations if the additional vegetation (trees) are low emitters of biogenic hydrocarbons. With respect to the California standard, domain-wide population-weighted exceedance exposure to ozone above this threshold would be decreased by up to 14% during peak afternoon hours. With respect to the National Standard, the reduction would be up to 22%. In terms of total daytime exposure, these strategies can decrease exceedance exposure by up to 12% with respect to the California Standard and up to 20% with respect to the National Standard. Comparing the simulated air quality impacts of increased albedo and vegetation cover with the impacts of other strategies reveals that they are of the same order of magnitude. For instance, the simulations for this episode, using updated 1987 emission inventories for the SoCAB, indicate that the air quality benefits of albedo and vegetation increase strategies are comparable to those of converting at least 50% of the mobile sources operating in 1987 in the SoCAB to zero emitting vehicles (these findings are for ozone reductions only; removing or converting motor vehicles has several other advantages as well). At this time, this comparison is preliminary as there are uncertainties in the modeling system and emission inventories. In particular, mobile source emissions may be underestimated by as much as two-fold. These findings will be updated when other episodes are modeled and more representative emission inventories become available.
Temperature time series from three rural and one urban stations have been analysed for trends caused by the growing of Madrid city. A significant upward trend was found in the urban temperatures, but not in the rural. The analysis suggests that there was a change in the upward urban trend in the 1940s, with recent years increasing more slowly. The urban heat island intensity (urban minus rural temperature) has been related to weather types for cold and warm periods, and the persistence of the phenomenon from day to day has been calculated.
The vertical allocation of emissions has a major impact on results of Chemistry Transport Models. However, in Europe it is still common to use fixed vertical profiles based on rough estimates to determine the emission height of point sources. This publication introduces a set of new vertical profiles for the use in chemistry transport modeling that were created from hourly gridded emissions calculated by the SMOKE for Europe emission model. SMOKE uses plume rise calculations to determine effective emission heights. Out of more than 40,000 different vertical emission profiles 73 have been chosen by means of hierarchical cluster analysis. These profiles show large differences to those currently used in many emission models. Emissions from combustion processes are released in much lower altitudes while those from production processes are allocated to higher altitudes. The profiles have a high temporal and spatial variability which is not represented by currently used profiles.
Numerous scientific upgrades to the representation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) are incorporated into the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system. Additions include several recently identified SOA precursors: benzene, isoprene, and sesquiterpenes; and pathways: in-cloud oxidation of glyoxal and methylglyoxal, particle-phase oligomerization, and acid enhancement of isoprene SOA. NO(x)-dependent aromatic SOA yields are also added along with new empirical measurements of the enthalpies of vaporization and organic mass-to-carbon ratios. For the first time, these SOA precursors, pathways and empirical parameters are included simultaneously in an air quality model for an annual simulation spanning the continental U.S. Comparisons of CMAQ-modeled secondary organic carbon (OC(sec)) with semiempirical estimates screened from 165 routine monitoring sites across the U.S. indicate the new SOA module substantially improves model performance. The most notable improvement occurs in the central and southeastern U.S. where the regionally averaged temporal correlations (r) between modeled and semiempirical OC(sec) increase from 0.5 to 0.8 and 0.3 to 0.8, respectively, when the new SOA module is employed. Wintertime OC(sec) results improve in all regions of the continental U.S. and the seasonal and regional patterns of biogenic SOA are better represented.
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