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Syrian Refugees’ Engagement
in the Local Labour Market in Izmir, Turkey:
Perspectives of Employers and
Evidence - Based Policy Recommendations
Selin SİVİŞ, University of Essex
Ayselin YILDIZ, Yaşar University
Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief 01
This policy brief explores the perceptions of Turkish employers
regarding Syrian refugees across various economic sectors in Izmir
(Turkey) and reports the key issues raised by local actors
concerning local labour market integration practices. The study is
based on fieldwork carried out in Izmir between July and December
2017. It includes 40 semi-structured interviews conducted with
Turkish employers, policy-makers, practitioners and NGO members.
It provides an analysis particularly regarding Turkish employers’
perspectives at sectoral and local levels, towards employing
Syrians. Finally, the study integrates employers’ perspectives into
local actors’ broader labour market integration practices and
makes some policy recommendations based on conclusions from
evidence-based field research. In broader terms, the policy brief
intends to contribute the literature and advise policy makers on how
to eectively integrate refugees into the labour market through local
level practices and interventions.
Keywords: Syrian refugees, employment, labour market integration.
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
July 2019
Policy Brief
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
LEGAL CONTEXT: ACCESS AND
INTEGRATION OF SYRIAN REFUGEES INTO
TURKEY’S LABOUR MARKET
The Regulation on Provision of Work Permits for
People under Temporary Protection, introduced in
January 2016, allows Syrians registered under
temporary protection to obtain work permits in
Turkey. These depend on various eligibility
criteria and administrative procedures.
First, those under temporary protecti n are only
eligible to apply for a work permit after legally
residing six months in Turkey. Second, any
application must be made to the Ministry of
Labour from the province where applicant first
registered to get his/her temporary identity card.
Third, the number of working Syrians under
temporary protection must not exceed 10% of
employed Turkish citizens in the workplace for
which the work permit is requested, except for the
agriculture and livestock sectors. Fourth, Turkish
employers intending to employ Syrians under the
temporary protection regime must offer an
employment contract which guarantees a
minimum wage and register them with the Turkish
social security system. The application for the
work permit must be submitted by the employer
unless self-employment is the case. Lastly,
foreigners are prohibited from working in certain
job categories in Turkey due to relevant national
legislation: (I) dentist, nurse, midwife, pharmacist,
(II) veterinarian, (III) lawyer, public notary, (IV)
security at a private or public institution, (V)
director of a private hospital, (VI) customs
consultant, (VII) sea captain, seaman, fisherman,
diver and similar jobs within territorial waters.
Turkey’s efforts to ensure working rights for
refugees, both those under international
protection and Syrians under temporary
protection, is noteworthy in reflecting Turkey’s
inclusive approach to its currently evolving
integration policy. While in 2015 only 4,016 work
permits were issued for Syrians in Turkey, this
number increased to 13,284 in 2016 and after the
new regulation it reached to 20,968 in 2017
(Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services,
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
02Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
July 2019
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
2019). It should be noted that the number of issued
work permits includes both the “first time
applications” and “extended permits” for each
year. The number not only includes Syrians under
temporary protection status but also those with
residence permits. Nevertheless, the total number
of issued work permits for Syrians has remained
rather low considering that by March 2019 there
were more than 2,184,555 Syrians of working age
(15-64) in Turkey (DGMM 2019).
PARTICIPATION OF SYRIANS TO LABOUR
MARKET IN IZMIR
As of March 2019, there were 143,322 registered
Syrians in Izmir (DGMM, 2019), constituting 3.3%
of the city’s total population, and reflecting an
increasing trend since 2015. Although the Syrian
border was closed in 2016, various factors may
account for this continued rise: 1) unregistered
Syrians started to prefer registering with the
Turkish authorities to access and benefit from
welfare services; 2) some Syrians were stranded in
Izmir after the EU-Turkey Statement of March
2016, prolonging their transit intentions or turning
it into permanent settlement; 3) an increased
number of new-born babies; 4) the arrival of some
Syrians from other cities in Turkey, from where
they transferred their registrations.
Izmir is also a destination city for domestic
migration, especially for those from the
south-eastern provinces of Mardin and Diyarbakir.
According to the Turkish Institute of Statistics,
Izmir’s net migration rate increased from 2.4 % in
2012 to 5.6% in 2016 (TURKSTAT, 2018).
The migration of Turkish citizens with mainly
Kurdish and Arabic ethnic backgrounds to Izmir is
not a new issue since it began in the 1980s. The
data shows that Mardin and Diyarbakir remain two
of the top source cities (Table 1). These migrants
mainly concentrate themselves in specific districts
of Izmir, such as Kadifekale, Gediz, Karabağlar,
Çimentepe and Yeşildere. Finding the same ethnic
identity and ethnic networks are attractive pull
factors for Kurdish and Arabic Syrians to come
and settle in Izmir in these districts.
Unemployment rate in İzmir is always used be
higher than national average in İzmir and
according to 2017 data, its official unemployment
rate was 14.2%, which again was above Turkey’s
average of 11.1 % for that year (TURKSTAT, 2017).
Services constitute the highest share of the
economy (58%), followed by industry (32 %) and
agriculture (10%).
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
03Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
7
July 2019
Figure 1. Number of work permits issued for Syrians in Turkey
Figure 3. Domestic Migration to Izmir
Table 1. Population by residence in Izmir and place of birth
in another city, 2014-2016
Figure 2. The number of work permits granted to Syrian
nationals by Turkey’s top ten cities
Source: Data compiled from Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services, 2019
Source: TURKSTAT 2018
Source: TURKSTAT, 2017 Migration Statistics
Source: Data compiled from Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services, 2019
1 İstanbul 22,318
2 Manisa 19,512
3 Ankara 15,546
4 Mardin 10,435
5 Diyarbakır 10,318
Place of Birth Number of People
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
One of the main structural problems of Izmir’s
labour market in Izmir is the high rate of informal
economy/employment. According to the Social
Security Institute, Izmir’s informal employment
rate was 24.44 % in 2017, although this has fallen
since 2011, following the first mass arrival of
Syrians in Turkey (Table 3). Thus, although a most
Syrians in Izmir work in the informal economy,
there is no evidence that their arrival has caused a
significant increase in the informal economy.
Regarding work permits issued to Syrians, the
number of first-time applications increased from
only 24 in 2015 to 382 after the 2016 regulation was
issued, although this is still quite low when
compared to the current number of Syrians in
Izmir. Since the DGMM does not publish the age
distributions of Syrians by province, it is not
possible to estimate the percentage of Syrians of
working age and enrolled in labour market with
work permits. However, it would not be wrong to
make a rough estimation based on our field
observation that that the number of issued work
permits is far lower than the actual working
population of Syrians, who mostly work without
applying for a work permit as part of the informal
economy.
Regarding the economic sectors of work permit
applications, unskilled workers constitute the
biggest share with 42%, followed by
artisans/craftsman and service/sales persons with
15% each.
The number of enterprises opened by Syrians in
Izmir has also increased significantly from only 19
enterprises in 2015 to 188 in 2017. This
demonstrates the entrepreneurial potential that
Syrians have in terms of contributing to the local
economy.
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
04Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
July 2019
Source: Social Security Institute, 2018
Source: Data compiled from Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services, 2019
Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
İzmir 28.97 30.47 32.91 30.13 30.38 27.48 23.47 25.93 24.44
Turkey 43.84 43.25 42.05 39.02 36.75 34.97 33.57 33.49 33.97
Table 2. Unemployment rate in Izmir (15-64 years old)
Source: TURKSTAT, 2017 Migration Statistics
2014 14
2015 15
2016 14,1
2017 14,2
Years
Table 3. Informal Economy Rate in İzmir
Percentage
Figure 4. Number of work permits issued for Syrians in Izmir
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
KEY FINDINGS OF THE FIELD RESEARCH
Syrians in Izmir mainly work in Izmir’s informal
economy in the following sectors (regions in
brackets):
• Seasonal agriculture (Torbalı, Menderes,
Bayındır, Gümüldür)
• Textiles (Bornova, MTK, Yeşilova, Çankaya,
Karabağlar)
• Shoe-making (Işıkkent)
• Manufacturing, construction, food (Basmane,
Pınarbaşı, Buca)
• Furniture and transportation (Karabağlar,
Buca, Kısıkköy)
• Electronics as technicians (Çankaya)
• Wastepaper collecting
• Back-of-house jobs with low skill qualifications
Izmir constitutes a slightly different case when
compared to Turkey’s southern border cities in
terms of the dynamics of its economy and the host
population’s socio-economic characteristics. The
other border cities have fewer cultural and
language differences since many locals can speak
Kurdish or Arabic while kinship relations between
locals and Syrians are more widespread. Syrians
are also more able to find jobs in enterprises
opened by Syrians themselves or in the rural
economy on farms or in low-skilled jobs. In
contrast, as an industrialized city, Izmir requires
qualified labour while the immigrants’ lack of
Turkish is a critical barrier to social and labour
market integration. Syrians also lack the
pre-established network connections in Izmir that
they have in the border cities. Referring to their
work experience, employers in border cities are far
more familiar with working with Syrians. Finally,
the local authorities, such as municipalities in
some southern border cities are actively engaged
in offering training and assisting Syrians to access
the labour market. In Izmir, however, political
divergence among local actors has hindered the
provision of practical strategies for increasing the
employment of Syrians employment and their
labour market integration.
Divergent perceptions of employers across
sector-based employment
Concerning Izmir employers’ perceptions, most
mentioned in the interviews that they perceive
Syrians as permanent rather than temporary
residents in Turkey. However, they were also
concerned about whether Turkey has a
comprehensive, overarching national integration
strategy or not. Most defined Syrians in Turkey as
unqualified, low-skilled and with low education
levels.
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
05Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
July 2019
Table 4. Number of work permits granted to Syrians by economic sector in İzmir
Source: Data compiled from Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services, 2019
Economic Sectors
Office workers
Service and sales
persons
Unskilled workers
Skilled workers
in agriculture forestry
and fisheries
Professional workers
Artisans and craftsman
Technicians
Machine operators
and montage workers
Managers
1
1
1
2011
22
64
176
1
12
62
19
25
34
2017
8
26
39
1
9
18
13
16
12
2016
11
5
1
1
4
3
2
2
8
2015
6
4
4
1
3
1
4
2
4
2014
1
2012
1
1
2
2
3
2
2013
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
The research reveals that, in Izmir, employers’
experiences and perceptions of Syrians’
employment vary significantly depending on the
economic sectors. While it is completely
impossible to employ Syrians in the export and
import sectors or in large companies because of
their more institutionalized structures, Syrians
work in the informal market as cheap labour in
small and medium-sized firms, especially in
textiles and manufacturing. That is, rather than
creating new informal sectors, Syrians join
Turkey’s existing informal labour market, where
Turkish labours are also highly exploited.
In the wedding dress sector, employers mentioned
that they prefer Syrians because they have brought
new customers for international trade and
extended their market into many Middle East
countries. Syrian workers not only use their
language advantage but also bring their existing
business connections. Similar statements were
repeated by the employers in electronics and
mobile phone retailers. These employers have also
mentioned that Syrian employees have brought
new Syrians customers and they increased the
sales. Conversely, in hair dressing and beauty
salons, Turkish employers strongly reject Syrian
entrepreneurs, who they perceive as competitors
due to recently opened hair dressing and beauty
salons by Syrians in İzmir.
Child labour
Syrian child labour (7-15 years old) is widespread,
especially in shoe making, textile and street waste
paper collecting. Some employers highlighted
their concerns that these Syrian children may
engage in criminal activities in the future unless
they are fully integrated into the education
system. Interestingly, some employers prefer to
hire Syrian children out of compassion, believing
that they thereby improve their well-being through
a chance to work and survive.
Ethnic identity and the employers’ migration
background
Those employers that migrated to Izmir
themselves from south-eastern Turkey years
before and who ethnically identified themselves as
Arab or Kurdish perceive Syrians’ culture as close
to Turkey’s. They prefer to hire Syrians for their
businesses. One of the main reasons is they
perceive Syrians as sharing the similar destiny
with them in terms of being migrant. These
employers mentioned they very well understand
the difficulties that Syrians are encountered as
they have also had many problems due to their
ethnic identity. However, those employers born in
Izmir or who despite their migration experience
identify as being from Izmir, described Turkish
and Syrian society as being very different. While
these employers were not preferring to hire
Syrians, they also considered Syrian labour as a
substitute for Kurdish workers who migrated to
Izmir years ago from south-eastern Turkey.
Lack of relevant skills; different working
culture
Employers highlighted that most Syrians lack
relevant skills, experience and technical
knowledge for the jobs that demand labour,
although this varies across sectors. For example,
Syrians are in high demand and their manual skills
are appreciated in shoe-making whereas they are
not considered skilled enough for textiles. As one
employer noted, “They are familiar with the
machines we use; they saw them back in Syria
maybe; but they do not know how to use them
properly”. Similarly, in the agriculture sector, many
Syrians are preferred as cheap labour on fig farms.
However, because they lack experience on
harvesting figs, they damage the figs trees, which
prevents them from fruiting the next year. Many
employers have therefore regretted hiring them
because they have lost tons of produce.
Some employers complained about the working
culture of Syrians, which is quite different to that
of Turkish people. They described Syrians as not
being very hardworking, starting work late in the
morning and lacking experience in serial
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
06Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
July 2019
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
production. Some employers explained the
Syrians’ economic contribution as supporting
high production but low quality, whereas some
described them as increasing consumption.
Lack of intermediary workers from vocational
schools
Employers grumbled that the Turkey’s new
compulsory education period of 12 years and the
4+4+4 education system have accelerated the need
for intermediary workers as it is no longer possible
to continue on-the-job learning and training, which
was the traditional relationship between master and
apprentice. They claimed that teaching a trade must
start at an early age because it is ineffective to begin
teaching an apprentice at the age of 18. Moreover,
they complained about the low number of
vocational school graduates and the irrelevant skills
of many graduates, which do not match the skills
needed for the labour market. Employers therefore
fill this gap with Syrians, who are ready to learn any
kind of job because of their urgent survival needs.
As one employer who owns a business in the
textile sector put it, “In the textile sector in Izmir,
companies try to survive with a deficit of 10-15 per
cent of the labour force. We are not able to find
labour. For example, if today 400-500 textile
operators came to MTK (Izmir’s textile site), they
would immediately find a job, because we need
them”.
Another employer in the textile sector said, “Syrian
people whose profession was in textiles before do
not get low wages here. We are not able to find any
local labour and we have to recruit Syrians. If we
offer them low wages, they do not agree anymore
because they know we need them. They know the
average wages in this sector and they only agree to
these rates”.
An employer of Izmir’s Işıkkent’s shoe-makers’ site
stated, “If Syrians are sent back to Syria,
shoe-making and also the textile sector might have
to halt production or shut down businesses. We
need the Syrian labour force”.
Lack of knowledge among employers about
working permit legislation and procedures
Employers are not aware of how to recruit Syrians
or how to apply for working permits, partly
because Turkish SMSs are not experienced in
recruiting foreign labour. Thus, some employers
claimed that they all obey legislation since they
regularly pay the social security payments of the
Syrians they recruit. However, they have not
requested working permits or submitted any
permit applications for their Syrian employees.
They were unaware of the working permit
legislation or the procedures to follow. They also
misunderstand the social security aspect of the
issue as they have not been properly informed
about work permit processes.
Mobility restrictions and related bureaucratic
procedures are also highlighted as a vital
challenge to employing Syrians. As one employer
clearly explained, “The Syrian boy working in my
business had been registered in Aydın, but he then
moved to Izmir. For months, he was not able to
transfer his residence to Izmir. Without the renewed
residence permit, we are not able to submit his
working permit. We tried a lot but we could not
achieve it. These procedures should be facilitated”.
POLICY SUGGESTIONS
Labour market needs analysis and vocational
training
Table 6 shows the jobs with highest demand in
Izmir while Table 5 provides the top three most
needed jobs in each sector. However, these figures
need to be updated and sector-based current
labour market analysis needs to be conducted
concerning the number of workers required for
each job type and the needed qualifications. The
labour profile of Syrians should also be explicitly
analysed.
This analysis indicates which skills might be
improved among Syrians through offering them
relevant vocational training. In addition, most
international organizations focus on training in
border cities while having few vocational training
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
07Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Policy Brief
July 2019
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
08Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
Policy Brief
July 2019
projects in Izmir. The bureaus of these
organisations track the irregular mobility of
migrants or assist with international protection
procedures. However, beyond its transit hub
function, Izmir also hosts a significant number of
settled Syrians who need to be integrated into the
labour market. The Izmir Chamber of Commerce
has also failed to engage with the issue as we
observed during our field research. It has paid no
attention nor developed any concrete initiative
concerning the challenges or opportunities in
Izmir regarding Syrian workers.
Preparing qualification competence sets
Concerning each profession, the competence sets
for the required qualifications should be prepared
and integrated into vocational training. This
training should not only target Syrians but also
include Turkish unemployed workers to maintain
the host society’s tolerance and peaceful
co-existence with the newcomers. Otherwise the
concerns and misperceptions among the locals
increase as Syrians are being perceived as a threat
who take the already few jobs available in the
market.
Removing conditionality in emergency social
and financial aid programmes
The emergency social and financial aid
programmes that have been used with Syrians in
Turkey over the last eight years should be
transformed more into integration targeted
programmes. Because these programmes make
aid conditional on lacking any income, many
Syrians do not declare that they work but prefer to
remain in the informal market. In order to benefit
from the aid, they do not apply for work permits
although many family members work.
In addition, these aid programmes are designed
for emergency and survival, so eventually they are
not based on conditionality such as to get
vocational training. However, after eight years
after they arrived, it is obvious that many Syrians
are not temporary visitors, so they need to be
properly integrated into the labour market to
become self-supporting. Thus, as in Germany,
livelihood programmes should introduce
vocational training and labour market integration
factors as conditional to the sustainability of the
assistance programmes.
Engaging the private sector
Although the private sector has labour shortages
and has reasonable resources for training, in Izmir,
it lacks coordination and information about the
potential economic contribution of Syrians. This
also stems from the lack of complementary
cooperation between public and non-public
institutions such as municipality, chambers and
NGOs at local level.
Table 5. Labour demand in Izmir
Source: Turkish Labour Agency, 2016
1- Textile Operator
2- CNC Operator
3- Waiter/waitress
(service sector)
Sectors of labour demand in Izmir Number of workers needed
1,765
570
540
Table 6. Labour demand by sector in Izmir
Source: Turkish Labour Agency, 2016
Food Sectors Labor demand Labor demandAutomotive
1- Cook/Chef assistant
2- Cook/Chef
3- Pide Chef
200
100
55
570
250
55
CNC operator
Lathe operator
Montage technician
Service Sectors Labor demand Labor demandTextile
Waiter
Call center operator
Nurse/attendant
540
300
200
1,765
220
130
Machine Operator
Shoe maker
Presser
INTRODUCTION
Izmir, located on Turkey’s western coastline and
just a few miles away from the Greek islands of
Chios and Lesvos, is a “transit migration hub” for
many international migrants and refugees (Yıldız
and Uzgoren 2016). It is also a destination city for
domestic migration from south-eastern Turkey,
especially for Turkish citizens with Kurdish or
Arabic ethnic backgrounds. In addition, over the
last seven years, Izmir has hosted various groups
of Syrians: a) Syrian refugees in transit; b) Syrians
mainly stranded after the implementation of the
EU-Turkey Statement (2016); and c) Syrians settled
in the city. They tend to join the local labour
market, with almost all working in the informal
economy in different sectors, mainly textiles,
shoe-making, agriculture, construction and
services. Thus, as a transit hub on the Eastern
Mediterranean migration route to Europe, Izmir
constitutes a case which shows how local and
sectoral employment practices regarding Syrians
operates in an ad-hoc way with unique
characteristics.
This micro-level ethnographic study provides an
analysis on the labour market practices of Syrians
in Izmir by taking into account not only Turkish
employers’ perspectives with Syrian workers, but
also local actors’ approaches. The paper proposes
a constructive and effective labour market
integration policy that needs to respond the local
needs. The research is based on fieldwork and 22
semi-structured interviews conducted between
July and December 2017 in Izmir with Turkish
employers, with a specific focus on their
perceptions about the engagement of Syrian
refugees in Turkish labour market. Additionally, 18
interviews were conducted with stakeholders, local
actors, policy-makers, practitioners and civil
society members in Izmir and Ankara to map out
constructive recommendations for better labour
market integration practices.
09Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
Policy Brief
July 2019
Facilitating equivalency and degree
recognitions
Turkey’s Higher Education Authority has issued
facilitating mechanisms to support the access and
integration of Syrians students into Turkey’s
higher education system. However, the procedures
for equivalency and diploma recognition take time
and effort to complete, which forces Syrians with
skills, professions or qualifications to work
beneath their capacity to survive. Instead, they
could be more productive and beneficial for the
Turkish economy if they were also employed
specifically for the integration strategies
developed for Syrian society.
Encouraging joint ventures and eliminating
quota restriction
It is observed that particularly in food, service and
wedding dress sectors, Syrians are highly
demanded not only as employees but also as joint
ventures. In food sector, some employers
underlined that they decided to have joint venture
with Syrian employers in order to serve for the
demands of Syrian customers. They were satisfied
to have increased their sales and income with the
help of their Syrian business partners. As the data
shows, Syrian entrepreneurs in Izmir have the
potential to initiate their own business if they are
provided capital and technical assistance. This
would certainly increase the number of registered
business or scale-up the existing ones. The
employers also mentioned that the 1/10 quota
system is a barrier for them since small business
have few employees and they can only hire 1-2
Syrians whereas they need more Syrian workers. If
the quota system becomes flexible, more Syrians
are to be recruited and effectively integrated into
the labour market.
End Notes
1. List of Interviews with Institutions
1. Aegean Region Chamber of Industry
2. İzmir Chamber of Merchants and Craftsman
3. Ministry of Labour and Social Security (Ankara)
4. İzmir Directorate General of Migration
Management
5. Ministry of Provincial Food Agriculture and
Livestock (Ankara)
6. Aegean Exporters’ Association
7. World Food Programme(Ankara)
8. International Labour Organization (ILO-Ankara)
9. UNHCR (Ankara)
10. UNDP (Ankara)
11. International Organization for Migration
(IOM-İzmir Office and Ankara)
12. Association for Solidarity with Asylum Seekers
and Migrants (İzmir Office)
13. Governorship of İzmir
14. İzmir Development Agency
15. İzmir Chamber of Clothing
16. Aegean Young Businessmen Association
(EGIAD)
17. Aegean Industrialists and Businessmen
Association (ESIAD)
18. İzmir Chamber of Fashion, Textiles and
Garments
10Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
REFERENCES
Social Security Institute (2018) Informal economy rate
http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayitdisi_istihdam/kayitdisi_istihdam_oranlari/kayitdisi_istihdam_orani.
(Accessed 1 May 2019)
Turkish Labour Agency (2016) Labour demand by sector
https://www.iskur.gov.tr/kurumsal-bilgi/istatistikler/. (Accessed 1 March 2019)
Turkish Republic Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Services (2019) Employment Statistics Information System (CIBS)
http://cibs.csgb.gov.tr/RaporOlusturmaSihirbazi.aspx?kullanicisiz=1. (Accessed 1 March 2019)
Turkish Republic Ministry of Interior, Directorate General of Migration Management (DGMM) (2019)
Migration statistics https://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/gecici-koruma_363_378_4713_icerik (Accessed 1 March 2019)
Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (2018)
Migration statistics http://tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1067. (Accessed 1 May 2019)
Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (2017) Migration statistics
http://tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1067. (Accessed 1 May 2019)
Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (2017) Unemployment statistics
https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=102&locale=tr. (Accessed 1 March 2019)
Yıldız A, Uzgören E (2016) Limits to temporary protection: non-camp Syrian refugees in İzmir, Turkey.
Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 16:2, 195-211
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
Policy Brief
July 2019
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all the anonymous interviewees for their valuable contributions. They also extend their
sincere appreciation to the project researcher, Bensu Anar, who contributed to the field work. They also gratefully
acknowledge the financial support received from Yaşar University within the ‘’Scientific Research Project’’ (BAP),
entitled “Inclusion in or Exclusion from Turkish Labour Market? An Ethnographic Analysis on Syrian Refugees in
Izmir”.
This research will be published as an academic paper in a peer-reviewed journal where the findings will be fully
reflected and analytically evaluated more in detail.
Please site as: Selin Sivis and Ayselin Yıldız, (2019, July).“Syrian Refugees’ Engagement in the Local Labour Market in
Izmir, Turkey: Perspectives of Employers and Evidence-Based Policy Recommendations”. Policy Brief, 2 (1), Yasar
University UNESCO Chair on International Migration. (ISSN: 2619-9440)
Any opinions, views, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this policy brief are those of the author(s), and do
not necessarily reflect the views of or endorsed by the UNESCO or Yasar University.
11Yaşar University
Yaşar University UNESCO Chair on International Migration
Universite Cad. No:37-39 35100 Bornova Izmir TURKEY
Tel: +90 232 570 88 51
http://unescochair.yasar.edu.tr
Publisher: Yaşar University
Editor: Ayselin YILDIZ
Editorial Administrator: Gülsevil AĞCA
Designed by: Sinem KAYATÜRK
ISSN: 2619-9440
UNESCO Chair on International Migration Policy Brief
Selin SİVİŞ
Selin Sivis is currently a doctoral researcher at the Department of
Sociology, the University of Essex. In her research, she focuses on how
the boundary-making process takes place in multiple forms from
perspectives of host population towards refugees and asylum-seekers
in the informal market economy. She also works as Senior Researcher at
the Essex Centre for Migration Studies. She held visiting research
fellow positions at Migration Research Centre at Koç University,
Çukurova University and Yasar University UNESCO Chair on
International Migration.
UNESCO Chair on
International Migration,
Yaşar University
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
Policy Brief
July 2019
Ayselin YILDIZ
Associate Professor in international relations and “UNESCO Chair on
International Migration” at Yasar University (Izmir/Turkey). She held
research fellowships at Wageningen University, University of California
Berkeley and University of Pittsburgh. Her research and publications
focus on migration and refugee studies, integration policies, Turkey-EU
relations, and external relations of the EU. She oers several capacity
building trainings in cooperation with IOM on “countering migrant
smuggling, strengthening capacity of readmission centers and
intercultural communication with migrants”. She is the author of the
book The European Union’s Immigration Policy: Managing Migration
in Turkey and Morocco, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2016. She
is also the committee member at UNESCO Turkey Management of
Social Transformations (MOST) and Migration Group.
