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A cross-cultural comparison of Korean American and European American parental meta-emotion philosophy and its relationship to parent-child interaction
Abstract
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2006. Research indicates that some parents have a meta-emotion philosophy that is high in awareness and coaching of emotion relative to others. Gottman et al. (1995) found that emotion-coaching parents have better marital relationships, show better parenting (i.e., they were less rejecting and more praising in the parent-child relationships), and have kids who show better psychological adjustment (i.e., their children showed greater ability to focus attention, fewer behavior problems, had less negative play with their best friends, less physical illness, and higher academic achievement). However, it is not clear whether these patterns are evident cross culturally. Unlike in the United States, Korean society traditionally has been under the influence of Confucianism. It demanded children's one-sided obedience to and respect for their parents in the parent-child relationship (Min, 1993). The goal of this study is to examine the differences between Korean American families and European American families with regards to parental meta-emotion philosophy and its application to parent-child interactions. Thirty-one European American families and 31 Korean American families with 8 to 9-year-old-children were recruited from the greater Seattle area. Parental meta-emotion philosophy, children's report of emotions, and parent-child teaching task interactions were examined. Results revealed that European American parents were more accepting and coaching of their children's emotions than Korean American parents. In the teaching task interactions, Korean American parents were more neutral overall in their affect compared to European American parents, and fathers in particular used more directives. European American parents showed more high level engagement with their children, and all three family members expressed more positive affect than in Korean American families. The children in these Korean American families expressed more tension, and also more often successfully completed the teaching task and completed it faster than European American children. Korean American children rated themselves as feeling less happy overall than European American children on the Reynolds Child Depression Scale. In conclusion, clear differences between European American and Korean American families were found. The curious combination of relatively low emotion coaching, child emotional distress and positive child performance in Korean American families and related implications are discussed.
... Although PME philosophies are tied to important health outcomes, there is relatively little research on the relevance of the philosophies identified in European American samples to immigrants and other diverse populations. In one of the few investigations that have been conducted, Korean immigrant parents in the United States were rated as less accepting of sadness and anger, less aware of emotions in their children, and providing less emotion coaching than their European American counterparts (Nahm, 2006). However, Nahm used the established meta-emotion coding system and criteria for classifying participants and did not investigate the applicability or appropriateness of the previously derived PME philosophies for Korean immigrant families. ...
... Although Gottman et al.'s (1996Gottman et al.'s ( , 1997) PME is an important construct in the emotion socialization literature, its applicability to parents from diverse groups is unclear. In the published literature that we could access, we found only one study (Nahm, 2006) that investigated PME philosophy in an Asian American sample in which the researcher assumed the applicability of the PME coding and classification system for a Korean American immigrant group without actually examining it. ...
... These findings are also important to consider in connection with previous research by Nahm (2006) investigating parental meta-emotion and child outcomes in Korean American immigrants. Nahm reported that Korean American parents were rated as less aware, accepting, and coaching of the emotions of their children than European American parents, yet their children performed better after being taught by their parents on a block-building exercise than the European American children. ...
We explored the meta-emotion philosophies of Indian immigrant mothers living in the Midwest region of the United States to expand the scarce literature on emotion socialization in diverse families. A total of 15 mothers of teen and preteen children participated in a meta-emotion interview, in which they were asked about their own and their children’s experiences of anger, sadness, and fear. We analyzed interview responses through an open-ended phenomenological approach and found the following major themes: familial context of emotions, subtle communication of emotions, and an overarching philosophy centering on inevitability of negative emotions and the importance of moving on. Mothers differed in how well they believed that they could move on. Overall, the present findings demonstrate the role culture plays in emotional experiences of immigrant mothers and serve as a reminder that theories based on European American families might have limited applicability to other cultural and ethnic groups.
... , (Nahm, 2006). (Wong, Diener, & Isabella, 2008), (Gottman et al., 1996). ...
... , , (Gottman et al., 1996). Nahm (2006) , , (Choi & Nahm, 2016;Kim & Nahm, 2013;Song & Nahm, 2013). , (Kelly & Barnard, 2000), (Carson & Parke, 1996), (Osofsky & Thompson, 2000). ...
... (2) 16. 38.8(SD = 3.35), 5 (SD = 0.00), 8, 8. . Nahm (2006) Teaching-Task . ...
... Kahen (1995) Nahm (2006) Kahen (KACS) . ...
... In terms of studies that have examined emotion socialization in diverse cultural groups, Raval (2004) noted that Indian Gujarati children (6-8 year-olds) with somatic complaints had mothers who use more minimizing and punitive responses, as well as less physical and verbal comforting in response to children's expression of anger as compared to children without somatic problems. Similarly, Nahm (2007) found that Korean American immigrant parents, as compared to White American parents, were less aware and less accepting of children's negative emotions, and engaged in less emotion coaching. Korean American parents also showed less directive support and less positive affect in the emotion teaching interaction (Nahm, 2007). ...
... Similarly, Nahm (2007) found that Korean American immigrant parents, as compared to White American parents, were less aware and less accepting of children's negative emotions, and engaged in less emotion coaching. Korean American parents also showed less directive support and less positive affect in the emotion teaching interaction (Nahm, 2007). Also, in some cases, minimization of emotions when combined with parental warmth may result in different developmental outcomes (Hannesdottir & Ollendick, 2007). ...
Individual differences exist in emotional experiences, and cultural context is believed to play an important role in emotion socialization. How parental meta-emotion philosophy (MEP) is related to children’s anxiety, somatization, and anger was examined cross-culturally. Cultural group and child’s gender as moderators to parental MEP and emotional outcomes were also examined. Adolescents (9–13 years, Mage = 11.8) and mothers from three groups [Caucasians (n = 40), Indian Americans in U.S.A. (n = 32), Indians (n = 64)] completed measures on temperament [negative affect (NA) and effortful control (EC)], MEP (emotion coaching and emotion dismissing), and emotional outcomes (anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger). Data were analyzed using t tests, ANOVA, and multiple regressions. NA was positively associated with emotional outcomes. EC was not significantly related to emotional outcomes. Children with low EC reported fewer somatic complaints and less anger when mothers used emotion coaching. Emotion dismissing was positively associated with anxiety. Maternal emotion coaching was found to be a buffer for somatization in children with high NA. Indian children were significantly more anxious, and higher on NA than their counterparts. Indian mothers engaged in more emotion dismissing and less emotion coaching compared to the other groups. Implications for parenting and intervention are discussed.
... Specifically, one study compared PMEP and children's performance in a teaching task in White American and Korean American families (Nahm, 2006). Korean American parents, as compared with White American parents, were rated as less aware and less accepting of negative emotions and engaging in less emotion coaching. ...
... Specifically, as predicated, Asian Indian mothers were rated as significantly lower on emotion coaching, acceptance of their own emotions, and awareness of their own and their child's emotions than were White American mothers. These findings are consistent with Nahm (2006), who found Korean American mothers were rated lower on emotion coaching, parental awareness of their own and their children's emotions, and parental acceptance of their own and children's emotions than White American mothers, and studies (Raval et al., 2013) in which Asian Indian mothers from India reported fewer comforting or solution oriented responses than White American mothers in the United States. Thus, these combined findings suggest that Asian Indian and Asian Indian immigrant mothers may engage in less emotion coaching behavior, such as validating their child's emotions or focus on problem-solving, than White American mothers. ...
Socialization of emotion is implicated in a variety of child outcomes, yet few studies have examined parental emotion socialization in ethnic minority families in the United States. In this study, we compared Indian immigrant (n = 40) and White American (n = 54) mothers' parental meta-emotion philosophies using the Parental Meta-Emotion Interview (Katz and Gottman, 1996) to specifically examine how differences in these philosophies may be related to reports of social competence and behavior problems in school-age children. Results showed that White American mothers were rated significantly higher than were Indian mothers in emotion coaching, awareness of their own and their child's emotions, acceptance of their own emotions, and regulation of their own emotions; however bivariate correlations indicated that emotion coaching was positively related to mother-rated child social competence and inversely related to mother-rated child externalizing behaviors for White Americans, whereas it was unrelated to child outcomes for Indian families. Moderation and simple slope analysis revealed that the interaction between ethnicity and mothers' regulation of her own emotions significantly predicted child behavioral problems, such that mothers' regulation of her own emotions was inversely related to child behavior problems for Indian mothers, whereas there was no relationship for White American mothers.
... In addition, parents from different cultural groups may socialize their children's emotions in diverse ways. For example, in comparison with White American parents, Korean immigrant parents demonstrated lower levels of awareness and acceptance towards their children's negative emotions, and were less engaged in emotion coaching [60]. Chinese mothers were also found to use coaching strategies less frequently in response to their children's emotional expressions compared with Italian mothers and were more likely to display punitive, dismissing, and distressed responses to their children's emotional expressions [61]. ...
Parental Reflective Functioning (PRF) refers to parents’ ability to understand their children’s behavior in light of underlying mental states such as thoughts, desires, and intentions. This study aimed to investigate whether maternal meta-emotion philosophies (i.e., emotion coaching, emotion dismissing) mediated the relation between maternal RF and child emotion regulation (ER). Additionally, children’s genders and ages were examined as moderators of the associations between maternal RF and maternal meta-emotion philosophies. The sample comprises 667 Chinese mothers of children aged 4–6 years. Mothers completed questionnaires assessing their reflective functioning, emotion coaching and dismissing, and child emotion regulation. Results indicated both a direct link between maternal RF and child emotion regulation, as well as indirect pathways mediated by emotion coaching and dismissing. A child’s gender and age also moderated the relations between maternal RF and meta-emotion philosophies. Specifically, the negative association between maternal pre-mentalizing modes and emotion coaching was stronger for mothers of girls than boys; whereas the negative association between maternal certainty of mental states and emotion dismissing, as well as the positive association between maternal interest and curiosity and emotion coaching were both stronger for mothers of younger children than older children. The findings suggest that emotion coaching and dismissing mediate the relation between maternal PRF and the emotion regulation of children.
... To date, only one known research project on metaemotion philosophy has been conducted with different ethnic groups, comparing the philosophies of European American and Korean American parents. European American parents were found to be more accepting and coaching of their children's emotions than Korean American parents (Nahm 2007). It will be crucial for future studies to investigate parent socialization of adolescent emotions in more diverse samples, as well as to address the socialization process in specific ethnic minority groups. ...
Emotional and cognitive changes that occur during adolescence set the stage for the development of adaptive or maladaptive beliefs about emotions. Although research suggests that parents' behaviors and beliefs about emotions relate to children's emotional abilities, few studies have looked at parental socialization of children's emotions, particularly in families with depressed adolescents. The present study examined associations between parent and adolescent meta-emotion philosophies (MEP), defined as thoughts, reactions, and feelings about their own emotions. Additionally, adolescent depressive status was tested as a moderator of relationships between parents' and adolescents' MEP. One hundred and 52 adolescents, aged 14-18 (65.8% female), and their parents (148 mothers, 106 fathers) participated in a study on emotion socialization in families of depressed and healthy adolescents. Depressed adolescents (n = 75) and matched healthy adolescents (n = 77) were recruited based on research criteria for mental health status. The sample was largely Caucasian (82%) and of middle socioeconomic class status. Results indicated that mothers' and fathers' MEP about their children's emotions were associated with adolescents' MEP, although parents' MEP about their own emotions was unrelated to adolescents' MEP. Fathers' MEP about children's emotions made unique contributions to adolescents' MEP across both adolescent groups. Adolescents' depressive status moderated the relationship between mothers' and adolescents' MEP such that mothers' MEP was particularly relevant for depressed adolescents. The continued influence of parents in the emotional lives of adolescents is discussed as well as differences in emotion socialization in families with depressed and healthy adolescents.
The most effective treatments for child and adolescent psychopathology are often family-based, emphasising the active involvement of family members beyond the referred individual. This book details the clinical skills, knowledge, and attitudes that form the core competencies for the delivery of evidence-based family interventions for a range of mental health problems. Offering practical case studies to illustrate treatment principles, and discussing barriers to treatment and problem-solving in relation to common difficulties. Covers topics such as anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, sleep, and eating disorders. Therapist competencies are thoroughly examined, from the role they play in severe/complex cases and in achieving successful outcomes to commonly misunderstood aspects of family-based interventions and how they can be enhanced. Clinical approaches to working with diverse families, and those of children affected by parental psychopathology, child maltreatment and family violence are also explored. Essential reading for psychologists, psychiatrists, paediatricians, mental health nurses, counsellors and social workers.
ProblemKorean American (KA) parents need a culturally tailored parent training that helps them bridge the Korean and American cultures and divergent parenting practices.Methods
The Korean Parent Training Program (KPTP) was pilot tested with 48 KA mothers of children between 3 and 8 years old using a partial group-randomized controlled experimental study design. Researchers gathered self-report survey and observation data.FindingsAnalyses, which used generalized estimating equations, indicated the intervention group mothers increased use of effective parenting practices and their children decreased behavioral problems and reported less acculturation conflict with their mothers.Conclusion
The KPTP is a promising way to promote effective parenting and increase positive child mental health in KA families.
This study explored the mediating role of parental acceptance-rejection in the relationship between parental depressive symptoms and children's mental health. Self-report data were gathered from 95 mothers and 91 fathers of children (ages 5-10 years) in Korean American families. For mothers and fathers, the relationship between parental depressive symptoms and child psychosocial problems was mediated by parenting behaviors, with parental rejection being a much stronger mediator than parental acceptance. For fathers, the relationship between fathers' depressive symptoms and child social competence was mediated by parenting, with fathers' parental rejection being a slightly stronger mediator than fathers' parental acceptance.
Traditional Korean American discipline is characterized by a lack of expression of affection and use of harsh discipline.
The purpose of this study was to pilot test the effect of the Incredible Years Parenting Program among Korean American mothers.
A randomized controlled experimental study design was used; 29 first-generation Korean American mothers of young children (3-8 years old) were randomly assigned to intervention (n=20) and control (n=9) groups. Intervention group mothers received a 12-week parenting program. Control group mothers did not receive the intervention. Mothers reported on discipline styles (positive, appropriate, and harsh), level of acculturation, and their child's outcomes (behavioral problems and social competence) at pre-, post-, and 1-year follow-up intervals.
After completing the program, intervention group mothers significantly increased use of positive discipline as compared to control group mothers. Among intervention group mothers, high-acculturated mothers significantly increased appropriate discipline whereas low-acculturated mothers significantly decreased harsh discipline. In the 1-year follow-up, intervention group mothers maintained the significant effect for positive discipline.
Providing this program appears to be a promising way of promoting positive discipline among Korean American mothers.
Ethnographic accounts suggest that emotions are moderated in Chinese cultures and expressed openly in Mexican cultures. The authors tested this notion by comparing subjective, behavioral, and physiological aspects of emotional responses to 3 (warned, unwarned, instructed to inhibit responding) aversive acoustic startle stimuli in 95 Chinese Americans and 64 Mexican Americans. Subjective reports were consistent with ethnographic accounts; Chinese Americans reported experiencing significantly less emotion than Mexican Americans across all 3 startle conditions. Evidence from a nonemotional task suggested that these differences were not artifacts of cultural differences in the use of rating scales. Few cultural differences were found in emotional behavior or physiology, suggesting that these aspects of emotion are less susceptible to cultural influence.
This study examined the relation between parents' reactions to children's negative emotions and social competence. Additionally, the role of parental emotional distress in children's emotional socialization was examined. The emotional reactions of 57 preschoolers (33 girls, 24 boys; M age = 59.2 months) were observed during their free-play interactions. Parents (mostly mothers) completed questionnaires about their reactions to children's negative emotions. An index of children's social competence was obtained from teachers. Results indicated that the relation between harsh parental coping strategies and children's emotional responding was moderated by parental distress. In addition, the relation of the interaction of parental coping and distress to children's social competence was mediated by children's level of emotional intensity. It was concluded that distressed parents who use harsh coping strategies in response to children's negative emotions have children who express emotion in relatively intense ways. In turn, these children find it relatively difficult to behave in a socially competent manner.