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Stakeholder Participation Assessment Framework (SPAF): A theory-based strategy to plan and evaluate marine spatial planning participatory processes
Abstract
Although stakeholder participation is transversal to other steps of the Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) process, its recognition and adoption is context dependent. Considering that MSP plans need to be periodically evaluated, not only in relation to their outputs and outcomes, but also through an analysis of the processes used to achieve the results, criteria to evaluate participation throughout the whole process are needed. However, a robust and comprehensive assessment framework focused specifically on participation is not available up to date. Therefore, this study proposed an assessment for such operational analysis in order to support assessment of consequences related to the participatory strategy chosen (e.g., increased social acceptance). A Stakeholder Participation Assessment Framework (SPAF) was developed and divided in two phases: Phase I based on key theoretical aspects ‘why, who, when and how to engage stakeholders’, as well as on criteria for costs (these five criteria were divided in 15 sub-criteria, and instructions based on social science knowledge to analyse each one were given); and Phase II in which a list of questions about participatory consequences can be addressed based on specific criteria of the first phase and stakeholders' feedback. SPAF can be used not only to evaluate MSP planning cycles but also to plan meaningful participatory processes; therefore, contributing to strengthen MSP processes and to promote more horizontal and integrated ocean governance approaches.
... However, the authors add that it would be difficult to roll out similar processes to a larger scale in the current Icelandic planning landscape, as rigid institutionalised planning processes are seen as lacking transparency, communication between planners and those affected, as well as an overall policy for adaptation planning. Findings from the MSP case as well as Welling's study (2019) indicate a need for revision of planning processes and institutions in Iceland to address some of these ongoing issues. ...
... The rapid expansion of fish farming first prompted the launch of MSP and starts to come more and more into public focus (Wilke and Kristjańsdottir, 2023, in prep). Along with the multitude of issues, however, are opportunities for the integration of adaptive aquaculture management and MSP in a legal framework: Craig (2019) calls for the reformation of MSP by governments in order to legally connect aquaculture licencing procedures with MSP processes. This lack of legal accountability of licensing by MSP actors was pointed out especially by interviewees in the Eastfjords, so Craig's suggestion would be highly relevant in Icelandic MSP. ...
... This lack of legal accountability of licensing by MSP actors was pointed out especially by interviewees in the Eastfjords, so Craig's suggestion would be highly relevant in Icelandic MSP. Craig (2019) envisages this integration to manifest mandated public participation forums which in turn support adaptive governance. Many MSP processes lack the adaptability needed to deal with constantly changing marine environments, and in the Icelandic example there is no set period for a revision of the plans, and no mentioning of practical monitoring and adaptation measures. ...
Introduction
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) aims at ecosystem-based management of ocean resources that brings different stakeholders and the public together to discuss their conflicts of interest and forge a sustainable path forward. Public participation is a crucial element of MSP to make it democratically legitimate and sustainable in the long-term. MSP was formally introduced by law in Iceland in 2018 and two projects were initiated in the Westfjords and Eastfjords in 2019, with one further planned in Skjálfandi Bay.
Methods
To assess the scope and depth of public participation in those MSP projects, data was collected through semi-structured interviews (n=80), conversations, observations and document analysis during the data gathering and proposal stages of the planning processes.
Results
The results show that a limited group of people including institutional actors and formal stakeholders had been engaged in the information gathering stages of the process, but in the later phases of decision-making, local community members were notably absent.
Discussion/Conclusion
This lack of public participation highlights the need for more in-depth communication about the MSP process and marine issues in the adjacent communities as well as an urgent need for inclusion of the public into marine decision-making and MSP.
... In more practical terms, four questions guide the framework behind the design of engagement strategy and methods adequate for a specific context (Dovers et al. 2015;Quesada-Silva et al. 2019) and are thus useful for mapping the PP practices. These questions are. ...
... In line with the scope of this book, PP is viewed within the specific context of tourism-development in PAs. In both subareas, researchers have explored and conceptualized the PP process and its relevant factors (Bichler 2019;Davies et al. 2018;Islam et al. 2018a;Quesada-Silva et al. 2019). However, in terms of conceptualizing the intersection of PP, PA and tourism development, the framework of Bello et al. (2016) is a rare example. ...
... Regarding the four questions framing the practical arrangement of PP (Dovers et al. 2015;Quesada-Silva et al. 2019) in the cases studied: (i) diverse stakeholders take part in the PP process, i.e. (who), (ii) the underlying reason for engagement fulfils the legal requirement to include stakeholders in the planning process (why); (iii) participation is achieved prevailingly through face-to-face modes of group interaction (how) and (iv) is undertaken in the process of designing the ten year PA management plans (when) as suggested in the literature (Bello et al. 2016;Garrod 2003;Rowe and Frewer 2000). Furthermore, continuous narrower participation exercise is enabled through the working groups, which, however, comprise only selected stakeholders. ...
This chapter aims to contribute to the knowledge on participatory planning (PP) in the protected area (PA) management focusing on areas whose sustainability is significantly affected by excessive tourism activity. The existing literature has shown PP to be both crucial for successful PA management as well as one of the weaker links in current PA management processes. However, the analysis of PPs key features and their implementation in the PAs are not adequately covered in the literature. Thus, this chapter analyses the role and critical elements of successful PP process in PA using the case studies of two Croatian national parks (NP) that have been under significant visitor pressure over the past years (pre-COVID-19). Based on several criteria devised through a critical review of PP literature, an assessment of PP models in two NP is performed, and critical points requiring improvements identified.
... Yet, MSP is generally not well-suited to these methods because it is at once a process and an outcome (Margoluis et al., 2009a;Carneiro 2013;Woodhouse et al., 2015;Fairbanks et al., 2019), and because its large spatial scale and multi-objective nature complicate the definition of control sites and development of counterfactuals (Coetzee and Gaston 2021). Given the importance of social, political and institutional processes in setting the stage for MSP, recent evaluations have shifted toward qualitative and process-focused assessments of plan-making and discrete issues, such as stakeholder involvement (Quesada-Silva et al., 2019;Stelzenmüller et al., 2021). Such approaches have yielded new and useful information regarding public participation, process, and equity in planning (e.g., Kelly et al., 2014;Saunders et al., 2017;Smythe and McCann 2018;Finke et al., 2020;Curren et al., 2022) and are helpful for unpacking unexpected causal pathways of MSP. ...
... We define theory-based evaluation as 'an evaluation not focused only on the implementation of the intervention and its effectiveness but also on the causal mechanisms and contextual factors that underlie change' (Chen 1990;Coryn et al., 2011;Marchal et al., 2012;Brousselle and Buregeya, 2018). Theory-based evaluations encompass a range of methodologies, including contribution analysis (Mayne 2011), realist evaluation (Pawson and Tilley 1997), and theory of change (Blamey and MacKenzie 2007), among others. Theory-based evaluations are well-known in the fields of public health (e.g., Lawless et al., 2018;Malden et al., 2019) and development (e.g., Carvalho and White 2004) and have more recently been applied to conservation interventions (Belcher et al., 2017;Smallhorn-West et al., 2022), food waste policy (Busetti 2019) and the societal outcomes of research (Belcher et al., 2020). ...
... In 11 studies, the geographical focus is not specified these typically are reflection papers that do not study implementation in a particular sea-basin (see for example [25,52,54]). The largest group of papers did discuss multiple sea-basins (see for example [5,42,48]), followed by publications with a sole focus on the Baltic Sea. The low number of publications on the Black Sea basin is explainable, as only two EU Member States border this sea-basin. ...
... Description Illustrative references Sustainability Indicators for evaluation Support the process of following-up on achievements made by monitoring and reviewing from a sustainability perspective [8] Integrated socio-economic and environmental assessment Analysis aiming at evaluating and comparing the importance of maritime sectors for economic, social and environmental impacts [23,38] Evaluate monetary impact of MSP Evaluation of how MSP benefits specific blue economy sectors, with the aim to feed the results into relevant EU policies and Competent Authorities in charge of implementing MSP [14] Economic input-output analysis Evaluate the socio-economic importance of marine and coastal activities, by determining the (relative) impact of blue economy sectors or activities [37] Evaluation of legal framework Assessment of the adaptive quality of the legal framework, required in the maritime space given its many interdependencies, changing needs, political landscape and evolving scientific knowledge [45] Evaluation of ecosystem services provided Analysis of the provided ecosystem services, sometimes combined with an economic valuation of these services [10,22] Quantification of sea use intensity and conflict value Evaluation methodology to assess how MSP addresses conflicts among various sea users and the conflicts between sea uses and marine environmental protection [16] Stakeholder participation assessment framework Assessment of the degree of stakeholder involvement promoted by MSP authorities during the planning process as well as the consequences of these decisions [42] Cumulative impact assessment (or cumulative effects assessment) Evaluation of the potential direct and indirect impacts of multiple maritime activities on the environment, quantifying generated pressures on the environmental components (in current and future scenarios) [19,36] Strategic environmental assessment Integration of environmental aspects into the MSP assessment so that sustainable development is promoted [26] Generic M&E frameworks Assessment directed at supporting planners, stakeholders and the public to conclude whether the jointly set MSP objectives have been met or plausibly will be met in the future [49] Spatial mapping (GIS based) Spatial data standards and infrastructure, such as INSPIRE (Directive 2007/2/EC), to improve and strengthen the information management and data for MSP [3] Guidance for Ecosystem Based Approach A balanced approach between development needs of the maritime sectors and the natural environment [11] comprehension; and 4 -method can be used and will provide enough info on its own. The GAP analysis highlights that the generic M&E methodologies, such as sustainability indicators and integrated sustainability assessments, have the potential to cover the majority of objectives and minimum requirements of the MSP Directive. ...
... Yet, MSP is generally not well-suited to these methods because it is at once a process and an outcome (Margoluis et al., 2009a;Carneiro 2013;Woodhouse et al., 2015;Fairbanks et al., 2019), and because its large spatial scale and multi-objective nature complicate the definition of control sites and development of counterfactuals (Coetzee and Gaston 2021). Given the importance of social, political and institutional processes in setting the stage for MSP, recent evaluations have shifted toward qualitative and process-focused assessments of plan-making and discrete issues, such as stakeholder involvement (Quesada-Silva et al., 2019;Stelzenmüller et al., 2021). Such approaches have yielded new and useful information regarding public participation, process, and equity in planning (e.g., Kelly et al., 2014;Saunders et al., 2017;Smythe and McCann 2018;Finke et al., 2020;Curren et al., 2022) and are helpful for unpacking unexpected causal pathways of MSP. ...
... We define theory-based evaluation as 'an evaluation not focused only on the implementation of the intervention and its effectiveness but also on the causal mechanisms and contextual factors that underlie change' (Chen 1990;Coryn et al., 2011;Marchal et al., 2012;Brousselle and Buregeya, 2018). Theory-based evaluations encompass a range of methodologies, including contribution analysis (Mayne 2011), realist evaluation (Pawson and Tilley 1997), and theory of change (Blamey and MacKenzie 2007), among others. Theory-based evaluations are well-known in the fields of public health (e.g., Lawless et al., 2018;Malden et al., 2019) and development (e.g., Carvalho and White 2004) and have more recently been applied to conservation interventions (Belcher et al., 2017;Smallhorn-West et al., 2022), food waste policy (Busetti 2019) and the societal outcomes of research (Belcher et al., 2020). ...
... The NSD is a unique case because it was organized as a platform to enable stakeholdersincluding the government-to explore, reflect upon and negotiate potential institutional changes. As such, it can be seen as an example of a platform, or "round table" (Olsen et al., 2014) for "meaningful participation" (Pomeroy and Douvere, 2008;Ritchie and Ellis, 2010;Gopnik et al., 2012;Kidd and Shaw, 2014;Olsen et al., 2014;Jay et al., 2016;Morf et al., 2019;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019;Santos et al., 2020;Vince and Day, 2020), where stakeholders become part of collective decision-making processes. Examples of such platforms for meaningful participation are lacking in practice Twomey and O'Mahony, 2019). ...
... Literature on stakeholder integration in MSP generally argues for broad involvement of stakeholders (Reay and Jones, 2016;Flannery et al., 2018;Grimmel et al., 2019;Morf et al., 2019;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). However, some authors question whether smaller, more focused inclusion efforts might be more successful (Smythe and McCann, 2018;Vince and Day, 2020). ...
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) literature identifies various dimensions of integration to deal with fragmented, sectoral, and ad hoc approaches to managing various uses offshore. However, the spatial dimension of MSP has receded into the background, the dimensions of integration remain ill-defined, and there is a lack of appreciation for the institutional changes that these integration efforts induce and require. Moreover, in light of the urgency of energy transition, offshore wind farms (OWF) are often prioritized over other interests in MSP practice. This paper uses the case of the Dutch North Sea Dialogues (NSD) to explore to what extent actors during the NSD pursued formal and informal institutional change to progress the various dimensions of integration in line with the normative principles of MSP to improve spatial integration between OWF and other interests at sea. The NSD provided an, initially temporary, platform that proved key for stakeholders to pursue subsequent formal and informal institutional changes that progressed integration in MSP. While formal institutional changes were achieved during the NSD, informal institutional changes also proved fundamental in progressing various dimensions of integration. The NSD shows that incremental institutional change can be effective in progressing integration, but also shows the limits to this approach. The place-based and temporal dimensions of integration require additional attention because this is where stakeholders most notably rely on existing institutional frameworks and conflicts are most prominent.
... The benefits of stakeholder engagement for knowledge coproduction include different perspectives, interpretation of findings, and scrutiny of assumptions [23,24] cited by Ref. [25]. The reasons for engagement include an increased sense of ownership, transparency and trust, and incorporation of stakeholder knowledge, to name a few [26]. Additionally, co-creation practices are advocated for by Ref. [27] for managing complex systems when uncertainty is present. ...
Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) constitutes a global commitment that necessitates the development of innovative strategies to integrate research, policy, and practice effectively. In the European Union (EU), multi-stakeholder engagement has become a vital strategy for tackling complex climate and energy research challenges. This approach is crucial to establishing research priorities that effectively address SDGs 7 and 13. Despite its recognized importance, the existing literature offers no comprehensive overview and guidance on effective multi-stakeholder engagement in EU-funded climate and energy research. This study shows that a scoping review, combined with stakeholder co-design workshops, can reveal key gaps and inform guidelines for robust multi-stakeholder engagement. A systematic review of 23 published articles using criteria drawn from the broader stakeholder engagement literature found that engagement terminology is rarely defined and often used interchangeably, indicating a gap between the literature and its real-world application. This study also provides guidelines for conducting effective stakeholder engagement, drawing upon the broader stakeholder engagement literature, the outcomes of the scoping review, and lessons learned during the European Climate and Energy Modelling forum project. Three co-design workshops engaging 85 stakeholders conducted in 2021 and 2022 uncovered 83 research priorities centred on policy, regulation, and using energy and climate models to inform policymaking. These research priorities are provided as an open data set. The findings of the study underscore the need for standardized engagement practices to enhance the impact of EU-funded climate and energy research and guide future policy and research initiatives.
... Stakeholder theory also emphasizes the importance of the participation of all stakeholders in the monitoring and evaluation of programs (Langrafe et al., 2020;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). Moreno et al., (2023) argues that stakeholder analysis is a very effective tool to understand and manage the complexities involved in handling complex social problems such as stunting. ...
Child stunting is a significant problem in Indonesia and requires special attention even though the government has implemented various programs to overcome it. The formulation of this study is: 1) How is the management of stunting handling based on the government's perspective? 2) What is the role of parties involved in the prevention and handling of stunting? 3) What is an effective stunting management model? The objectives of this research are: 1) The implementation of local government stunting handling policies; 2) Analyze cross-sector collaboration and active participation of all stakeholders; and 3) Formulate an integrated model for handling stunting and the implementation of system synergy. The design of this study uses a qualitative approach with a phenomenological which was carried out in the period from January 2023 to September 2024 in Indonesia. The informants interviewed in this study were 60 people recruited using the purposive sampling method also involving Focus Group Discussions (FGD). The results of this study identify that the success of stunting reduction efforts depends on effective collaboration between various stakeholders. The study highlights that social capital, which consists of social networks, collective norms, and trusts, plays an important role in strengthening stunting reduction efforts. Further research is needed to explore the specific impacts of social capital in other contexts in Indonesia and to develop more adaptive intervention models to local social and cultural dynamics.
... to fortify governance from the ground up, fostering inclusive decision-making that incorporates a spectrum of perspectives, interests, and needs [4]. This inclusive approach fosters stakeholder buy-in, enhances trust, and deepens comprehension of the diverse interests, values, and requirements of the involved parties [5]. ...
Background
Since the 1990s, Tanzania has actively encouraged stakeholder participation in health services through Health Facility Governing Committees (HFGCs) to promote social accountability within its broader health system reforms. While previous studies have explored the functionality of the HFGCs, this study aimed to understand whether stakeholder participation in the HFGCs contributes to promoting social accountability in the health system.
Methods
Between July and October 2022, a qualitative study in two districts of Tanzania was carried out. Selected participants, knowledgeable about HFGCs, included facility managers, HFGC members representing diverse stakeholders in the committees, local government leaders, district health secretaries, and religious leaders. Twenty in-depth interviews were conducted and analysed thematically.
Results
Findings revealed low stakeholder participation in the committees´ activities, partly due to the committees´ inability to effectively sensitize and mobilize them. Inadequate support from local government leaders and the dominance of the facility managers in the committees´ activities, also affected the committees´ role as promoters of social accountability.
Conclusion
The HFGCs in Tanzania have faced challenges in promoting social accountability due to weak stakeholder participation. Key issues include limited awareness of HFGCs, inadequate mobilization, and insufficient training, supervision, and guidelines from district councils. Additionally, flawed election processes, leadership interference, lack of political support, and limited financial resources undermined the committees’ effectiveness. To improve engagement, district councils should enhance stakeholder sensitization, build HFGC capacity, ensure that facilities allocate 5% of their budgets for committee activities, monitor performance, and encourage local government support for HFGCs.
... Benefits of stakeholder engagement for knowledge co-production include different perspectives, interpretation of findings, and scrutiny of assumptions [21,22] cited in [23]. The reasons for engagement include an increased sense of ownership, transparency and trust, and incorporation of stakeholder knowledge, to name a few [24]. Additionally, co-creation practices are advocated for by [25] for managing complex systems when uncertainty is present. ...
A fast-paced policy context is characteristic of energy and climate research, which strives to develop solutions to wicked problems such as climate change. Funding agencies in the European Union recognize the importance of linking research and policy in climate and energy research. This calls for an increased understanding of how stakeholder engagement can effectively be used to co-design research questions that include stakeholders' concerns. This paper reviews the current literature on stakeholder engagement, from which we create a set of criteria. These are used to critically assess recent and relevant papers on stakeholder engagement in climate and energy projects. We obtained the papers from a scoping review of stakeholder engagement through workshops in EU climate and energy research. With insights from the literature and current EU climate and energy projects, we developed a workshop programme for stakeholder engagement. This programme was applied to the European Climate and Energy Modelling Forum project, aiming to co-design the most pressing and urgent research questions according to European stakeholders. The outcomes include 82 co-designed and ranked research questions for nine specific climate and energy research themes. Findings from the scoping review indicate that papers rarely define the term 'stakeholder'. Additionally, the concepts of co-creation, co-design, and co-production are used interchangeably and often without definition. We propose that workshop planners use stakeholder identification and selection methods from the broader stakeholder engagement literature.
... The value of including stakeholders in MSP processes as early and broadly as possible has been widely emphasised [25,38]. While participation is no panacea (e.g. in terms of power asymmetries, marginalisation and the possibility for conflict escalation [23], it is acknowledged that broad and early involvement can improve legitimacy, extend the knowledge base upon which the plan can build, and generate greater understanding of MSP and ownership of a plan (e.g. ...
... Participation should make coastal and marine planning processes more effective, just and legitimate when it is started early in the process and engaging a wide variety of stakeholders and community members [3][4][5][6][7]. The communication between planners and participants must be characterised by shared norms, expectations, and trust [8,9], for participating at all is a largely voluntary activity for those involved [10]. ...
Amid a changing global climate, Northern coastal communities face a variety of challenges to their livelihoods, which are dependent on marine resources. Marine spatial planning (MSP) provides opportunities for cooperation between authorities, stakeholders, and the public to ensure sustainable marine management. Public participation is a crucial element of coastal and marine planning for its long-term democratic legitimacy and sustainability. However, the process of MSP is often wrought with conflict and challenges of involving stakeholders and the public in decisions concerning an often-contested marine space. Whereas coastal zone planning (CZP) is well established in Norway and a reiteration of previous CZP was conducted 2020–23, MSP is new to Iceland, and has only recently been launched with its first pilot plans in 2019. This study investigates how participation in coastal and marine planning processes compare between Iceland and Norway and what lessons can be shared between them. Data were collected from two case studies in the Tromsø region in Norway and the Westfjords of Iceland through analysis of planning documentation, literature review, as well as participant observation in the Westfjords and 11 semi-structured interviews across both case studies. The results show that public participation is formally integral to both processes but, in practice, varies considerably. Both planning processes are driven by the expansion of the aquaculture industry, and a variety of issues faced during the planning process are similar. In Norway, public participation is politically desired and guided by a participation strategy emphasising synergies between expert and local knowledge. In the Tromsø region, meaningful public participation varied across municipalities and issues regarding Indigenous participation remain. In Iceland, there is little evident political expectation of public engagement, and the process is characterised by a passive approach to participation that aims to inform the public but does not include wider sharing of decision-making power. The findings do not only make clear that a revision of current public participation processes is needed in both case studies but also point towards wider issues in marine governance that have consequences for blue justice, such as the exclusion of groups in decision-making, lack of public discussion of marine issues and top–down governance supporting established power hierarchies.
... stakeholders are all persons (or a group of people) having a specific interest in the implementation of a proposed project and who are required to make a specific contribution to the implementation of this project. They can directly or indirectly and positively or negatively influence the process and the results of the projects implementation (Mendelow, 1981;Nastran, 2014;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). ...
There are two goals of this introduction to the collection of workshop scenarios. First is to explain the logic of this collection, and the second – to present the role of tutor conducting the workshop. This collection of workshop scenarios is a manual for teachers developed as an output of the project called ‘SPOT. Sustainable
Spatial Planning of Tourism Destinations’. The project was funded under the Erasmus+ Programme (agreement No. 2019-1-PL01-KA203-064946) and conducted by the consortium of the following universities and research institutes: University of Lodz (Poland, leader of the consortium), Inland Norway University of
Applied Sciences (Norway), Institute of Geography and Spatial Organisation Polish Academy of Science (Poland), Mersin University (Turkey), Polytechnic of Leiria (Portugal), and Politecnico di Torino (Italy).
The course about sustainable spatial planning of tourism destinations was designed to help the students obtain an understanding of the nature and driving forces behind the tourism industry by focusing on tourism spatial planning. The course students will be able to identify independently the key issues and problems, and
propose solutions to them in the development and evaluation of tourism spatial planning. The course will provide a conceptual framework for theoretical and practical issues, and it offers a foundation for further innovative teaching and learning. The manual could be useful for tourism spatial planning teachers in different geographical, cultural or social contexts. However, the range of possible applications is definitely wider than that. The mindset, approaches and techniques presented in this publication may prove useful also for educators in other fields, in which holistic and long-term planning is concerned.
... MSP processes are more sustainable and more likely to be accepted by communities when broad public participation is ensured throughout the process [16]. The wide-ranging participation of citizens is necessary for a joint outcome and to fully reap the benefits of MSP [17]. Broad participation is vital to MSP for generating community buy-in, fostering justice, integrating local knowledge, and generating ownership, transparency, and trust, as well as establishing networks, building capacity, and raising awareness of environmental issues. ...
As the global climate is changing dramatically, the Westfjords of Iceland are facing a multitude of challenges, including changing weather patterns, sea level rise, and invasive species. In order to cope with the recent climatic changes—many of which present great uncertainties to livelihoods—strategies must be developed to plan and adapt for the future. Iceland has recently launched marine spatial planning (MSP) endeavours, and one of the first planning processes has been conducted in the Westfjords. MSP presents opportunities for authorities, stakeholders, and the public to come together to forge a sustainable path ahead for marine areas that are under increasing pressure from human activities. However, MSP comes with its own considerable challenges as it attempts to engage stakeholders and the general public in decisions about an ‘invisible’ space largely beneath the surface of the sea. In this paper, the uncertainties of the environmental changes will be explored in conjunction with the multitude of societal challenges to coastal and marine planning in the Westfjords to establish Iceland’s unique context for MSP and to make recommendations for its development. Data from the planning documents as well as from semi-structured interviews and a workshop conducted in the Westfjords will be analysed and discussed. The results show both an urgent environmental need to take action to adapt to ongoing climate change effects and a complex societal structure that favours those who already have power and influence over others. Our recommendations include reforming the Icelandic MSP process with a view to strengthening the public participatory channels as well as the transparency, trust, and accessibility of the process.
... Whether in East Africa, Southeast Asia, or in Latin America, these communities have survived and are resilient, with their own knowledge that they carry of their own development and structures. Inclusive development may go beyond the trend in recent decades of participatory development modeling, which is people-oriented development focused on improving the quality of participation in local societies to espouse the realization of self-reliance to foster sustainable development and social justice (Picard and Groelsema 2015;Moore et al. 2019;Quesada-Silva et al. 2019). Development is only inclusive if donors and implementers alike collaborate with these communities as equal decision-makers in all policy/programming processes. ...
Billions in development aid is provided annually by international donors in the Majority World, much of which funds health equity. Yet, common neocolonial practices persist in development that compromise what is done in the name of well-intentioned policymaking and programming. Based on a qualitative analysis of fifteen case studies presented at a 2022 conference, this research examines trends involving unethical partnerships, policies, and practices in contemporary global health. The analysis identifies major modern-day issues of harmful policy and programming in international aid. Core issues include inequitable partnerships between and representation of international stakeholders and national actors, abuse of staff and unequal treatment, and new forms of microaggressive practices by Minority World entities on low-/middle-income nations (LMICs), made vulnerable by severe poverty and instability. When present, these issues often exacerbate institutionalized discrimination, hostile work environments, ethnocentrism, and poor sustainability in development. These unbalanced systems perpetuate a negative development culture and can place those willing to speak out at risk. At a time when the world faces increased threats including global warming and new health crises, development and global health policy and practice must evolve through inclusive dialogue and collaborative effort.
... Whether in East Africa, Southeast Asia, or in Latin America, these communities have survived and are resilient, with their own knowledge that they carry of their own development and structures. Inclusive development may go beyond the trend in recent decades of participatory development modeling, which is people-oriented development focused on improving the quality of participation in local societies to espouse the realization of self-reliance to foster sustainable development and social justice (Picard and Groelsema 2015;Moore et al. 2019;Quesada-Silva et al. 2019). Development is only inclusive if donors and implementers alike collaborate with these communities as equal decision-makers in all policy/programming processes. ...
... stakeholders are all persons (or a group of people) having a specific interest in the implementation of a proposed project and who are required to make a specific contribution to the implementation of this project. They can directly or indirectly and positively or negatively influence the process and the results of the projects implementation (Mendelow, 1981;Nastran, 2014;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). ...
The general purpose of this workshop is to create an active learning environment for students in which they can practice and experience a real-life participatory process and knowledge-acquiring method within the context of a given planning process and/or problem in the selected case study area. The workshop's main objective is to show students how to contribute to planning practices that genuinely make sense of local knowledge while determining what to do in the case study area.
... Within these MSP processes, power can be mobilised to marginalise particular groups of marine actors and "herd their participation and ways of knowing toward achieving limited policy outcomes" (Tafon 2018, p. 258). Furthermore, several participatory approaches that governments have used in MSP initiatives, such as townhall-style meetings, tend to take place during the latter stages of planning processes and seldom have a real impact on plan objectives Quesada-Silva et al. 2019). These processes are highly tokenistic, focusing on providing the appearance of inclusion and allowing governments to fulfil participatory obligations without meaningfully engaging with the public. ...
Over the last decade, Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) has become one of the key components of marine governance. In the European Union, member states are working towards the development of their first plans under the Maritime Spatial Planning Directive. Internationally, UNESCO and the European Commission have launched their MSP Global initiative to speed up the implementation of MSP around the world. MSP is also framed as being a key mechanism for sustainably realising the benefits of the Blue Economy and emerging Green Deals. During this same period, however, a substantial body of critical academic work has emerged that questions whether the implementation of MSP will transform unsustainable marine governance and management practices. This scholarship illustrates that the current trajectory of many MSP initiatives is to preserve the status quo and that they fail to adequately address longstanding marine governance issues. Drawing on Flyvbjerg’s vital treatise on phronetic social science, this chapter will explore: where is MSP going; who gains and loses, and how they do so; is this desirable, and if not, what can be done to make MSP matter? I particularly focus on mechanisms of winning and losing, characterising them as key tensions in MSP processes that can be unsettled to make MSP more transformative.
... Iniciamos en 2009 un proceso de investigación no planificado (Tabla 1), en el que se han combinado distintas estrategias: grupos focales, talleres, foros participativos, entrevistas en profundidad y cuestionarios se han ido combinando en una perspectiva marco que encaja en el denominado stakeholders analysis (Maya-Jariego et al., 2016, Quesada-Silva et al. 2019) y en las denominadas metodologías participativas (Florido, 2021). En la fecha inicial, el papel de las RMIP ya era un tema que atraía la atención de colegas de antropología de la pesca (Jentoft et al, 2011;Pascual-Fernández & De la Cruz Modino, 2011), por lo que uno de los autores, David Florido 2 , empezó a asistir a unos grupos focales que Ecologistas en Acción, una NGO ambientalista, organizaba con el apoyo de la cofradía local de pescadores, en la sede de ésta. ...
Entre 2010 y hasta la actualidad ha discurrido un proceso de activación para la declaración de una reserva marina de interés pesquero (RMIP, una de las posibles figuras de protección de espacios marinos en la legislación española) en el entorno del puerto de Conil de la Frontera (Cádiz, España), aún no concluido. Territorialmente, la zona inicialmente propuesta se extiende entre el islote de Sancti-Petri (Castillo de Hércules) y el cabo de Trafalgar, separados ambos puntos por 18 millas náuticas (Figura 1 y 2). En la zona propuesta para la reserva marina también se instala una almadraba. Con la participación de organizaciones ambientalistas, personal académico y el sector pesquero, en primera instancia, pero con la incorporación de otros actores a lo largo de este proceso, se ha puesto de manifiesto la dificultad de lograr un espacio compartido de discusión y toma de decisiones para la aprobación de la propuesta. Se explica el proceso metodológico y el mapa de actores con diversos usos, expectativas y experiencias sobre el territorio; los conflictos que vienen emergiendo entre los usuarios, en particular, los que enfrentan a los pescadores de arrastre a los pescadores de pequeña escala y a éstos con un segmento particular de los pescadores recreativos, los pescadores submarinos; o la ausencia de una tradición de colaboración entre la administración pesquera y los pescadores recreativos. Como cuestiones más de fondo, y en relación directa con la temática de este libro, la disparidad de perspectivas y de marcos de legitimación que, por un lado, enfrenta a pescadores de pequeña escala y a pescadores submarinos; por otro, a las dificultades de entendimiento entre el conocimiento científico basado en la biología marina-que es el que valida las decisiones adoptadas por la administración del estado en materia pesquera, mediante el Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO)-y el conocimiento de los actores y usuarios que se apropian material y simbólicamente de la franja costera en discusión, mediante distintas estrategias, tanto extractivas como discursivas. Describiremos los procedimientos mediante los que el conocimiento de los distintos actores se incorporó para la identificación territorial de usos, la intensidad de los mismos, la delimitación perimetral de la zona y las propuestas de reservas integrales de la RMIP, en las distintas fases de un proceso político dilatado y complejo. Metodológicamente, nos hemos basado en el uso de técnicas participativas bajo la coordinación de un grupo promotor liderado por organizaciones ambientalistas y personal académico (antropología social) en una colaboración estrecha con pescadores profesionales.
... These two statements were found to present issues of compatibility and consistency, while there is not a clear common issue identified, one of the statements -"should have an inclusive and widespread approach" -may suggest that some stakeholders perceive certain mechanisms of surveillance and inspection as preventing their effective dialogue and inclusion in the decision-making process. Issues of this nature could be addressed through the development of a mature and transparent participatory MSP stakeholder engagement and decision-making process, establishing a more trust relationship between the parties [21]. ...
The Maritime Spatial Planning process plans towards a desired future (Vision/Goal). Such vision is usually an integration of various aspirations from different stakeholders and sectors that depend on the related policy/governance framework. In this sense, a tool such as scenario-building is of paramount importance to MSP once it helps decision-makers visualize the future that might unfold due to specific the actions/policies needed to make such a future more likely to happen. Along these lines, this work presents the methodology and results of the scenario building process developed and applied in the Macaronesia Maritime Spatial Planning (MarSP) project, for the Autonomous Region of Azores. The methodology is structured in four main steps: (i) setting MSP objectives based on policy review and following stakeholders’ inputs; (ii) identifying key objectives after consultation with regional experts; (iii) developing scenario storylines; and (iv) balancing across scenarios based on feedback from stakeholders’ engagement. Three main pre-established scenarios were developed, balancing the pillars of sustainable development, namely: “Blue Society,” “Blue Growth”, and “Blue Development”. In a consultative and participatory process, the three scenarios were later modified and validated, integrating the preferences of stakeholders, being the most voted (preferred) scenario “Blue Development”. Results highlight the importance of applying a participatory approach to scenario building in MSP to understand the preferences and expectations of different stakeholders. The methodology can be relevant and adjustable to other regions, tailored to specific settings, in support of decision making towards an adaptive MSP process.
... Unfortunately, monitoring and evaluation of MSP are commonly under-funded and under-prioritized, making it difficult to assess whether the approach is living up to these expectations. Multiple outcome evaluation frameworks have been proposed (see Orr et al., 2008;Carneiro, 2013;Stelzenmüller et al., 2013;Ehler, 2014;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019), yet comprehensive evaluations are rare, leaving much about MSP and its ability to effectively deliver environmental, social, and economic benefits unknown (Carneiro, 2013;Stelzenmüller et al., 2021). When evaluations do occur, investigations tend to either focus on the planning process itself as opposed to the outcomes of planning endeavors (Stelzenmüller et al., 2021), or on more easily quantifiable outputs (e.g. ...
Many coastal nations have embraced marine spatial planning (MSP) as a solution to maintaining ecological integrity of marine environments, while ensuring continued provisioning of economic, social, and cultural benefits. However, evidence supporting the idea that plans achieve—or are likely to achieve—these goals is limited. One gap in our understanding stems from questions surrounding the metrics against which MSP success is measured. Evaluation can be based on explicitly stated objectives, or might include metrics corresponding to broad social–ecological goals. This paper compares aspirational MSP goals gleaned from a literature review to the objectives extracted from 50+ finalized and implemented plans to better understand: (1) how well these two groupings align, and (2) in what ways any misalignment may shape MSP evaluation. Findings show that plans prioritize the environment, economy, and governance, while often excluding objectives related to cultural heritage, human well-being, Indigenous rights, human safety, and climate change. Social and cultural objectives have become more prevalent over time, yet overall stated objectives remain distinct from theorized MSP goals. As international efforts aim to expand MSP, narrowing the gap between how it is perceived and how its outcomes are evaluated is critical to better understanding what it is likely to achieve.
... Reasons for the notorious neglect of this sector are manifold and comprise spatial variations of fishing grounds which often are not spatially confined [16], the lack of participatory planning approaches or political preferences of single sectors during the plan development [42]. Recent studies highlight the integrative capacities of MSP through frameworks [43], participatory approaches [44], or specific management measures [45]. Management measures that can enhance the adaptive capacities of MSP also comprise the co-location of human activities in a given marine space [46,47]. ...
Offshore renewables (OR), such as offshore wind farms, are a key pillar to address increasing energy demands and the global transition to a carbon-free power sector. The transition to ever more occupied marine spaces, often facilitated by marine spatial planning (MSP), increases the conflict potential with free ranging marine sectors such as fisheries. Here, we quantified for the first time the direct impact of current and future OR development on fisheries across European seas. We defined direct impact as the average annual fishing effort (h) overlapping with OR planning sites and applied an ensemble approach by deploying and harmonising various fisheries data to optimise spatial coverage for the European seas. The North Sea region will remain the centre of OR development for a long time, but a substantial increase of conflict potential between these sectors will also occur in other European sea basins after 2025. Across all sea basins, fishing fleets deploying bottom contacting gears targeting flatfish and crustaceans are and will be affected the most by the already constructed and planned OR. Our results provide a solid basis towards an understanding of the socio-economic effects of OR development on European fisheries. We argue that European MSP processes need to adopt common strategies to produce standardised and harmonised socio-economic data to understand implications of OR on free-ranging marine activities such as fisheries.
... The participation rate at each planning stage is sufficient only for those entities that are legally bound to participate (e.g., mayors, councillors, citizens), as confirmed by research conducted by Quesada-Silva et al. (2019). Participation of other stakeholders is insufficient, especially in the phase of ongoing activity, final control and informing stakeholders of planning documents. ...
In the past decade, the issue of stakeholder participation has been researched in the context of sustainable development. Indeed, new approaches to sustainable development point out the role of relationship-building with stakeholders and search for suitable tools how to involve stakeholders in the local strategic development. This paper deals with stakeholder participation at the local self-government level and its development. As such, it presents results obtained by a research conducted in the conditions of the Slovak Republic. The first primary research was carried out in 2009-2011 on a sample of 100 local self-governments, the second primary research was repeatedly carried out in 2011 - 2013 with a sample of 286 municipalities. This data was complemented by secondary data sources and primary data collection by the Delphi method among experts in the fields of public administration, public policy, economics and regional development. The analysis reveals potential opportunities for the development of local governance instruments with an emphasis on the involvement of stakeholders in local policy and strategic planning of territorial development in a typical post-socialist country of the Central and Eastern European region.
... Conversely, the opportunities are numerous and diverse: joint projects (e.g., border area control, rescue, and audits; conservation and MPAs; regulating, planning uses and activities); sharing knowledge to find solutions, and standardization of collected information to compare results. Previous research shows the importance of participatory processes in MSP, not only in the proposal phase but also during the evaluation of the proposals made [43]. ...
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is dealt at a national level, but generally it includes ecological, physical processes and administrative jurisdictions of multiple countries. The transboundary cooperation on MSP is a complex challenge, that could be better addressed with a participatory process, to achieve coherent planning processes in shared marine socio-ecological systems. This paper focuses on the process followed to reach consensus on cross-border MSP in archipelagic remote regions with no visible and distant maritime borders. Among the results obtained is the design of a European Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira & Azores) Ocean Pilot Program to strengthen marine governance. This work was part of the results of the EU project ‘Macaronesia Maritime Spatial Planning (MarSP)’
... Tanto la gestión costera, como la PEM, coinciden en su enfoque ecosistémico, teniendo en cuenta la ▶ 11 ◀ interacción e integración de procesos tierra y mar, a través de una gestión integrada y multisectorial liderada por parte de equipos interinstitucionales permitiendo un uso sostenible de los recursos costeros y marinos. Una gestión y planificación para las cuales la participación pública es primordial, tanto en el desarrollo de estas políticas públicas, como a la hora del compromiso en su eficiente implementación (Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). ...
Since 1997, IOC-UNESCO has been developing and applying the concepts of coastal and marine management and planning, as part of its institutional strategy. The conclusions of the first international conference on marine spatial planning (MSP) in 2006 led to the publication of the first step-by-step guide to support IOC-UNESCO’s Member States in the development of marine spatial plans. IOC-UNESCO and the European Commission committed themselves in 2017 to promote the development of MSP at global level through a roadmap (MSProadmap) open to all countries of the world. Ibero-American countries are active beneficiaries of this roadmap and the MSPglobal Initiative, in its pilot cases in the Western Mediterranean and the Southeast Pacific. The objective is to support the implementation of actions to advance national planning processes considering transboundary aspects in favor of institutional exchange and cooperation at regional level. This article puts into context the present and future joint work of the IOC-UNESCO and its Ibero-American Member States, in line with the commitments and objectives of the Agenda 2030 and the Ocean Decade (2021-2030).
... Ademais, o PEM tem se validado entre as ferramentas de gestão e ordenamento territorial marinho em razão de seu pressuposto de alto grau de participação(Flannery & McAteer, 2020), integrando diversos setores públicos, privados e da sociedade. Em termos de sua implementação,Quesada-Silva et al. (2019) destacam que a realização de processos participativos, priorizando decisões de baixo para cima aumentam as chances de execução de um projeto de PEM e o reconhecimento de sua legitimidade. Assim, no decor- ...
Coastal and marine spaces all around the world are committed to a current global sustainability agendas, in the seas and coasts, as well as their public policies and territorial governance agendas have received a special role in international discussions on the directions of development and conservation. In this context, the establishment of the Sustainable Development Agenda for 2030 (Agenda 2030) by the United Nations (UN) stands out which incorporated Objective 14, seeking to establish a science-political-society interface and strengthening the management of oceans and coastal zones for the benefit of humankind. In this scenario, in line with the global agendas and in order to identify and fill gaps in the interface between produced science and public policies for Brazilian marine-coastal environments, the initiative “Programa Horizonte Oceânico Brasileiro (HOB)” was created. The theme “Marine Space Planning (MSP)” is extremely relevant in the scope of the HOB, given its proposal for innovation through an ecosystem approach. Furthermore, MSP has been adopted as a mechanism for environmental policies in the international intergovernmental sector in countries with different levels of development, as a public policy and operational platform in planning and management of uses in the marine-coastal space. In this context, the activities of the Marine Space Planning Team (Team PEM) were established, which has been producing knowledge to strengthen the MSP in the path of collective inter-network learning and disseminating information that can assist future research, management and ordering actions in Brazilian seas and coasts, such as the publication of the.“I Volume Horizonte Oceânico Brasileiro” (Chapter 5 - Planejamento Espacial Marinho: Desafios e Oportunidades para Inserção Inter-Redes no Pré Planejamento Espacial Marinho Brasileiro) and the “Síntese para Tomadores de Decisão – I VOLUME HOB” (Planejamento Espacial Marinho: Desafios e Caminhos para sua Implementação) and the webinar of Marine Spatial Planning. This article aims to present the production of general knowledge about MSP by this group and its potential interaction with different systems (social, economic and political), looking to contribute and improving the information base of Brazilian coastal governance and also to subsidize possible initiatives related to the theme.
... Hence, failure to adequately engage stakeholders beyond 'consultation' on plans, particularly where stakeholders are shown to hold disparate views is highlighted as a weakness which could undermine implementation of subsequent plans (Asirin et al., 2018). Our review also revealed the potential of decision support tools to aid the evaluation of the plan-making process (Pınarbaşı et al., 2017;Quesada-Silva et al., 2019). ...
Marine spatial planning (MSP) has rapidly become the most widely used integrated, place-based management approach in the marine environment. Monitoring and evaluation of MSP is key to inform best practices, adaptive management and plan iteration. While standardised evaluation frameworks cannot be readily applied, accounting for evaluation essentials such as the definition of evaluation objectives, indicators and stakeholder engagement of stakeholders is a prerequisite for meaningful evaluation outcomes. By way of a literature review and eleven practical MSP case studies, we analysed present day trends in evaluation approaches and unravelled the adoption of evaluation essentials for three categories for monitoring and evaluation for plan making, plan outcomes, and policy implementation. We found that at a global scale the focus of MSP evaluation has shifted over the past decade from evaluating predominantly plan outcomes towards the evaluation of plan making. Independent of the scope of the evaluation, evaluation approaches varied greatly from formal and structured processes, building for instance on MSP goals and objectives, to informal processes based on stakeholder interviews. We noted a trend in the adoption of formalised approaches where MSP evaluations have increasingly become linked to MSP policy goals and objectives. However, the enhanced use of MSP objectives and indicators did not result in a more straightforward reporting of outcomes, e.g. such as the achievement of specific MSP objectives. Overall, we found weak linkages between defined MSP objectives, indicators and available monitoring data. While the apparent shift towards a focus on objectives is promising, we highlight the need of fit-for-purpose monitoring data to enable effective evaluation of those objectives. Hence, effective MSP and adaptive management processes require customised and concurrent monitoring and evaluation strategies and procedures. We argue that evaluation processes would also benefit from a better understanding of the general environmental, socioeconomic and socio-cultural effects of MSP. Therefore, to understand better environmental effects of MSP, we praise that forthcoming MSP processes need to deepen the understanding and considerations of cause-effect pathways between human activities and changes of ecosystem state through the adoption of targeted cumulative effects assessments.
This quantitative study employs Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to investigate the intricate relationships between stakeholder participation, green supply chain management, urban forest management quality, and ecosystem service quality in Palangkaraya, Indonesia. Survey data collected from stakeholders engaged in urban forest management and environmental conservation efforts were subjected to Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to validate the measurement model. Path Analysis was then conducted to explore direct and mediated effects, with a focus on the mediating role of urban forest management quality as assessed through SEM. The findings reveal significant positive relationships between stakeholder participation, green supply chain management, urban forest management quality, and ecosystem service quality. Notably, urban forest management quality emerges as a mediator between stakeholder participation and ecosystem service quality, as well as between green supply chain management and ecosystem service quality. This study contributes to the empirical understanding of urban environmental management dynamics, offering insights that can inform policy and practice for promoting environmental sustainability and enhancing ecosystem service provision in Palangkaraya.
Stakeholder participation (SP) is widely acknowledged in the literature as a vital tool for improving coastal zone management (CZM) and facilitating conflict mediation, resource allocation, and program implementation. However, in Spain, as in other countries, participation in CZM faces significant challenges, including underrepresentation, limited stakeholder influence in decision-making, and various resource-related issues. Despite the robust theoretical framework established in the literature, practical methods for evaluating SP and overcoming these challenges are lacking, with most efforts focused on assessing processes rather than outcomes. This study addresses this gap by proposing a systematic assessment approach built on criteria and operational indicators capable of assessing stakeholder participation in CZM from the process to its outcomes. It also examines stakeholder participation in PAs and CZs of Cádiz Bay (Spain) through the application of this approach to identify which of these challenges are present in the region, highlighting areas for improvement. The approach was developed through a multistep process, including identifying participation components via a literature review, categorizing these components into each participation dimension (who, when, how, why), formulating criteria and indicators based on these components, consulting and validating with experts, and operationalizing the approach through an analysis matrix. Data collection involved reviewing official documents, minutes of participatory arenas, and stakeholder interviews. The approach comprises six criteria - representativeness, timing, promotion, accountability and clearness, influence, and effectiveness - providing a valuable tool for understanding the progression and outcomes of participatory processes. However, the findings also highlight the need for refinement to better capture the quality and significance of participation and to make it more applicable beyond scientific research contexts. The application of the approach in Cádiz Bay revealed challenges such as underrepresentation, limited influence, resource constraints, transparency issues, and effectiveness in fostering cooperation and trust. Participation also appears to be sectorized, reflecting the fragmented institutional framework in the CZM of Cádiz Bay.
Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) has received increasing attention from policy-makers around the world as an ecosystem-based approach to the waters under the jurisdiction of coastal states, with the aim of enhancing socioeconomic development while promoting environmental protection and conservation. However, this planning process requires abundant and diverse types of data and information that are not easily operationalised in a spatially efficient manner for MSP. Aiming to overcome this barrier, the present study proposes a suitability zoning methodology based on an ad hoc developed decision support system (i.e. INDIMAR) capable of integrating the required spatial data collected and structured around a proposed suitability framework organised around five key components: environmental sensitivity, marine conservation, natural oceanographic potential, land-sea interactions, and operational maritime uses and activities. This suitability zoning framework and decision support system was tested for individual maritime activities in different Atlantic outermost regions, configuring different use cases: aquaculture in the Canary Islands, offshore wind farms in the Madeira archipelago and aggregate extraction in the Azores. The proposed methodology has resulted in a flexible model that identifies the most suitable sites for the sustainable development of maritime activities, taking into account the natural potential and compatibility with nature conservation, while mitigating potential environmental impacts and minimising conflicts with other coastal and maritime activities. However, it's important to note that the results of this study are strongly influenced by the availability and quality of data, identifying the main gaps in each region that are recommended to be filled in view of the formal processes of MSP. In essence, this study underlines the broad applicability of the proposed methodology and framework, which can be adapted and implemented in other regions after due consideration of several aspects such as: data availability, contextual differences, legal and governance frameworks, institutional capacity and spatial interactions. By taking these aspects into account, the resulting decision support system has the potential to provide valuable insights, thereby increasing the effectiveness of MSP efforts.
Marine spatial planning (MSP) was developed as a process for managing the marine environment under the scenario of increased demand for space with different uses and economic activities. In the last decades, the research interest in MSP has been reflected by the growing number of published scientific articles on this subject. Nonetheless, a systematic scientific literature review on MSP is still lacking. In this context, the present study is aimed at performing a global review highlighting the main trends and patterns of scientific article contents focusing on the concepts, approaches, and tools that have been used to inform and shape MSP. After text screening and application of the eligibility criteria, a total of 476 articles published between 2004 and 2020 were included in the analysis. The results showed that most studies published so far (74%) focused on conceptual aspects of governance issues (n = 98), investigated the role of economic activities in MSP (n = 98), evidenced the solutions that have been adopted to implement national plans (n = 71), or explored the strategies used to involve stakeholders in MSP (n = 83). A trend towards MSP applicability was expressed by the increasing number of studies related to stakeholders’ engagement methodologies, together with the development of decision support tools for MSP implementation in recent years. Overall, including progressive methodologies in the evaluation and assessment of all stages of MSP are needed to foster its applicability.
Indonesia as an agricultural country is a country rich in agriculture. Land is a very important part of everyday life, the main function of land is as a place to live, apart from that land can be used for plantations, industry and many other uses such as social functions. As settlements become increasingly dense and more land is converted into housing and settlements, the amount of land is decreasing, the problems arising from land conversion activities are very worrying, so this case is very concerning. This research uses a statutory and conceptual approach with a normative juridical research type. The conversion of rice fields into housing in Jember Regency is based on Jember Regency Regional Regulation Number 1 of 2015 concerning Jember Regency Spatial Planning for 2015-2035. Jember Regency is one of the administrative regions of East Java Province. Most of the Jember Regency area is lowland, with an average land height of 83 meters above sea level and is an area that is quite fertile and very suitable for the development of agricultural commodities and plantations, so it is known as an area or food barn and a country's foreign exchange earner in the agricultural sector. East Java Province. However, agricultural land in Jember Regency has experienced many changes, characterized by increasingly narrow agricultural land. The narrowing of agricultural land in Jember Regency is due to housing construction which is increasing every year. The conversion of land in agricultural areas not only results in rice yields, but many other productions have to be sacrificed.
El objeto fundamental de este informe es ofrecer una análisis comparativo de los sistemas de gobernanza de las pesquerías de pequeña escala (PPE) de España. Para ello se realiza una definición del sistema de gobierno por comunidad autónoma (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, País Vasco, Cataluña, Islas Baleares, Comunidad Valenciana, Murcia, Andalucía, Islas Canarias y Ceuta).
La metodología para generar información ha combinado el análisis cualitativo del sistema de normas en las escalas europea, nacional y autonómica; la realización de entrevistas semiestructuradas en profundidad (55) y la recopilación bibliográfica y de informes especializados. Las entrevistas se han realizado a técnicos y funcionarios de la administración pesquera, a representantes del sector extractivo, en distintos niveles, a integrantes de entidades ambientalistas y personal científico, todos ellos con experiencia en el trabajo de las PPE. El análisis de los datos se ha basado en una estructura homogénea para todos los territorios analizados: concepto PPE, caracterización cuantitativa de las PPE, sistema de gobierno para las PPE (trama asociativa, calidad de relaciones), legislación específica vigente en cada territorio para las PPE, órganos de participación identificados y análisis de su funcionamiento, papel de las áreas marinas protegidas, existencia de actividad de investigación relacionada con la gestión de las PPE, sistema de vigilancia y control y cabida en el sistema de gobierno de principios de una gobernanza innovadora (gestión basada en el conocimiento, objetivos socio-económicos y de conservación, aplicación del principio de ecosistema).
Ο θαλάσσιος χωροταξικός σχεδιασμός (ΘΧΣ) αποτελεί σήμερα αντικείμενο έντονου διαλόγου σε διεθνές και Ευρωπαϊκό επίπεδο. Εκτός από τις παραδοσιακές θαλάσσιες δραστηριότητες όπως οι μεταφορές και η αλιεία πρόσφατα εντατικοποιούνται νεότερες όπως οι υδατοκαλλιέργειες και τα αιολικά πάρκα με σημαντικό χωρικό αποτύπωμα. Ο αυξανόμενος ανταγωνισμός διαμορφώνει την ανάγκη για κατάλληλη ρύθμιση και αποτελεσματική και ολοκληρωμένη διαχείριση του θαλάσσιου χώρου. Ο ΘΧΣ, αποσκοπεί στην ορθολογική οργάνωση του θαλάσσιου χώρου, στην εξασφάλιση της βιωσιμότητας των δράσεων, στην αποφυγή συγκρούσεων και ταυτόχρονα στην προστασία του θαλάσσιου φυσικού και πολιτιστικού περιβάλλοντος. Τα κράτη-μέλη της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης (ΕΕ) ενσωματώνουν στο εθνικό τους δίκαιο την Οδηγία 2014/89 για το ΘΧΣ και προχωρούν σταδιακά στη σύνταξη αντίστοιχων χωροταξικών σχεδίων. Η παρούσα εργασία επιχειρεί μια καταγραφή και συγκριτική αξιολόγηση πρακτικών στον ΘΧΣ που προκύπτουν από την Ευρωπαϊκή εμπειρία. Η διερεύνηση αφορά αρχικά τα πλαίσιο πολιτικής για το ΘΧΣ με έμφαση σε ζητήματα προστασίας, διαχείρισης και οργάνωσης του θαλάσσιου χώρου. Στη συνέχεια αναλύεται συγκριτικά η εμπειρία των κρατών-μελών της Ε.Ε. που ασκούν δικαιώματα στη Βόρεια Θάλασσα ως προς τη διαμόρφωση του θεσμικού πλαισίου και το περιεχόμενο των θαλάσσιων χωροταξικών σχεδίων, λόγω των ταχέων βημάτων τους και της συνεργασίας που αναπτύσσεται σε θέματα ΘΧΣ. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, μέσω αποδελτίωσης των θαλάσσιων χωροταξικών τους σχεδίων αλλά και άλλων θεσμικών κειμένων, εξετάζονται κρίσιμα στοιχεία για τον ΘΧΣ όπως το πεδίο εφαρμογής, οι διαδικασίες διακυβέρνησης, η διαδικασία λήψης αποφάσεων, η διασυνοριακή συνεργασία, αλλά και οι μέθοδοι και τα εργαλεία που χρησιμοποιούν. Έμφαση δίνεται στην προώθηση της πολυχρηστικότητας η οποία αφορά τη σκόπιμη κοινή χρήση πόρων σε κοντινή γεωγραφική εγγύτητα με σκοπό την αποτελεσματική χρήση του ωκεάνιου χώρου, αφήνοντας περιοχές ελεύθερες για μελλοντικές γενιές, την παροχή οικονομικών οφελών μέσω συνεργατικών χρήσεων και τη μείωση των περιβαλλοντικών επιπτώσεων με τη συνύπαρξη δραστηριοτήτων.
The globally accelerating environmental crisis calls for radical changes in the governance of ocean resources towards a more sustainable and socially equitable world. Transdisciplinary sustainability research and networked knowledge-to-action approaches are critical parts of this change. The effective application of such approaches still puzzles social actors (individuals and networks) willing to act in more transformative ways. We conducted twelve participatory network mapping activities to assess the perception of high-level federal government institutional entrepreneurs on the structure and dynamics of an emerging socio-political arena for marine spatial planning (MSP) in Brazil. Our informants, mostly cognizant of their own intra-governmental structures, anticipate the MSP arena to remain self-enclosed, with changes only occurring within the federal government structures in the coming years. Their perceptions were largely conservative, narrow, and unambitious and therefore unfit to generate regime transformations. The limited awareness of response capacities beyond the federal government potentially leads to the endurement of the low performance already present in the MSP arena. Results from the participatory network mapping informed a five-step functional ocean governability analysis pointing to key potential contributions to support a critical turn in MSP: 1. envision situated interactional narratives to leverage regime shifts; 2. build a shared understanding of and anticipating transformative coevolutionary dynamics; 3. build awareness of the potential synergies among disparate but innovative area-based responses; 4. specify inter-network-based limitations and the necessary changes underpinning potential leaps in performance levels of ocean governance orders; 5. make power asymmetries explicit to stir structurally tailored strategic action by less influential groups. We discuss the potential role of inter-network strategies and actions and how they may confront the symptoms of depoliticized MSP pathways and the risks of it becoming an instrument of further marginalisation and power asymmetry in Brazil.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40152-021-00250-1.
International Guide on Marine/ Maritime Spatial Planning
Participatory practices are prominent strategies for increasing the legitimacy and effectiveness of resource commons governance. Despite increases in participatory practices legitimacy of such governance is in decline. Remaining commons are sites of conflict echoing wider disillusionment in democratic governance across mature liberal democracies. Much participatory governance literature argues that more involvement of citizens in deliberation and decision-making is the solution, turning away from representative practices to strengthen direct participation in commons governance. In this paper we draw on seminal work in political representation theory to examine legitimacy and political agency in participatory governance practices. We develop a conceptual lens drawing on key elements of: Hannah Pitkin’s The Concept of Representation; Michael Saward’s Representative Claim; and, Vivan Schmidt’s throughput model of legitimacy. The lens comprises three ‘conditions’ for analyzing how political agency of participants is constituted through institutional processes: authorization, dissent and exit, and accountability. We argue that this conceptual lens can serve the participatory turn in commons governance by enabling explicit consideration of the links between political participation and representation as foundations of democratic legitimacy.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) exist worldwide to alleviate the gap between human development and conserving nature, history/culture heritage, and resources. In Taiwan, most of MPAs were established as aquatic organism and fishery resource conservation zones (FCZs), such as mud shrimp (Austinogebia edulis) protection since 2006, which we used as a study case. However, comprehensive review has yet conducted to determine whether management objectives are being achieved. We therefore examined the FCZs management effectiveness by conducting a 4 year (2017–2020) field survey of mud shrimp density in the tidal flat and MPA institution in Taiwan. The mud shrimp density obtained from both historical record in references and our observations was analyzed using geographic information systems to determine their spatial distribution within and around the designated FCZs. The results indicate that mud shrimp density is dominant outside the protected zones, which might be related to habitat changes over time. Moreover, the review of MPA governance in Taiwan indicated that FCZs management lack regular financial support and regular examination of management plan. An operational framework is suggested to improve the sustainable management of conservation zones decision-making that comprises four steps: (1) Partnerships with MPA commitment authorities and non-government organizations, specifically, regional fisheries associations; (2) plan regular financial support and fundraise; (3) conduct long-term monitoring programs; and (4) create a coordination platform with stakeholders to evaluate the management plan and/or induce necessary adjustments. This framework will enable users to create strategies that strengthen long-term monitoring and MPA operation maintaining socioeconomic linkages with stakeholders.
Laying the grounds for new post-Covid 19 era Communicating with a crisis is not just about managing risk that arises, but it also means providing possible opportunities, renewal and development by means of communicating the crisis with the public. With the global population at its historical highest levels, post-Covid 19 world is faced with numerous challenges over the next 50 years and beyond. This chapter synthesize research done by global non-governmental agencies, scholarly work and industry reports on the topic, that deals with challenges facing humanity and governments over the coming decades. For instance, the World economic Forum Report of 20191 considers robotization ability to dominate labor markets as essential component of the fourth industrial revolution is a pressing priority in the immediate term to governments. As such, the transformation of global economies, coupled with population growth and technological innovation in post-pandemic era, will inevitably reshape the coming decades. How? This will be outlined in in the coming pages. All crises carry with them varying level of risks and threats. However, it is believed by various scholars and experts2,3,4 that institutional crisis if managed well, can limit the damage caused by the crisis, and an opportunity to reshape the future through vision and commitment. This approach assumes that institutions enact in the best interest of society, however, in reality, it is institutional best interest is at the core of such visionary planning. Covid-19 crises vividly showed self-interest and real-politic as a primary concern to governments and industry. As part of the role of institutional learning and risk assessment when creating opportunities in the aftermath of a crisis, this chapter provide the reader with an outline of threats arose during the pandemic of 2020, combined by most recent demographic and technological changes that confronts modern civilization. Here we attempt to address such post-Covid 19 crises, and opportunities that we will all face in the coming years.
Different challenges have been encountered in the implementation of MSP. Some of these challenges are attributed to the different governance approaches and structures, and the absence or lack of channels of communication between MSP agencies at the national and international level. In addition, there are differences between the practices of institutional systems. Recent studies have focused on the importance of addressing issues related to an authority for MSP. Nevertheless, there has been no comprehensive study that focused on addressing the governance and authority(agency) type over marine areas within the national jurisdiction. Although it has been argued that, as yet, there is no single solution or unique recipe for the successful implementation of MSP, this study was aimed at carrying out a systematic review of the literature concerning an MSP authority and its types and its related concepts. By doing so, it is believed that this study will be able to highlight the practices related to an MSP authority and its tools of governance, and the approaches for its implementation, ultimately highlighting the best practices that can be mainstreamed worldwide. In addition, recommendations will be introduced concerning the authority of the MSP that suits its transboundary nature. In conclusion, it is believed that the identification of a single authority (agency) type would serve as an administrative reference for all agencies and stakeholders nationally and internationally.
A new proposed framework to assess sustainability impacts of maritime spatial plans (MSP-SA) utilises the ecosystem service (ES) concept to address the often-lacking social sustainability of the plans. This study departs in the MSP-SA framework and applies it to the (emerging) sea use of mussel farming. Informed by a literature review and two surveys, it is investigated whether the benefits and impacts of mussel farming can be related to underlying ES and relevant planning questions. The results show that most benefits and impacts of mussel farming can be connected to ES and reveal different user-environment-beneficiary interactions, ranging from conflicts to synergies. The marine planning framework is structured into different planning phases and it is shown that the ES concept can contribute to a normative vision, strategic objectives, and site-specific operational questions. Studying the different user-environment-beneficiary interactions can reveal who benefits and who loses from planning decisions. While the marine planning framework developed in this study is targeted at mussel farming, the approach can be adapted to other uses and planning areas and can contribute to social and equity aspects in MSP by considering the receivers of (dis)benefits.
The article explores stakeholder participation in marine spatial planning with particular reference to Bangladesh, a country which has committed to developing such an ocean management approach but remains at an early stage in the process. A contextual overview of the marine environment, resources and economic activities within the maritime areas of Bangladesh is provided. Definitions and concepts of marine spatial planning are critically discussed and the need to identify and understand the roles, expectations and interests of diverse stakeholders to deliver successful implementation emphasised. An overview and synthesis of a survey of maritime stakeholders in Bangladesh is provided with a view to enhancing understanding of their engagement processes, relationships and conflicts. Recommendations to reconcile conflicting uses and help facilitate the development of marine spatial planning in Bangladesh and potentially the Bay of Bengal more widely. ARTICLE HISTORY
The ‘Study on International Best Practices for Cross-Border MSP’ has been designed to assist the European Commission (EC) and Member States in the implementation of the MSP Directive through the identification of good practices of MSP, with a particular focus on cross-border cooperation; and to elaborate recommendations that can support the promotion and exchange of MSP at the international level,
relevant to the implementation of the EC International Ocean Governance Agenda. Over the last few years, an increasing number of nations have begun to implement MSP at various scales, from local initiatives to transnational efforts, motivated by opportunities for new maritime industries, the reversal of negative environmental trends and the improved coordination of sectors among others. In Europe, the European Directive to establish a framework for MSP (the “MSP Directive”) is considered as a step forward in the adoption of MSP principles and good practices by EU Member States. This directive can support not only a more efficient sustainable development of marine and coastal resources, but also strengthen cross-border cooperation, and therefore improve ocean governance. This study has centred its work on four main objectives or phases: Firstly, the review of existing guidance and MSP processes, and compilation of a detailed inventory of MSP implementation outside the EU, the Study’s ‘Global MSP Inventory’, which provides a description of MSP processes and identifies common practice, including approaches to cross-border cooperation. Secondly, an in-depth comparative analysis of four case studies of MSP implementation, including literature review, site visits and key informant interviews, that identifies lessons learned in MSP, and good practices in support of cross-border cooperation. Thirdly, the formulation of recommendations on the international exchange of MSP, including recommendations on the application of MSP in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ). Fourthly, the presentation of preliminary findings at the 2nd International MSP Conference (March 2017, Paris), partly coordinated and supported by the Study team. This report presents the final publication of the Study and presents findings associated with these four objectives.
Presently, institutional systems and practices in marine/maritime spatial planning (MSP) are evolving rapidly. At the same time, cross-border learning and exchange are still at an early stage. This chapter is based on the need to assess and compare participation processes across cases and countries and foster learning to develop public participation in MSP. Based on theoretical reflections, but anchored in results derived from the BaltSpace and the Baltic SCOPE projects, we present an analytical framework to characterise participation in MSP, including a participation ladder emphasising power sharing, roles, functions and learning. It is inspired by the land-based planning discourse, rural development literature, natural resource and conflict management and the latest publications with an MSP perspective including one in this book.
Marine spatial planning (MSP) has been lauded as a remedy to unsuitable marine management. There is, however, growing MSP research illustrating that it is failing to foster paradigm shifts towards sustainable governance. The gap between MSP theory and practice is due to its asocial and apolitical implementation. This narrow version of MSP has been advanced through post-political planning and uncritical rationalities. The result is a choreographed form of MSP, with clearly defined outcomes that serve the needs of elite actors rather than the public interest. This chapter argues that to recapture its democratising potential, MSP requires explicit engagement with politics and power. We highlight the use of the boundary object lens and citizen science as two potential avenues to facilitate this engagement.
ABSTRACT
Responding to calls for a more theoretically driven, post-positivist and radical marine spatial planning research that approaches the policy as a political project, this paper develops a post-structuralist discourse theory approach to critical marine spatial planning. Elaborating radical contingency as an ontological condition of social life, which points to the ineradicability of power and conflict in marine spatial planning social relations, the paper problematizes marine spatial planning as constituting politics, or key practices that attempt to organize human coexistence and thus, conceal this radical contingency. These practices (e.g. ecosystem-based management, participation, planning regulation and the organization of socio-natural spaces), whose outcomes are far from adaptive, consensual or neutral are discussed as sites of ‘politics’ that effectively marginalize particular groups of people and ‘herd’ their participation and ways of knowing toward achieving limited policy outcomes. Drawing on the EU Marine Spatial Planning Directive, the paper further teases out how specific narratives and rhetorical signifiers around ‘integrating’ and ‘balancing’ potentially irreconcilable sustainable development objectives may interpellate particular stakeholders in ways that render them ideologically complicitous in sustaining, rather than challenging, neoliberal logics of managerialism and economic maximization of marine resources. But in tune with the ontological condition of the social as radically contingent, the paper discusses how and why participatory spaces may constitute a potential space of contestation for marginalized voices and thus, reveal the political moment of marine spatial planning. Calls are made for future empirically grounded research that explores how these marine spatial planning practices are lived in both planning and extra-planning settings, and with what implications for marine protection and extant social relations of power in different marine spatial planning contexts.
Keywords Critical marine spatial planning, post-structuralist discourse theory, ecosystem-based management, participation, power (politics and the political)
This paper explores the realities of marine spatial planning (MSP’ing), drawing on 12 case studies around Europe, employing a structured qualitative empirical approach. The findings indicate that (1) MSP’ing is often focused on achieving specific sectoral objectives, related to nationally important strategic priorities, and might better be termed ‘strategic sectoral planning’. (2) MSP’ing processes tend to be complex, fragmented and emergent on an ad hoc basis, rather than cyclical, adaptive and prescribed on an a priori basis. (3) Top-down processes tend to dominate, more participative platforms tending to be ‘disconnected by design’ from executive decision-making. (4) Blue growth is the dominant overall priority, often aligned with strategic sectoral priorities, despite growing indications that the target for Good Environmental Status (GES) by 2020 is unlikely to be met. This is consistent with growing concerns about the tensions between the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Directive Establishing a Framework for Maritime Spatial Planning. It is concluded that the realities of how MSP’ing is working contrast with widely recognised concepts and ideals as to how MSP’ing should work, as integrated-use MSP’ing based on political expedience and blue growth priorities is diverging from and potentially competing with ecosystem-based MSP’ing, including marine protected area networks, based on GES priorities. It is argued that a more empirical approach should be taken to MSP’ing research, whereby conceptual approaches which integrate sustainable blue growth and GES co-evolve with marine spatial planning practices through critical analyses of whether the realities of MSP’ing are consistent with these concepts.
Stakeholder participation is viewed as a key element of ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP). There is much debate over the effectiveness of stakeholder participation in ecosystem-based management (EBM) in general and over the form it should take. Particular challenges relating to participation in the marine environment are highlighted. A study of the Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Management initiative, which uses a collaborative planning model to implement EBM, is presented in order to explore these issues further. Criteria derived from a review of collaborative planning literature are employed to evaluate the effectiveness of this model, which is found to be a useful consensus-building tool. Although a strategic-level plan has been adopted, the initiative has encountered difficulties transitioning from plan development to plan implementation. These are attributable in large measure to deficiencies in the design of the collaborative model. Useful lessons relating mainly to stakeholder engagement, the role of the lead agency, and implementation strategies are advanced for those engaging in MSP processes.
One of the most pressing problems confronting political scientists today is whether global governance has democratic legitimacy. Drawing on an analysis of the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002, this article advances and empirically deploys an ideal-typical model of a new approach to key areas of global governance—‘stakeholder democracy’. This work is located in the context of the changing practices of global governance, in which concerns about legitimacy, accountability, and participation have gained prominence. Sustainability is an arena in which innovative experiments with new hybrid, pluri-lateral forms of governance, such as stakeholder forums and partnership agreements institutionalizing relations between state and non-state actors, are taking place. A central argument is that sustainability governance imperfectly exemplifies new deliberative stakeholder practices with general democratic potential at the global level. In examining these governance arrangements, we draw together the nascent elements of this new ‘model’, such as its distinctive takes on political representation and accountability.
Many services provided by coastal and marine ecosystems are in decline. Awareness of these declines and the need to improve existing management has led to a shift toward ecosystem-based approaches to marine management and conservation, both in the US and elsewhere. Marine ecosystem-based management (EBM) involves recognizing and addressing interactions among different spatial and temporal scales, within and among ecological and social systems, and among stakeholder groups and communities interested in the health and stewardship of coastal and marine areas. We discuss some overarching principles of marine EBM and highlight key challenges facing implementation. We then recommend ways in which natural and social scientists can advance implementation of ecosystem-based approaches in the oceans by addressing key research needs, building interdisciplinary scientific capacity, and synthesizing and communicating scientific knowledge to policy makers, managers, and other stakeholders.
Stakeholder theory has been a popular heuristic for describing the management environment for years, but it has not attained full theoretical status. Our aim in this article is to contribute to a theory of stakeholder identification and salience based on stakeholders possessing one or more of three relationship attributes: power, legitimacy, and urgency. By combining these attributes, we generate a typology of stakeholders, propositions concerning their salience to managers of the firm, and research and management implications.
A methodological framework is proposed for participatory scenario development on the basis of evidence from the literature, and is tested and refined through the development of scenarios for the future of UK uplands. The paper uses a review of previous work to justify a framework based around the following steps: i) define context and establish whether there is a basis for stakeholder engagement in scenario development; ii) systematically identify and represent relevant stakeholders in the process; iii) define clear objectives for scenario development with stakeholders including spatial and temporal boundaries; iv) select relevant participatory methods for scenario development, during initial scenario construction, evaluation and to support decision-making based on scenarios; and v) integrate local and scientific knowledge throughout the process. The application of this framework in case study research suggests that participatory scenario development has the potential to: i) make scenarios more relevant to stakeholder needs and priorities; ii) extend the range of scenarios developed; iii) develop more detailed and precise scenarios through the integration of local and scientific knowledge; and iv) move beyond scenario development to facilitate adaptation to future change. It is argued that participatory scenario development can empower stakeholders and lead to more consistent and robust scenarios that can help people prepare more effectively for future change.
The modelling of complex, dynamic and uncertain socioenvironmental systems requires close collaboration between research disciplines and stakeholders at all levels, for if such models are representations of aspects of reality, how can it be possible to build them without inputs from people who interact with the systems in reality? This paper reflects on findings of case study research involving stakeholders in knowledge creation through conceptual and formal model building to support upland water catchment management. The uncertainty, multiple scales and conflicting understandings of stakeholders inherent in natural resource management necessitate a strong focus on participatory processes in integrated modelling. This leads to the recognition that problems and solutions should be identified by the stakeholders themselves, emphasising the intersection and complementarity of lay and expert knowledge. Stakeholders in this context comprise varied groups such as land managers (e.g. grouse moor managers and sheep farmers), water companies and water users, tourists, residents, policy-makers and researchers. Models are used at multiple stages to help formulate problems, create and compare conceptual understanding, and explore implications. This requires the involvement of stakeholders early in the problem formulation and research process to help answer the 'right' questions and provide 'relevant' outputs. This poses a number of interesting new challenges for the organisation of research. In contrast to traditional approaches of matching model components to expertise in the research team, modelling expertise must adapt to answer the questions and priorities that emerge from stakeholder engagement.
The purpose of this paper is to revisit the development of the stakeholder management approach devel-oped in "Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach" published by Pitman Publishing in 1984. A brief history of the development of this approach is followed by a summary and an assess-ment of the main arguments. The approach has been used in a number of research streams which are outlined. The paper ends with some suggestions for promising lines of inquiry.
People develop feelings of ownership for a variety of objects, material and immaterial in nature. We refer to this state as psychological ownership. Building on and extending previous scholarship, the authors offer a conceptual examination of this construct. After defining psychological ownership, they address "why" it exists and "how" it comes into being. They propose that this state finds its roots in a set of intraindividual motives (efficacy and effectance, self-identity, and having a place to dwell). In addition, they discuss the experiences that give rise to psychological ownership and propose several positive and negative consequences of this state. The authors' work provides a foundation for the development of a comprehensive theory of psychological ownership and the conceptual underpinnings for empirical testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
There is a growing call for greater public involvement in establishing science and technology policy, in line with democratic ideals. A variety of public participation procedures exist that aim to consult and involve the public, ranging from the public hearing to the consensus conference. Unfortunately, a general lack of empirical consideration of the quality of these methods arises from confusion as to the appropriate benchmarks for evaluation. Given that the quality of the output of any participation exercise is difficult to determine, the authors suggest the need to consider which aspects of the process are desirable and then to measure the presence or quality of these process aspects. To this end, a number of theoretical evaluation criteria that are essential for effective public participation are specified. These comprise two types: acceptance criteria, which concern features of a method that make it acceptable to the wider public, and process criteria, which concern features of the process that are liable to ensure that it takes place in an effective manner. Future research needs to develop instruments to measure these criteria more precisely and identify the contextual and environmental factors that will mediate the effectiveness of the different participation methods.
This paper aims to contribute to the current debate on Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) by exploring the issue of stakeholder engagement. MSP is an emergent policy field that is subject to an increasing body of research, yet the role, scope and nature of participatory engagement within the process remains a neglected topic. This paper briefly reviews the nature of the 'marine problem', to which MSP is seen to be the response and describes the emergence of MSP policy in the UK with specific emphasis on participatory aspects. Drawing on the experience of terrestrial planning it discusses the potential benefits of stakeholder engagement in MSP and highlights some of the key issues that need to be taken into account when shaping stakeholder input into the process. It then goes on to describe the findings from a series of interviews with key stakeholders in the Irish Sea Region, which suggest that we need to develop a more critical and deeper understanding of how various interests frame the 'marine problem', and how they see their role in shaping the form of the MSP process. This highlights the importance of encouraging stakeholder involvement in MSP, the need to develop a shared vision of a 'sea interest'. Priorities are then set for research to support this important policy agenda.
The European Commission has developed a set of common principles for marine spatial planning in the European Union. A critical examination of these principles in practice is undertaken through an evaluation of the Clyde Marine Spatial Planning Pilot Project. The principles are found to be lacking in specificity and somewhat inconsistent with the ecosystem based approach, which they advocate. Lessons for new marine spatial planning initiatives, relating particularly to stakeholder participation, governance, data requirements, objective setting, and skills and knowledge needs, are derived from the Clyde Pilot.
Marine spatial planning (MSP) is an essential tool for delivering an Ecosystem Approach and should add value to existing management measures for the marine environment. It should be based on a clear set of principles with a sustainable development purpose. Developing MSP can draw selectively on extensive experiences in terrestrial land use planning. A nested approach with appropriate planning activity at different spatial scales is recommended. Defining appropriate management units is important and particular effort will be required where these do not align with ecosystem boundaries. The timeframe for plans is tending to increase from around 10 to 20+ years, but review periods are required which enable a balance between stability and relevance. This article focuses on the key steps in the planning process of developing ecosystem-based MSP. The importance of setting specific objectives, including as a context for the full range of relevant spatial data, and determining priorities is emphasised. It is also suggested that stakeholder engagement, including the way it is undertaken, is critical to different stages of the process.
This article explores how top management teams can increase the robustness of their strategies by attending to important concepts emerging from the stakeholder literature. Analysis of three themes emanating from this literature leads to the development of a method composed of three techniques which elaborates how stakeholder management concepts can be applied in practice. The research, which spanned a 15 year time period, was based on working with 16 top management teams while they were developing their strategies, so that the method – which developed incrementally in response to the teams’ reactions to its utility – was grounded in both theory and practice.
This article focuses specifically on how and why managers might go about using stakeholder identification and analysis techniques in order to help their organizations meet their mandates, fulfill their missions and create public value. A range of stakeholder identification and analysis techniques is reviewed. The techniques cover: organizing participation; creating ideas for strategic interventions, including problem formulation and solution search; building a winning coalition around proposal development, review and adoption; and implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategic interventions. The article argues that wise use of stakeholder analyses can help frame issues that are solvable in ways that are technically feasible and politically acceptable and that advance the common good. The article concludes with a number of recommendations for management research, education and practice.
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) offers the possibility of democratising management of the seas. MSP is, however, increasingly implemented as a form of post-political planning, dominated by the logic of neoliberalism, and a belief in the capacity of managerial-technological apparatuses to address complex socio-political problems, with little attention paid to issues of power and inequality. There is growing concern that MSP is not facilitating a paradigm shift towards publicly engaged marine management, and that it may simply repackage power dynamics in the rhetoric of participation to legitimise the agendas of dominant actors. This raises questions about the legitimacy and inclusivity of participatory MSP. Research on stakeholder engagement within MSP has predominately focused on assessing experiences of active MSP participants and has not evaluated the democratic or inclusive nature of these processes. Adopting the Northeast Ocean Planning initiative in the US as a case study, this paper provides the first study of exclusion and non-participation of stakeholders in an MSP process. Three major issues are found to have had an impact on exclusion and non-participation: poor communication and a perception that the process was deliberately exclusionary; issues arising from fragmented governance, terri-torialisation and scale; and lack of specificity regarding benefits or losses that might accrue from the process. To be effective, participatory MSP practice must: develop mechanisms that recognise the complexity of socio-spatial relationships in the marine environment; facilitate participation in meaningful spatial decision-making, rather than in post-ideological, objective-setting processes; and create space for debate about the very purpose of MSP processes.
Sustainable development is the framing concept assuring that resources are exploited while maintaining the ability of these natural resources to provide for future generations. With human dependence on marine resources increasing, Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) has been identified as a suitable approach to ensure sustainable development. In order to achieve this, the core principles and elements of EBM should be operational in the maritime/marine spatial planning (MSP) process to ensure that human activities in marine space are ordered to attain ecological, economic and social objectives. However, policies from various states and organizations sometimes do not set a clear precedence for translating principles of EBM and present different and complex approaches to an ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (EB-MSP). Again, a feasible methodology for EBM to be operational in MSP is still vague. This paper therefore presents results from a survey and review of MSP initiatives in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Results showed that essential MSP steps and elements such as adaptive management, setting of planning boundaries, understanding and analysing the ecosystem and future conditions are not fully operational. This paper focuses on a methodology for EB-MSP and gives recommendations on how to ensure that EBM is operational at each stage of an MSP process. It stresses the importance of setting planning boundaries beyond jurisdictional borders to consider bio/eco-regions and cover near-shore waters, the need to have a cross-sector integration, understanding the ecosystem through having an ecosystem service perspective and having a legal framework to ensure that results from monitoring and evaluating of plans are adapted through review and revision.
The challenge: Perhaps the biggest challenge of our times is the task of achieving a transition to sustainability, a transition that will enable people around the world to live free from want and fear without compromising the ability of future generations to do so as well (Annan 2000). Research that supports such a transition can build upon first steps toward understanding nature–society interactions from two converging areas of study. The first area is work in environmental science, that has not only made substantial contributions toward our understanding of the natural world, but also has begun to include human causes and impacts of environmental change. The second area is work in economic, social, and development studies, that has started to go beyond purely societal issues and to incorporate environmental factors as well. The emerging field of ‘sustainability science’ combines these two areas of study and uses these foundations for a better understanding of complex dynamic interactions between social, environmental, and economic issues. In order to be successful and robust, sustainability science needs to include methods and procedures for increasing public participation in its discussions and debates. In the current volume, we discuss why this is the case, and what such procedures for public participation in sustainability science could look like. We have used the issue of climate change and its relation to urban lifestyles as a case study to examine the possible roles of public participation in sustainability science.
Marine renewable energy (MRE), though a relative newcomer to the ocean and coastal commons, has become a significant driver of marine spatial planning in the US, posing particular challenges to commercial fisheries and fishing communities. State and federal agencies with primary oversight for MRE development have focused on the identification of places where MRE might proceed unhindered by other uses, most notably coastal fisheries. These agencies and MRE developers have focused on potential space-use conflict and standard mitigation measures for loss of access to that space. However, discussions with fishery participants and other community members, as well as observations of processes on the US West and East Coasts, reveal a complex, multi-faceted social–ecological system not easily parsed out among users, nor amenable to classic mitigation formulas. Recent ethnographic research on potential space-use conflicts and mitigation for MRE demonstrates that marine space use is dynamic and multi-dimensional, with important linkages among fisheries, communities and other interests. Although experiences vary within and across regions and fishing communities, this research illustrates the weak position of fishing communities in marine spatial planning in the context of MRE development. This paper considers the implications of MRE for US East and West Coast fisheries and fishing communities situated within the larger context of neoliberalism and commodification of the ocean commons.
Coastal and marine spatial planning (CMSP) is a key component of the US National Ocean Policy. Efforts to implement CMSP in US federal waters are beginning in earnest. Beyond sound science and data, a stakeholder engagement process that encourages public participation, collaboration and communication between disparate groups is at the heart of effective marine spatial planning (MSP). While a rich body of literature on stakeholder engagement exists, few opportunities exist to compare different stakeholder engagement processes as they occur on the ground for a particular stakeholder group. Between 2008 and 2010 marine spatial planning efforts were conducted by the neighboring US states of Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Ocean Management Plan and Rhode Island Ocean SAMP provide models for the nation in structuring effective stakeholder processes for ocean management. Within both states, commercial fishermen were identified as key stakeholders.For this study, commercial fishermen's perceptions of the engagement process in Massachusetts and Rhode Island were examined. Specifically, this paper explores the role fishermen sought in these two pioneering MSP efforts, and the role they felt they actually played. Key findings include the need for clear communication of the role of stakeholders, stakeholder empowerment and background stakeholder analysis to understand the needs and challenges faced by participating groups. This work provided a unique opportunity to examine how each ocean planning effort engaged commercial fishermen and to reflect on lessons learned for future such initiatives in the US and beyond. Exploring effectiveness through the perceptions of primary stakeholders such as commercial fishermen further elucidates the challenges and opportunities of carrying out MSP and stakeholder processes in practice.
The statutory closure of 60 square miles of Lyme Bay to towed fishing gear in 2008 marked the culmination of nearly 20 years of discussions between conservationists and fishermen. Prior to the 2008 decision, voluntary, bottom–up led agreements resulted in inadequate protection of the bay's biological resources and significant erosion of social capital. Lyme Bay provides an excellent case study of the challenges likely to be posed by wider stakeholder involvement imposed under the new Marine Act. This paper examines a broad range of perspectives in relation to the Lyme Bay consultation and subsequent closure, via semi-structured interviews with 25 representatives of different interest groups in Lyme Bay. All respondents acknowledged significant flaws in the process leading to the Lyme Bay decision and felt the Marine Act was well placed to tackle many of these criticisms. However, while the Marine Act should provide a framework for resolving conflicts, it will not prevent them. Success will depend on collaboration between different marine interests, and also on the government acknowledging that outcomes are unlikely to favour everyone in the short-term and that top-down interventions are inevitable.
Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a new component of the marine governance framework in England. Two MSP pilot studies undertaken on the south of England are evaluated in this paper to obtain key reflections from participants and process organisers. The evaluation was conducted through two phases of personal interviews. Three key reflections emerged related to effective practice in MSP. First was that MSP should be inclusive, which is delivered through adequate participatory opportunities, clear leadership, exploiting trusted pre-existing communication channels, and supporting participants to develop their marine planning capacity. Second, was that the MSP evidence base should maximise the quality and extent of evidence available and offer clarity over data gaps and uncertainty. Third, that adequate resources are critical to successful MSP, particularly to ensure that stakeholder groups should allocate sufficient staff time to fully engage in MSP and that MSP process organisers should allocate sufficient resources to fully support stakeholders throughout the MSP process.
Multiple competing uses of continental-shelf environments have led to a proliferation of marine spatial planning initiatives, together with expert guidance on marine spatial planning. This study provides an empirical review of marine spatial plans, their attributes, and the extent to which the expert guidance is actually being followed. We performed a structured review of 16 existing marine spatial plans and created an idealized marine spatial plan from the steps included in recent expert papers. A cluster analysis of the yes/no answers to 28 questions was used to ordinate the 16 marine spatial plans and to compare them with the idealized plan. All the plans that have been implemented have a high-level government mandate and the authority to implement spatial planning vested in existing institutions. Almost all the plans used data with clear criteria for data inclusion. Stakeholders were included in almost all the plans; they did not participate in all stages of the planning process but their roles were generally clearly defined. Decision-support tools were applied inconsistently across plans and were seldom used dynamically over time. Most spatial planning processes did not select specific outcomes, such as preferred use scenarios. Success is defined inconsistently across plans; in half the cases there are no metrics of success with reference benchmarks. Although monitoring is included in the majority of plans, only in some cases do monitoring results feed back into management decisions. The process of marine spatial planning had advanced in that some of the more recent plans were developed more quickly and contain more desirable attributes than earlier plans. Even so, existing marine spatial plans are heterogeneous—there are essential ingredients, but no single recipe for success.
This article makes the case that legally required participation methods in the US not only do not meet most basic goals for public participation, but they are also counterproductive, causing anger and mistrust. Both theory and practice are dominated by ambivalence about the idea of participation itself. Both struggle with dilemmas that make the problems seem insoluble, such as the conflict between the individual and collective interest or between the ideal of democracy and the reality that many voices are never heard. Cases are used to draw on an emerging set of practices of collaborative public engagement from around the world to demon- strate how alternative methods can better meet public participation goals and how they make moot most of the dilemmas of more conventional practice. Research shows that collaborative partici- pation can solve complex, contentious problems such as budget decision making and create an improved climate for future action when bitter disputes divide a community. Authentic dialogue, networks and institutional capacity are the key elements. The authors propose that participation should be understood as a multi-way set of interactions among citizens and other players who together produce outcomes. Next steps involve developing an alternative practice framework, creating forums and arenas, adapting agency decision processes, and providing training and financial support.
Numerous national governments and supranational organizations such as the OSPAR Commission, the European Union and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have underlined the importance of maritime spatial planning (MSP) for balancing and solving conflicts between the needs of different sectors and conservation in the marine space. In the last decade, many maritime spatial plans have been developed around the world. The drivers to develop these plans and the approaches to find solutions for the particular problems differ significantly. The Portuguese national marine jurisdiction is one of the largest in Europe. For the continental part, a maritime spatial plan was initiated in 2009, and entered in 2010 in the final stage of approval. One of the driving forces for this MSP initiative was the claim to extend its continental shelf. The development process was led by a multidisciplinary team. Despite the challenges, the existing as well as potential future marine resources and activities were characterized, mapped and categorized. To overcome conflicts resulting from the many overlapping uses and to assure sustainable development of all sectors, a conflict analysis and evaluation of potential future uses were necessary. The applied zoning scheme represented an exercise of conflict solving and proved to be a powerful tool to promote discussion and participation among stakeholders. The successful implementation of Portuguese MSP will rely largely on its ability to provide efficient management, financial and legal mechanisms to achieve the integration of all strategies and spaces under the Portuguese maritime jurisdiction.
The heated controversy over “citizen participation,” “citizen control”, and “maximum feasible involvement of the poor,” has been waged largely in terms of exacerbated rhetoric and misleading euphemisms. To encourage a more enlightened dialogue, a typology of citizen participation is offered using examples from three federal social programs: urban renewal, anti-poverty, and Model Cities. The typology, which is designed to be provocative, is arranged in a ladder pattern with each rung corresponding to the extent of citizens' power in determining the plan and/or program.
The national legislative and policy context for integrated ocean management in Canada is provided by the Oceans Act (1996) and the supporting policy statement, Canada’s Oceans Strategy. Under the Oceans Act, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is the lead federal authority for ocean affairs and is charged with leading and facilitating
the development and implementation of integrated management plans for all marine waters. Integrated management efforts in
Canada are being undertaken through an area-based approach that enables marine planning, management and decision making to
occur at appropriate spatial scales, from regional to site-specific. This article focuses on the Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated
Management (ESSIM) process, an offshore-focused effort to develop an integrated ocean management plan for a large portion
of the Scotian Shelf, off Nova Scotia. The resulting Eastern Scotian Shelf Integrated Ocean Management Plan (the ESSIM plan)
has been developed through a collaborative process involving all interested and affected government departments and ocean
stakeholders, and provides an objectives-based approach to ocean management. The ESSIM plan contains a set of long-term, overarching
goals for collaborative governance and integrated management, sustainable human use, and healthy ecosystems. These goals are
supported by more specific objectives that express desired outcomes and conditions for the marine region. The objectives-based
approach seeks to ensure that interrelationships among ecosystem and human use objectives are recognized and reflected in
the identification of management strategies and supporting actions. This article considers the role of marine spatial planning
within the context of the integrated ocean management process underway for the Scotian Shelf. The policy and management context
for integrated ocean management in Canada is briefly described and a summary of the ESSIM plan is provided. The current and
potential role for marine spatial planning in implementing the objectives and strategies of the ESSIM plan is highlighted
using examples related to multiple ocean use and marine conservation and protected area planning. The article concludes by
drawing out key lessons learned to date through the ESSIM process for marine spatial planning and looks to the future in terms
of the development of tools and approaches for this integral aspect of integrated ocean management.
KeywordsIntegrated ocean management–Spatial planning–Scotian Shelf–Canada–Oceans Act
The Water Environment Research Foundation in the United States funded an interdisciplinary and integrative social science study on public perception and participation in water reuse within the US. It employed a three-phased research protocol consisting of 1) literature review and three comprehensive case studies, including interpretive white papers from five different social science disciplines and public health and environmental engineering scientists, 2) a multi-stakeholder workshop to promote integrative, interdisciplinary analysis of the literature and case study findings, and 3) peer-review among twenty-one social science and water resource management experts. The case studies included examples of potable and non-potable reuse, with elements of success and failure. Five themes were identified as critical to building and maintaining public confidence in water resource management and water reuse decision-making: managing information for all stakeholders; maintaining individual motivation and demonstrating organizational commitment; promoting communication and public dialog; ensuring a fair and sound decision-making process and outcome; and building and maintaining trust. The study produced guidance for water resource professionals with a strategy for assessing the community context and developing a principle-based approach to public outreach, education and participation.
Due to the interdependency that exists between the ecosystem resources and its users, successful implementation of ecosystem-based management depends on the identification and understanding of different stakeholders, their practices, expectations and interests. Today, many scientists and resource managers agree that the involvement of stakeholders is a key factor for a successful management regime in the marine environment. The way stakeholders are involved in the process must reflect, or at least address, the existing complexity of the specific context. A comprehensive method that allows doing this is by use of stakeholder analysis and mapping. This article will focus on the various types and stages of stakeholder participation in a marine spatial planning process, and will illustrate how to conduct a stakeholder analysis that allows the involvement of stakeholders in an adequate way that is sustainable over time.
It is commonly put forward that effective uptake of research in policy or practice must be built upon a foundation of active knowledge exchange and stakeholder engagement during the research. However, what is often lacking is a systematic appreciation of the specific practices of knowledge exchange and their relative merits. The paper reports on a 2009 survey of 21 research projects within the UK Research Councils' Rural Economy and Land Use Programme regarding the involvement and perceived impact of over a thousand stakeholders in the research. The survey reveals that most stakeholders were involved as research subjects or as event participants. Large numbers were also engaged in the research process itself, including involvement in shaping the direction of research. Stakeholder engagement is perceived as bringing significant benefits to the process of knowledge production. A close relationship is found between mechanisms and approaches to knowledge exchange and the spread of benefits for researchers and stakeholders. Mutual benefits are gained from exchange of staff or where stakeholders are members of research advisory groups. Different stakeholder sectors are also associated with different patterns of engagement, which lead to contrasting impact patterns. Any efforts to alter knowledge exchange processes and outcomes must overcome these differing engagement tendencies. Overall, much greater attention should be given to early processes of knowledge exchange and stakeholder engagement within the lifetime of research projects.
This paper is an introduction to the special issue on a role of participation in dealing with the interactions between environment and fisheries. In this introduction, we explore the recent discussion on the ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management (EBAFM) and extract important points for implementation of EBAFM from the social science literature on participation and participatory processes in environmental management. The introduction finishes by describing the analytical framework for studying participatory processes.
During the process by which the number of actors was increased manifold as a result of the development of civil society, the fisher community has lost prominence and importance, fading into the wide spectrum of interests with which it is competing to make its voice heard in decision-making bodies and in the media. This results in what could be termed the participation paradox--the greater the number of actors, the smaller the role each plays, and the lesser the importance of traditional sectors. Participation and devolution do not bear a linear relationship; greater devolution does not necessarily result in greater participation, a claim that has contributed to the processes of devolution being overvalued. Governance, as interaction between State, civil society and the market, paradoxically might not strengthen the most traditional of the interest groups.
Stakeholder engagement in construction projects can be conceptualized in different ways. It can be seen from a strategic management perspective aimed at capturing knowledge, increasing ownership of the project by users, reducing conflict, encouraging innovation and facilitating spin-off partnerships. From an ethical perspective, meaningful stakeholder engagement can be seen to enhance inclusive decision making, promote equity, enhance local decision making and build social capital. The benefits from both of these perspectives are vital for sustainability; however, stakeholder engagement can also be seen from the perspective of an opportunity for social learning—a social process where diverse stakeholders share a common forum, learn about each other's values, reflect upon their own values and create a shared vision and shared objectives. Dialogue is also useful in increasing awareness, changing attitudes and affecting behaviours. Existing practices view stakeholder engagement: mostly from a management perspective; sometimes from an ethical perspective; less often as a combination of the two; and rarely have any element of the social learning perspective. There is a need for an approach that combines all the three perspectives if sustainability is to be pursued. A dialogue-oriented approach to integrated sustainability assessment could provide an ideal means to do so.
Stakeholder analysis means many things to different people. Various methods and approaches have been developed in different fields for different purposes, leading to confusion over the concept and practice of stakeholder analysis. This paper asks how and why stakeholder analysis should be conducted for participatory natural resource management research. This is achieved by reviewing the development of stakeholder analysis in business management, development and natural resource management. The normative and instrumental theoretical basis for stakeholder analysis is discussed, and a stakeholder analysis typology is proposed. This consists of methods for: i) identifying stakeholders; ii) differentiating between and categorising stakeholders; and iii) investigating relationships between stakeholders. The range of methods that can be used to carry out each type of analysis is reviewed. These methods and approaches are then illustrated through a series of case studies funded through the Rural Economy and Land Use (RELU) programme. These case studies show the wide range of participatory and non-participatory methods that can be used, and discuss some of the challenges and limitations of existing methods for stakeholder analysis. The case studies also propose new tools and combinations of methods that can more effectively identify and categorise stakeholders and help understand their inter-relationships.
The fundamental question I consider is the following: What is it that makes one thing a person and another thing not? I do not provide a complete answer; rather I begin to develop a framework for answering the question. In this essay I do the following: (1) distinguish between the powers possessed by persons and the constitutions of persons, and propose some metaphysical conjectures concerning the relationship between persons' powers and their constitutions; (2) propose for Christians, as well as for others, an hylomorphic soul-body alternative to Cartesianism; (3) highlight some prominent differences between the nature of human persons to problems in biomedical ethics concerning the ontological and moral status of human embryos and of the comatose.
I argue in this article that responsible leadership (Maak and Pless, 2006) contributes to building social capital and ultimately
to both a sustainable business and the common good. I show, first, that responsible leadership in a global stakeholder society
is a relational and inherently moral phenomenon that cannot be captured in traditional dyadic leader–follower relationships
(e.g., to subordinates) or by simply focusing on questions of leadership effectiveness. Business leaders have to deal with
moral complexity resulting from a multitude of stakeholder claims and have to build enduring and mutually beneficial relationships
with all relevant stakeholders. I contend, second, that in doing so leaders bundle the energy of␣different constituencies
and enable social capital building. Social capital can be understood as actual or potential resources inherent to more or
less institutionalized relationships of mutual recognition (Bourdieu 1980). By drawing on network analysis I suggest, third,
that responsible leaders weave durable relational structures and ultimately networks of relationships which are rich in ties
to otherwise unconnected individuals or groups. Against this background I argue, fourth, that responsible leadership may result
in the creation of value networks (Lord and Brown, 2001) of multiple stakeholders, which enhance social capital and thereby contribute to both a sustainable
business and the common good.
Marine Spatial Planning: A Step-by-Step Approach toward Ecosystem-Based Management
- C Ehler
- F Douvere
C. Ehler, F. Douvere, Marine Spatial Planning: A Step-by-Step Approach toward
Ecosystem-Based Management, UNESCO, Paris, 2009Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission and Man and the Biosphere Programme https://
unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000186559.