Geological Re-Evaluation of Nigeria's Iron Ore Deposits as Raw Materials for a Viable Iron and Steel Industry

Abstract

The iron and steel industry has often been described as the "backbone' of industrialization and the 'bedrock' of the economy of nations. Such words of encomium can be attributed to the fact that, iron and steel products are used in making machinery and other tools needed in manufacturing and infrastructural development. For over 50 years, Nigeria has aspired to build a public-funded iron and steel industry to accelerate the pace of economic development, but so far, the efforts have not been successful, mostly due to several challenges including, technical, managerial, financial, logistical, political and systemic corruption. In 1979, Nigeria had initiated construction of the iron and steel projects which by 1985 were over 90% complete, including the National Iron ore Mining Company at Itakpe, two liquid steel producing plants at Ajaokuta and Aladja-Warri, and several steel rolling mills. From the geological perspective, one of the most critical challenges facing the start-up of steel production is the uncertainty surrounding the quantity and quality of the local raw materials, particularly the iron ores. The often-quoted (unofficial) figures of 2 to 5 billion tons of iron ore reserves in Nigeria are fallacious. A geological review of the iron ore deposits shows that, among the numerous deposits, only the ferruginous quartzites in the Okene area and, may be, the sedimentary ironstones at Agbaja near Lokoja are viable deposits for large-scale steel production. At Okene, Kogi State, only 250 million tons of low-grade iron ore (35%Fe cf. 65%Fe in Guinea & Brazil) have been proven at Itakpe and Ajabonoko deposits, whereas only 500 million tons are indicated at Agbaja (Kogi mine) ironstones considered of very poor quality because of deleterious admixtures of phosphorus and alumina which are very expensive to remove in view of the current low prices of direct shipping iron ore (65%Fe) at 80/ton.Moreover,Nigeriadoesnothavelocalsourcesofeasilyextractablecokingcoalwhichwillnecessitateimportationatanannualcostof80/ton. Moreover, Nigeria does not have local sources of easily extractable coking coal which will necessitate importation at an annual cost of 200 million dollars (USD). The available sources of good quality limestone for the lime plants are located in logistically 'faraway' places in Cross River and Benue States where they are currently being used (competitively) for lucrative cement production. It can be surmised that if liquid steel production ever takes off in Nigeria, there will be inadequate supply of iron ore concentrates to meet anticipated steel production levels. For Itakpe mine to produce 2.5 million tons of beneficiated iron ore annually, will require mining of up to 15 million tons (6x) of lean ore which is almost impossible to achieve under the proposed setup. For a realistic liquid steel production in the future, knowing fully well that a blast furnace when ignited should not be shut down at will, it may be necessary to plan for the importation of direct shipping iron ore from Guinea, Liberia or Brazil to augment or replace inadequate local raw materials.

Full text

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chievers J. Sci. Research
volume 2, Issue 1, July 2019, p. 1 - 22
ACHIEVERS JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Open Access Publications of Achievers University, Owo.
Available online at www.achieversjournal.org
Geological Re-Evaluation of Nigeria's Iron Ore Deposits
as Raw Materials for a Viable Iron and Steel Industry
M. A. Olade
Department of Geological Sciences
Achievers University, Owo, Nigeria
Corresponding author: mosesolade48@gmail.com
Abstract
The iron and steel industry has often been described as the “backbone' of industrialization and the 'bedrock' of
the economy of nations. Such words of encomium can be attributed to the fact that, iron and steel products are
used in making machinery and other tools needed in manufacturing and infrastructural development. For over
50 years, Nigeria has aspired to build a public-funded iron and steel industry to accelerate the pace of
economic development, but so far, the efforts have not been successful, mostly due to several challenges
including, technical, managerial, financial, logistical, political and systemic corruption. In 1979, Nigeria had
initiated construction of the iron and steel projects which by 1985 were over 90% complete, including the
National Iron ore Mining Company at Itakpe, two liquid steel producing plants at Ajaokuta and Aladja-Warri,
and several steel rolling mills. From the geological perspective, one of the most critical challenges facing the
start-up of steel production is the uncertainty surrounding the quantity and quality of the local raw materials,
particularly the iron ores. The often-quoted (unofficial) figures of 2 to 5 billion tons of iron ore reserves in Nigeria
are fallacious. A geological review of the iron ore deposits shows that, among the numerous deposits, only the
ferruginous quartzites in the Okene area and, may be, the sedimentary ironstones at Agbaja near Lokoja are
viable deposits for large-scale steel production. At Okene, Kogi State, only 250 million tons of low-grade iron
ore (35%Fe cf. 65%Fe in Guinea & Brazil) have been proven at Itakpe and Ajabonoko deposits, whereas only
500 million tons are indicated at Agbaja (Kogi mine) ironstones considered of very poor quality because of
deleterious admixtures of phosphorus and alumina which are very expensive to remove in view of the current
low prices of direct shipping iron ore (65%Fe) at $80/ton. Moreover, Nigeria does not have local sources of
easily extractable coking coal which will necessitate importation at an annual cost of $200 million dollars
(USD). The available sources of good quality limestone for the lime plants are located in logistically 'faraway'
places in Cross River and Benue States where they are currently being used (competitively) for lucrative
cement production. It can be surmised that if liquid steel production ever takes off in Nigeria, there will be
inadequate supply of iron ore concentrates to meet anticipated steel production levels. For Itakpe mine to
produce 2.5 million tons of beneficiated iron ore annually, will require mining of up to 15 million tons (6x) of lean
ore which is almost impossible to achieve under the proposed setup. For a realistic liquid steel production in the
future, knowing fully well that a blast furnace when ignited should not be shut down at will, it may be necessary
to plan for the importation of direct shipping iron ore from Guinea, Liberia or Brazil to augment or replace
inadequate local raw materials.
Key Words: Iron ore deposits, Geological evaluation, Raw materials, Iron and steel industry,
INTRODUCTION
Iron
(Fe) is a ferrous metal of considerable
economic value because it is used primarily in the
production of steel which is one of the most
important structural materials on earth. Since the
th
century, the iron and steel industry has been widely
accepted as the “backbone” of industrial production
and “bedrock” of economic growth for many
countries worldwide. For almost half a century,
Nigeria has aspired to develop a public-funded,
integrated iron and steel to propel rapid
industrialization and economic development, but
beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18
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the efforts have not yielded the desired outcomes.
Over the period, starting from 1979, the Federal
Government had expended more than $6 billion
dollars towards the construction of iron and steel
production facilities including iron ore mining, steel
processing and rolling mills, but most of them were
either not completed or abandoned, and no liquid
steel had been produced. Nigeria currently imports
about $3.3 billion dollars of iron and steel products
annually, which is a drain on the country's foreign
currency reserves.
The three essential raw materials needed
in the manufacture of iron and steel are all of
geological origin: (1) iron ore (concentrates) as raw
input, (2) coking coal (or natural gas) as reducing
agent and (3) limestone (calcium carbonate) or
calcined lime (CaO) as scavenger or slag former.
Other subsidiary raw materials include dolomite,
bauxite and refractory clays. In the production of
various types of steel, other metals are mixed with
the pig iron, such as chromium, nickel, manganese,
molybdenum and tungsten to enhance different
properties. All of these alloy metals are known to
occur in small quantities in Nigeria. The availability
of locally-sourced raw materials is a major
requirement in the establishment of any viable iron
and steel industry because these materials are
bulky and need to be available close to point of
utility. These raw materials should not only be
available, but also occur in sufficient quantity and
adequate quality to last for over
25 years
(preferably 30 years) of mining operations, so as to
justify the costs and long-term investment involved
in the mining of raw materials and steel production.
Furthermore, the physical and chemical
characteristics and mode of occurrence of the raw
materials often determine their usefulness and the
type of technology utilized in mining, ore dressing
and smelting. Approximately two tons of iron ore,
one ton of coking coal (coke) and a half ton of
limestone are used to produce one ton of pig iron. In
the production of liquid steel, the two commonly
used methods are (1) blast furnace / blast oxygen
furnace (BF/BOF) and (2) direct reduction and
electric arc furnace (DR/EAF). In the BF process,
iron is produced in the blast furnace using coking
coal as the reductant whereas in the DR method,
natural gas (or coal) is used as reductant without
melting, followed by melting in the EAF.
Prior to embarking on the establishment of
a public-funded iron and steel industry, the Federal
government of Nigeria had made serious initial
efforts to identify local raw materials. In the 1950s,
British geologists had surveyed the extensive
sedimentary ironstones in the Agbaja and Enugu
areas which they found to be high in phosphorus
and sulfur which are deleterious to steel products.
Other known deposits of iron ore in northwestern
and north-central Nigeria, such as at Birnin Gwari,
Maru and Muro had been identified and
investigated by the Geological Survey of Nigeria
(Truswell and Cope, 1963) and were found to be of
low quality and in small quantities that are not
economically viable per se.
Soon after independence in 1960, the new
Federal Government invited and received
proposals from several foreign firms, including
those from the USA, Canada, UK and Germany on
the feasibility of establishing iron and steel
complexes (Agbu, 2007). None of the proposals
were positive because they were based on the use
of the sedimentary ironstones in Agbaja and Enugu
which were considered unsuitable due to their
chemical, mineralogical and textural
characteristics. In
1967, as a follow-up of a
technical/economic cooperation agreement with
the USSR, a team of Soviet experts arrived in
Nigeria to conduct a feasibility study on the
establishment of an iron and steel project. After
extensive fieldwork, the Soviet experts determined
that the known iron ore deposits in the country were
of poor quality and recommended further
geophysical and geological surveys to find better
ores. In 1971, the National Steel Development
Authority (NSDA) was established to explore, and
exploit iron and steel raw materials and develop
plans for the iron and steel industry. Working
alongside Soviet experts from Technopromexport
(TPE), new iron deposits were discovered by
geophysical surveys in 1973 at Itakpe, Ajabonoko,
Ochokochoko and Koton-Karfe, all in the Okene-
Lokoja area of Kogi State (Olade, 1978). In 1977,
after years of detailed exploration, proven reserves
of
200 million tons were obtained at Itakpe
(Akinrinsola and Adekeye, 1993) and 60 million
tons at Ajabonoko deposit, both a few kilometers
apart near Okene, Kogi State.
The Itakpe iron ore mine in Okene started
operations in the 1980s, while the two iron and steel
processing plants at Ajaokuta in Kogi State and
Aladja in Delta State were almost fully constructed,
but failed to take-off as planned due to several
reasons, among which are, inadequate raw
materials, inefficient management, neglect of
successive governments, poor power supply,
political powerplay, systemic corruption and lack of
dedicated funds to complete the final phases of the
projects. Concessionaire agreements to operate
the facilities were reached with some Indian
companies in 2005, but the arrangement flopped,
and led to legal tussle for over a decade which was
settled out of court in 2016 by signing a modified
agreement which up till mid-2019 has yielded no
performance. The Federal Government is still
focused on re-starting the Iron and steel sector
because domestic steel production will ultimately
help diversify the Nigerian economy and generate
economic activities in downstream industries which
will create jobs, acquisition of technical skills, help
in the transfer of technology and provision of
machine parts and tools for industrial development.
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Based on several years of research on the
Nigeria's iron ore deposits and a review of existing
body of knowledge on the apparent failure of
Nigeria's iron and steel industry, this paper
provides a systematic evaluation of the geological
characteristics of Nigeria's iron ores and their
suitability and sustainability as primary raw
materials.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF NIGERIA'S IRON
DEPOSITS
Nigeria lies within the so-called Pan-African mobile
belt of West Africa, where the crystalline rocks have
been subjected to several cycles of deformation
and tectonic rejuvenation. About half of the entire
landmass is underlain by Precambrian crystalline
metamorphic and igneous rocks that form the
basement shield, while the remaining half is
covered by sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous to
Quaternary age. There are three major rock
groups: (1) Precambrian Basement Complex, (2)
Jurassic Younger Granites, and (3) the Cretaceous
to Quaternary sedimentary rocks and basaltic lava
flows The Precambrian rocks are well exposed in
four major areas: the north-central area,
southwestern, southeastern and northeastern
regions. The Jurassic Younger Granites are
confined to the Jos Plateau in northcentral Nigeria,
while the Cretaceous sedimentary basins are
found along the marginal areas of the, southwest,
southeast, southcentral, northwest and northeast
regions (Figure 1).
The Precambrian Basement Complex rocks can
be classified into four major groups as follows:
· Migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex
· Schist belts
· Pan-African granitoids
· Minor felsic and mafic intrusive roc
The relative abundance and distribution of
these rock groups vary considerably, but except for
the northwestern region where the schists are
prevalent, the migmatite-gneiss complex with
granitic intrusives are always predominant. The
migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex is composed
of high-grade metamorphic rocks of mostly
Archean to Paleoproterozoic age (>2200 my).
They are the most widely distributed rocks within
the Basement Complex where they form the shield
to relatively younger supracrustal cover rocks.
Prominent lithologies are banded gneisses
(paragneises), granite gneisses, and migmatites,
with minor schists, marbles, quartzites and
amphibolites.
This Schist Belts are characterized by a
group of Proterozoic, low-grade metasedimentary
and metavolcanic rocks were deposited in
supracrustal basins overlying the migmatite-gneiss
complex. They are referred to as the Schist belts.
3
The dominant lithologies are mica schists,
quartzites, quartz schists, phyllites, marbles, and
amphibolites. Slices of metamorphosed ultramafic
rocks form elongate bodies of serpentinite and talc
schist located along major transcurrent fault
systems. These rocks occur as N-S trending,
intensely deformed and narrow folded belts
confined mostly to the western half of the country,
representing relics of more extensive supracrustal
cover rocks.
A series of medium to high level granitic
intrusives, known as the “Older Granites” were
emplaced into the crystalline basement during the
Pan African orogeny. They range in age from about
550 to 450 my, and occur as extensive, medium to
high-level, granitic bodies dispersed throughout
the Basement Complex areas. The most common
lithologic units are coarse-grained biotite and
biotite-hornblende granites with minor
hypersthene granite (charnockite) and alkaline
syenite.
Mesozoic high-level Intrusive rocks
known as the “Younger Granites” were emplaced
into the Basement Complex during the Jurassic
period within a broad zone of crustal uplift in the
Jos Plateau of north-central Nigeria. Their mode of
emplacement as ring dikes is unique, and the
intrusive rocks are associated with felsic lavas and
pyroclastics. More than 50 ring complexes are
known within the Younger Granite province in
Nigeria, and the dominant rock types are
peraluminous biotite granites, peralkaline
riebeckite-arfvedsonite granites and
metaluminous hornblende and fayalite bearing
granites. Other minor rock types are syenites
trachytes, rhyolites, gabbros and dolerites.
Sedimentary rocks and volcanics of
Cretaceous to Quaternary age occur within seven
major sedimentary basins formed by subsidence
following the pre-Triassic domal uplift and rifting
associated with the Cretaceous opening of the
South Atlantic Ocean. The sedimentary basins
are, namely: Benue Trough (SE-NE), Anambra
(SE), Dahomey (SW), Bida (Central), Bornu/Chad
(NE), Sokoto (NW) and Niger Delta (South-South).
Iron ores occur primarily as the minerals
magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3) in
various geological environments. In Nigeria, iron
ore is one of the most common metallic minerals,
and is found in various locations in the
northwestern, north-central, southwestern and
southeastern parts of the country. More than thirty
iron ore deposits have been reported in the country
and It is estimated that the ore reserves are over 1
billion tons of iron ore comprised of 800 million tons
of proven reserves and 500 million of probable
reserves located in the following States; Kogi,

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Figure 1: Simplified Geological Map of Nigeria
Enugu, Niger, Zamfara, Kaduna, Oyo and
Anambra. However, most of the mineable iron ore
deposits are confined to the area around the
Okene-Lokoja-Kabba axis known as the “Iron
Triangle” of Kogi State (Fig. 2). The most common
ore minerals are hematite, magnetite, and
goethite with minor maghemite, limonite and
siderite.
There are five major types of iron ore
deposits in Nigeria, two of which are metamorphic,
and one each magmatic, sedimentary and lateritic
in origin. The metamorphic iron ores are
sometimes described as “Banded Iron Formation”
(BIF), but such terminology may not be
appropriate, and will not be used in this paper
because it is too generic.
1.
Ferruginous Quartzites
- Itakpe type
(hematite-magnetite quartzites)
2.
Ferruginous Schists - Maru type (banded
hematite and quartz-hematite schists)
3.
Magmatic Iron Ore - Kakun type
4.
Sedimentary Ironstones - Agbaja type
5.
Lateritic Ironstone
Ferruginous Quartzites
The ferruginous quartzites are ore-bearing units
that occur as folded bands, layers or lenses a few
4
meters to several tens of meters thick, and
extending laterally for up to several kilometers.
They are intercalated within and conformable with
the host rocks which are deformed and high-grade
Archean banded gneisses and migmatites, with
minor non-ferruginous quartzite, schist and
amphibolites intruded by granites and aplite. The
iron ores are usually banded, but may be massive or
schistose. The banding is of variable thickness
which may be discontinuous. It is attributed more to
metamorphic differentiation than to primary
sedimentary layering which differentiates
ferruginous quartzites from Banded Iron Formation
(BIF). The ferruginous quartzites are oxide facies
iron ores that differ in texture and mineralogy from
the banded ferruginous (quartz-hematite) schists
found within the Proterozoic Schist Belts. The
principal ore minerals are magnetite and hematite
(mostly specularite), with minor martite which often
occurs as replacement of magnetite. The proportion
of magnetite to hematite varies considerably, but
most deposits contain more hematite than
magnetite. The magnetite is usually medium to
coarse-grained while the hematite is granular to
schistose in texture. The gangue minerals are
recrystallized quartz with minor biotite and
amphibole

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1. Okene
2. Agbaja
3. Konto Karfe
4. Muro
5. Maru
6. Birin Gwari
7. Enugu/Nsude
Figure 2: Location of major iron ore deposits, Nigeria
Table 1: List of Some Nigerian Iron Deposits and Locations
S/N
Deposit
Location
Fe (wt. %)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Itakpe
Ajabonoko
Agbado-Okudu
Ochokochoko
Tajimi
Ebiya
Akoina
Akunnu-Akoko
Ogbomoso
Gandafelan
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Ondo
Oyo
Adamawa
36
37
35
34
38
34
41
-
39
38
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Agbaja (Mt Patti)
Kogi Iron
Koton Karfe
Bassa Nge
Nsude
Ameki-Ohafia
Nsugbe Hill
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Kogi
Enugu
Abia
Anambra
47
41
48
46
47
38
-
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Maru
Dakin Gari
Wonaka
Rishi
Dakin Gari
Muro-Toto
Kagarko (Kubacha)
Birnin Gwari
Kazaure
Zamfara
Kebbi
Zamfara
Bauchi
Kebbi
Nassarawa
Kaduna
Kaduna
Jigawa
35
29
29
15
29
31
60
34
32
27
28
29
Kakun
Jawara
Gujeni
Kogi
Kaduna
Kaduna
62
61
48
30
31
!yuku
Agbaja Laterite
Edo
Kogi
45
46
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Most of the known occurrences of ferruginous
quartzites are found in the area around Lokoja-
Okene-Kabba in Kogi State, although a few similar
deposits have been reported outside this area. The
most notable deposits are at Itakpe, about 10 km
northeast of Okene, and other smaller deposits at
Chokochoko, Ajabonoko, Agbado-Okudu and
Tajimi (Figure 3). Also belonging to this group of
iron ores are lesser-known occurrences near
Ogbomoso in Oyo State, at Ajase, Oko and Gede
(Oladeji and Adekoya, 1998). Other occurrences
may also exist within the vast Precambrian
migmatite-gneiss-quartzite terrain of southwestern
Nigeria where they may be defined by strong
aeromagnetic anomalies, such as the occurrence
investigated at Akunnu-Akoko in Ondo State.
(Fowowe and Ariyo, 2016). Bolarinwa (2017)
described a ferruginous quartzite occurrence at
Gangfelan in Adamawa State. The estimated
reserves of iron ore in these deposits are shown in
Table 2.
The ferruginous quartzites are believed to
be of metamorphic origin, formed from high grade
metamorphism of iron-rich sediments (Olade,
1978). The ore minerals show evidence of
metamorphic recrystallization and differentiation.
There are some localized effects of metasomatism
from igneous activity that produced remobilization
of the iron ores, but the deposits are not considered
as metasomatic or hydrothermal in origin,
Table 2: Estimated Reserves of Iron Ore in Ferruginous Quartzites
S/N
Iron Ore Deposit
Estimated Reserves
(mt)
Average Ore Grade
(in wt. %)
1
Itakpe
200
36
2
Ajabanoko
60
37
3
Agbado-Okudu
60
35
4
Tajimi
20
38
5
Ochokochoko
12
37
6
Ebiya
10
35
7
Ogbomoso
5
39
Itakpe Iron Deposit
The Itakpe iron ore deposit (Fig. 3) is the largest of
the ferruginous quartzite ore bodies with proven
reserves of about 200 million metric tons of 36% Fe
(Akinrinsola and Adekeye, 1993). The Itakpe mine
(Fig. 4) located just a few kilometers outside Okene
is currently the major source of raw materials for the
iron and steel manufacturing complexes at Ajaokuta
and Aladja-Warri. Olade (1978) described the
Itakpe iron ore as a Precambrian metamorphosed
iron-rich sandstone
(ferruginous quartzite)
occurring within the Archean migmatite-gneiss-
quartzite suite of the Basement Complex. The
deposit comprises of over 25 individual ore-bearing
layers or lenses (14 are considered minable) that
are interbanded with migmatites, gneisses,
amphibolites, schists and orthoquartzite, and
intruded in places by granites, pegmatites and
aplite. The tabular ore bodies dipping between 21
and 85 degrees but mostly conformable to the host
rocks range in thickness from about 10m to up to
60m, extending for distances of hundreds of meters
to over 4km. Subsurface drilling has proved that
they are developed to a depth of over 300m, and are
often displaced by small to large faults. The ore
deposits have been folded and faulted and affected
by regional metamorphism. And metasomatism
close to granitic intrusives.
The iron ores are banded, but may appear
massive or schistose, and the bands sometimes
irregular and discontinuous are characterized by
alternating iron-rich and quartz rich units. Principal
ore minerals are magnetite and hematite
(specularite) with quartz, biotite and hornblende as
gangue minerals. The magnetite crystals are
coarse-grained and may be replaced by martite at
the margins. Four major types of iron ore have
been recognized:
(i) magnetite quartzite
(ii)
magnetite-hematite quartzite
(iii) hematite-
magnetite quartzite, and (iv) hematite quartzite.
There is some field evidence that the magnetite
rich ores have been remobilized or metasomatized
along contact zones with intrusive granitic bodies.
The ore grade ranges between 25% and 55% Fe,
averaging about 36% Fe (Table 3). The variability in
ore grade is attributed to the varying proportion of
magnetite, hematite and gangue. The rich
magnetite ores (.>50%Fe) account for about 5% of
the ore reserves while the medium-grade hematite-
magnetite ores represent 85% while the schistose
hematite ores account for the remaining 10%.
Iron ore mining began at the Itakpe deposit
by open pit method under the management of the
National Iron Ore Mining Company (NIOMCO) in
1987 as successor to the Associated Iron Ore
Company established in 1979. NIOMCO is
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expected to supply ore concentrates to the steel
works at Ajaokuta and Aladja, as well as producing
ore concentrates for export. Production capacity for
the Itakpe mine was projected as 2.2 million tons
per annum of concentrate with 63 - 64% iron
content for Ajaokuta, and 0.8 million tons of super-
concentrate with 67- 68%Fe. Although mining of
Granite and
Granodiorite,
Diorite,
Granite
Augen Gniess,
Granodiorite Gniess,
Iron Ore
Ajabonoko Iron Deposit
The Ajabonoko iron deposit represents one of the
bands and lenses of ferruginous quartzites
interbedded with gneisses and amphibolite in the
Okene area. It lies about 5km northwest of the
Itakpe deposit. The Ajabanoko area consists of a set
of three closely related hills of basement rocks in
which some large bands of iron ore occur. The
surrounding country rocks are similar to those at
Itakpe, and include banded gneiss, granite gneiss,
migmatite, amphibolite, granites and pegmatite
which are aligned in a northeast-southwest
direction and dip mostly westwards (Amigun and
Ako, 2009). The iron ore deposit consists of four
ferruginous quartzite layers or lenses that range in
thickness from 1 to 5m, and extending for about
1km along strike. The ore lenses are usually banded
with alternating iron-rich and quartz-rich
mesobands. The ore minerals are hematite
(specularite) and magnetite, and the ore varieties
include hematite and mixed hematite-magnetite
and magnetite ores which appear mostly as banded
but also exhibit massive and schistose forms. The
iron ore was initiated at Itakpe mine, but production
was abandoned in the 1990s due to disagreements
Ferrogenous
Quartzite,
Paraschists,
Paragneisses,
Fault inferred,
Geological Boundary
Transitional,
Geological Boundary
inferred
average grade of the deposit is
37%Fe with
estimated reserves of 60 million metric tons,
Ajashe (Ogbomoso) Iron Deposit
The Ajashe iron deposit is located about 40 km
northeast of Ogbomoso in Oyo State. It is a small
orebody of ferruginous quartzite that was mined
and smelted for iron by the local people, probably
for over a century. Similar deposits are found
nearby within the vicinity of Gede and Oko
(Adekoya and Oladeji, 1986; Adekoya et. ai.,
2003). The Ajashe iron ore occurs as narrow
lenses and bands of thinly-bedded ferruginous
quartzite which are interbanded with biotite gneiss
and migmatite. The surrounding rocks belong to
the Precambrian migmatite-gneiss-quartzite
complex, comprising banded gneiss-migmatite,
with orthoquartzite and quartz schist that are
intruded by porphyritic granites. The ore bands
range from <1m to 8m in thickness, and extend for
several hundred meters, and discontinuously for
up to a kilometer. The ore minerals are
7

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predominantly hematite (specularite) with minor ore bands are thin and ore reserves are small with
magnetite. The average ore grade is 39%Fe at combined estimates of about 5 million tons
Ajashe, 34%Fe in Oko and 42%Fe at Gbede. The
Figure 4: Itakpe iron ore mine showing ridge of ferruginous quartzite, Okene
Geological map of Itakpe iron ore deposit
Banded gneiss Hyperst here granite (c harnockite) Faults
Granite gneiss Ferruginous qua rtzites
Figure 5: Generalized geological map of Itakpe iron deposit (after Olade, 1978)
2. Banded Ferruginous Schists
Ferruginous schists are iron-bearing
(quartz-
hematite-magnetite) schistose rocks and phyllites
that occur sporadically within the NE-SW trending,
low-grade metasediments of the Proterozoic Schist
belts of central and northwestern Nigeria. Notable
occurrences are found at Maru, Birnin Gwari,
Kushaka, Kazaure, Wonaka, and Toto- Muro schist
belts. (Figure
6). Surprisingly, this type of iron
deposit has not been widely reported from the schist
belts in southwestern Nigeria, except for the
occurrence of an “impure” quartzite in Egbe-Isanlu
schist belt which is described as a “silicate-facies”
iron formation, without any associated iron ore
minerals such as hematite or magnetite.
The iron-ore bearing schists are generally
banded and fine-grained rocks containing mostly
quartz-hematite or quartz-muscovite-hematite
assemblage. They occur as bands and lenses
about 1-30m thick, intercalated within pellitic and
semi-pellitic phyllites and quartz-mica schists with
minor interbedded orthoquartzite, marble and rare
metavolcanics. The ore bands show variable lateral
extent, with some bands stretching discontinuously
for several kilometers. Within individual ore bands,
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the iron minerals occur in thin laminations of iron
oxides alternating with fine-grained recrystallized
quartz or metachert
(Adekoya,
1993). The ore
minerals are predominantly of the oxide facies;
mostly magnetite with hematite, martite ± goethite
while the carbonate facies which occurs rarely such
as at Muro consists of quartz-siderite ± goethite.
The silicate facies described from the Maru deposit
is composed of quartz, grunerite and garnet
(Adekoya 1986). Quartz, mica and garnet are the
common gangue minerals. Both ore and host rocks
have been metamorphosed in the green-schist and
lower-amphibolite facies that probably occurred
during, either the Kibaran and/or Pan-African
orogenic events.
The ore grades of the ferruginous schists
are low, in the range of 28 - 42% Fe (average of 34%
Fe), but may occasionally be as high as 44% Fe due
to localized supergene enrichment (Table 4). The
carbonate and silicate facies are low in iron with
concentrations of less than
20% Fe. The
manganese concentrations are notably high,
reaching 9% MnO, except for the Muro deposit in
which the MnO concentration is below detection
limit (Table 4). The elevated Mn is unique for this
group of iron ores, and may reflect the marine
environment of deposition where the Mn might have
originated from volcanic source. While many of
these ferruginous schist occurrences have been
investigated extensively by the Geological Survey
of Nigeria and the Nigeria Steel Raw Materials
Exploration Agency, they have been found to be
very thin (less than 10m thick), of low quality and of
limited lateral and vertical extent. Ore reserves of
the individual ferruginous schists are small usually
less than 20 million tons.
Compared with the ferruginous quartzites,
the ferruginous schists are Proterozoic in age and
associated with low-grade schists and phyllites,
rather than with Archean high-grade gneisses and
migmatite. Texturally, they are finely banded or
laminated, representing primary sedimentary
layering, in contrast to the inhomogeneous
banding representing metamorphic differentiation
in the ferruginous quartzites. The elevated
manganese levels in the ferruginous schists are
distinctive compared to the ferruginous quartzites.
The origin of the ferruginous schists has
been discussed by several workers including
Okonkwo (1991), Anike et.al. (1993), Adekoya
(1998) and (Ibrahim (2008). They are attributed to
low-grade metamorphism of iron-rich, fine-grained
clastic sediments under mixed fluvial and marine
conditions in restricted marine basins. The
laminations found in the iron deposits may
represent primary sedimentary layering that could
have been accentuated in places by low-grade
metamorphism. Magnetite and hematite are
primary sedimentary minerals while the
microcrystalline quartz is recrystallized chert
(metachert). The high levels of manganese in the
iron ores may indicate proximity to volcanic
sources.
Table 2: Chemical Analyses of Ferruginous Quartzites (in %)
Fe
Fe2O3
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
Itakpe
45.91
61.22
38.61
0,01
0.08
0.09
0.02
0.06
0.61
0.22
0.08
40,03
54.04
34.84
1.02
0.06
0.07
0.33
0.35
0.40
0.22
0.27
35.16
46.88
46.23
6.28
0.14
0.06
0.23
0.36
0.54
0.24
0.17
Ajabonoko
35.80
47.74
0.41
1.43
0.10
0.05
0.15
0.21
0.26
0.11
ChokoChoko
35.73
47.65
4.30
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.18
0.15
0.53
0.05
Agbado-
Okudu
33.37
44.50
51.15
1.86
0.03
0-03
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.05
31,38
41.85
56.70
0.77
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.00
0’06
Gangfelan
38.85
53.91
41.98
1.41
0.37
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.18
0.44
Ajashe
39.05
54.67
42.84
1.05
016
0.04
0.21
0.22
0.09
0.18
0.09
Sources: Olade (1978); Uwadiale, 1989; NSDA (1976); Bolarinwa (2018)
Maru Iron Deposit
Maru iron deposit occurs within the low-grade
metasediments of the Maru Schist Belt of
northwestern Nigeria (Figure 6). In Zamfara State,
the iron-rich bands crop out in several locations
along a N-S trending belt, most prominently in the
Baraba hills, 4 km west of Maru. The ferruginous
rocks are intercalated within phyllites, schists,
quartzites and mafic metavolcanics. They form
folded lenses and bands of varying dimension, from
less than a meter to up to 30 m wide, and extending
discontinuously for up to several kilometers. The
iron ore shows distinct micro-banding in which iron
oxide layers alternate with mesocrystalline chert
(Adekoya, 1998).
The Maru iron deposit is predominantly oxide
facies with hematite and magnetite as the primary
iron oxides. Gangue minerals are quartz, chlorite,
garnet, grunerite and muscovite. Supergene
enrichment has produced several secondary
minerals including goethite, martite, cryptomelane
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and secondary hematite. The iron content as Fe2O3 ferruginous schist iron ores. The Maru iron deposit
ranges from about 31 to 40% with an average of 35% has been investigated extensively over the years,
Fe. The manganese content (as MnO) ranges from
2.3% to 9.4% which are values characteristic of the
Table 3: Chemical Analyses of Banded Ferruginous Schists
Fe
Fe2O3
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
Muro
33.58
47.98
50.33
0.1
0.01
0.06-
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.15
32.28
46.12
58.77
0.19
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.03
37.12
53.03
55.54
0.45
0.04
0.05
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.04
0.01
Maru
30.85
44.07
35.81
8.97
0.28
5.05
0,40
0.03
0.01
2.94
0.04
40.88
58.41
26.21
3.69
0.20
7.60
0.01
0.16
0.05
0.01
0.13
Birnin
Gwari
40.42
57.75
30.55
3,78
0.12
5.63
0.01
0.50
0.01
0.13
0.07
31.99
58.57
29.93
3.67
0.22
2.14
0.25
0.01
0.01
0.48
0.19
Kazaure
41.81
59.71
0.08
7.98
0.77
0.29
29.05
41.50
0.32
6.80
1.65
0.62
Wonaka
29.17
41.67
50.75
5.29
0.87
4.37
0.48
0.02
0.03
28.55
40.79
50.59
6.11
0.76
4.53
0.52
0.02
0.03
Sources: Muro (Adekoya, 2012); Maru & Birnin Gwari (Adekoya, 1998); (Ibrahim, 2008); Wonaka (Muhammad, 2014).
Birnin Gwari Iron Deposit
The Birnin Gwari iron deposit lies to the southeast of
Maru, within the Kushaka Schist Belt in Kaduna
State. (Adekoya, 1998). Exposures in the Gwari hills
near Tsofon Birnin Gwari and in the Koriga areas
show that the iron ore occurs as narrow bands and
lenses interbanded with quartz-mica schists,
phyllites, slates metasiltstone and graphite schist
(Figure 7). The iron ore is mostly oxide facies similar
to the Maru deposit in mineralogy and texture.
Magnetite is the main iron oxide mineral. Iron
content ranges between 31% and 40% Fe with an
average of
34% Fe (Adekoya,
1998). The
manganese content ranges between 2% and 5%
MnO. The ore reserves in both the Birnin Gwari and
Koriga areas are small and estimated at about 10
million tons.
Muro Iron Deposit
The Muro iron deposit is located in the Muro Hills, in
the Toto Schist Belt of Nassarawa State. It is the
most promising of the banded ferruginous schists.
Mineralization occurs as bands and lenses ranging
in thickness from 25 to >100m and can be traced
discontinuously for several kilometers. Both the
oxide and carbonate facies occur, although the
latter is of limited extent. The country rocks include
gneisses, marble, quartzites, and schists that are
folded into an overturned antiform trending NE-SW.
Both the ferruginous schists and the surrounding
rocks have been subjected to similarly complex
folding and low-grade metamorphism (Anike, 1987:
Adekoya, 2012).
Anike (1987) classified the iron ores into
two petrographic types which were described as:
(a) banded quartz-hematite (± magnetite) schist
which is massive and mica poor; and (b) banded
quartz-hematite-muscovite schist which is mica
rich. The carbonate facies is composed of quartz-
siderite ± goethite. The oxide facies iron-formation
occurs as a dark grey, fine-grained, banded ore that
shows thin laminations that alternate between iron-
rich and quartz
(
± mica) layers (Fig. 8).
The
carbonate facies is a very hard, fine-grained,
massive rock made up of irregular brown siderite-
rich and quartz-rich portions, and displays no
banding. Three orebodies exist within the deposit,
each representing a well-defined band or lens that
pinch and swell and probably coalesce into one
single body (Anike, 1987). Ore grades range from
30 - 36%Fe, with an average of 32% Fe in the oxide
facies iron formation while for the carbonate facies
the iron concentration is less than 20%Fe. Obaje
(2009). The manganese concentration is less than
0.01% (detection limit) which is very low compared
to the values obtained for the ferruginous schists. It
is therefore probable that the Muro iron deposit may
not really belong to this ferruginous schist group.
Its location outside the main schist belts (Figure 3),
and the surrounding country rocks that are mostly
granite gneiss, quartzite, marble and quartz-biotite
schist, but no phyllites or other low-grade schists
seem to support this hypothesis.
10

Metasediments
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IRON ORE LOCATIONS
1 Maru
2 Wonaka
3 Kushaka
4 Birin Gwari
5 Muro Hill
6 Egbe-Isanlu
Figure 6: Banded Ferruginous Schist Locations
Pan-African Granite,
(Medium-grained
biotite granite),
Carbonaceous phyllite,
Semi-pelitic schists
and phyllites,
Banded Iron Formation
(BIF),
Gneiss-migmatite complex,
Figure 7: Geology of Birnin Gwari iron deposit (After Adekoya, 2006)
11

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Figure 8: Muro Hills banded ferruginous rock (After Adekoya, 2012)
Iron Ore in Amphibolites
Iron-titanium mineralization hosted by amphibolites
has been found within the Precambrian Basement
Complex. The surrounding country rocks are usually
banded gneiss and migmatite with which the host
amphibolites are closely associated. Examples are
the Kakun iron deposit near Kabba in Kogi State
(Annor, 1988) and the Jaruwa iron deposit in
Kaduna State
(Haruna et. al,
2017). Minor
dissemination of titaniferous magnetite has also
been reported in amphibolites from Ife-Ilesha, Oyo
State, and near Isanlu in Kogi State. Also, the iron
deposit at Gujeni in Kaduna State, rich in titanium
with 12% TiO2 may belong to this group, although
the host rock is unknown (Salawu, 2015).
The origin of these magmatic deposits in
Precambrian amphibolites is not unusual, but may
be connected to the mafic intrusives or volcanics
with which they are associated. Initial magmatic
crystallization by gravitational settling in a mafic
magma is presumed to be a primary process of ore
formation, but subsequent changes might have
occurred during regional metamorphism and/or
contact metasomatism.
Kakun deposit
In the Kakun deposit located south of Kabba in Kogi
State, mineralization occurs as a sheet-like intrusive
body (sill) in which the ore minerals magnetite
(Fe3O4) and minor titanite (CaTiO5) are both
disseminated and also accumulated at the base of
the amphibolite body (Annor and Mucke, 1991). This
mode of occurrence is attributed to gravitational
settling of early formed magnetite crystals in a mafic
magma (Abhulimen, 1986). The orebody is split
into two parts: a magnetite-rich layer towards the
base, and a poorly mineralized amphibolite with
disseminated ore towards the top of the sill.
Magnetite shows cumulate and ophitic textures that
are typical of magmatic segregation deposits. The
iron oxide constitutes about 25%, but may be up to
55% of the ore rock. The iron content of the Kakun
deposit averages 62% Fe and 9% TiO2, but the ore
reserves are very small (Okolo, 1987). The origin of
the Kakun deposit is definitely related to initial
magmatic crystallization by gravitational settling in
a mafic magma, but later subjected to change
during regional and/or contact metamorphism.
Annor (1988) attributed the ore deposit to mineral
segregation within a gabbroic sill followed by a
post-consolidation pulse of anorthosite melt during
metamorphism that produced post-consolidation,
secondary alteration (Annor and Mucke, 1991).
Jaruwa deposit
The Jaruwa deposit in Birnin Gwari LGA of Kaduna
State occurs in altered amphibolite intercalated
within migmatite and gneisses. The iron ore
mineral is titaniferous hematite associated with
yellow clays that are rich in limonite and goethite
(Haruna et. al, 2017). The hematite ore is in places
massive, and in others, friable with low gangue
content. As revealed in subsurface drill cores, the
clays are highly indurated. The iron content ranges
from about 52% to as high as 67% Fe, and the
titanium (as TiO2) ranges from 0.04% to as high as
6.37% The ore reserves are not known, but the
thickness of the ores encountered during
preliminary exploratory drilling indicated the ore
deposit may be thick enough to warrant further
detailed exploration.
Gujeni Iron Deposit
The Gujeni iron ore deposit is located in Gujeni
village in the Kagarko LGA of Kaduna State. The
Gujeni iron ore deposit lies within migmatite and
gneisses, east of the Kushaka Schist Belt, and
therefore does not belong to the ferruginous
schists. So far, no detailed information is available
on the source rocks, but due to the very high TiO2
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values, it is suggested that the host rock may be
metamorphosed mafic intrusives, most likely
amphibolite. Results of chemical analysis of the
iron ore indicate concentrations of 48.6% Fe,
0.2%Mn, 12.01%Ti, 2.06%P, 0,02%S, 6,0%Si and
4.4%Al (Salawu, 2015) The ore minerals identified
are hematite, rutile, goethite, zincite and zircon.
The mineralization has been explored by the
Nigerian Steel Raw Materials Research Agency,
and the deposit has been earmarked for a $600
million investment in an integrated iron ore mining,
processing and steel production project by the
African Resources and Mines Limited. The steel
production will involve iron ore beneficiation,
pelletizing and billets production.
Sedimentary Iron Ores
Sedimentary iron ores occur sporadically within the
Cretaceous sedimentary basins of central Nigeria,
but economic deposits are found mainly within the
Bida and Anambra Basins. They are often
described as “ironstones”, and two major groups of
deposits are known: the Agbaja Ironstones in Kogi
State and the Enugu Ironstones in Enugu State.
Other minor occurrences have been reported in
parts of Niger, Abia and Anambra States.
Sedimentary iron ores were first discovered by in
Agbaja in 1911, and subsequently in the Enugu
area. The Agbaja ironstones in central Nigeria,
have been known for several decades, but their
exploitation and utilization were hampered by the
high contents of phosphorus and sulfur which are
deleterious to iron and steel manufacture (Jones
(i955, Hazell,1955, Adeleye, 1976; Ladipo et. al.
1994, Abimbola,1997, Obaje 2009),
Agbaja Ironstone
The most extensive and economically viable
sedimentary iron ores are those of the Agbaja
Ironstone Formation located in the Lokoja district of
Kogi State (Figure 9). It occurs as a stratigraphic
unit within the Upper Cretaceous sedimentary
sequence of the Bida (Nupe) Basin. The deposit
covers an area of over 1500 square km, and is well
developed in the Agbaja Plateau where it extends
from Lokoja in Kogi State to as far as north of Bida in
Niger State. In the Lokoja area, the ironstones
occur as sedimentary beds of variable thickness in
which the stratigraphic sequence is comprised of
the basal Lokoja Formation, overlain by the Patti
Formation and by the uppermost Agbaja Ironstone
Formation (Figure 9). However, towards the
northwest part of the basin in the Bida area, the
ironstone is split into two beds; an upper Sakpe
Ironstone and a lower Batati Ironstone, separated
by the Enagi Siltstone. The ironstones have a
maximum thickness of about 15 m, and are covered
by a thick mantle of ferruginous laterite with an
average thickness of about 10m (Figure 9).
The Agbaja iron ores are of three textural
types: oolitic, pisolitic and argillaceous ironstones.
The oolites vary from l - 2mm in size and are
sometimes kaolinitic. They consist of concentric
rings of Fe-bearing minerals usually goethite
(FeOOH) with in a fine-grained clay groundmass.
The ore minerals in the Agbaja ores are
predominantly goethite-limonite with magnetite
and hematite. Chemical analysis of the Agbaja
ironstone indicates the iron content ranges from
about 41% to 51%Fe. With an average of 45% Fe.
The phosphorus content, as P2O5 ranges from
1.9% to 3%, with an average of 2,50%. Sulfur
concentration varies from 0.08% to 0.15'% (Table
11). The relatively high phosphorus content in
excess of 1% in the ironstones constitutes a
deleterious component that causes brittleness of
iron and steel products, and must be reduced to a
level of less than 0.1%, usually at a cost that can be
considered expensive.
The origin of the ironstones is well known.
They are considered to be of sedimentary origin,
formed predominantly by alluvial deposition within
mixed fluvial and shallow marine environments.
The fragmental ooids and pisoids in the ironstones
are believed to have formed by mechanical
accretion of platy kaolinite crystals by rolling on the
sea floor in a near-shore environment, and
subsequently transported and deposited together
with a fine-grained kaolinitic groundmass. The
Agbaja ironstones are similar to the Minette-type
ironstones in that they are dominantly a goethite-
limonite variety with some chamosite, in which the
depositional patterns in the basin favored the
formation of ooids within a high energy, shallow
marine environment oolites (Ladipo et al.,1994;
Olabimpo, 2015).
Kogi Iron Mine
The Kogi iron mine is located about 15 km north of
Lokoja in Kogi State, and owned by Kogi Iron
Limited (Kogi Iron), a subsidiary of an Australian
company (Energio Limited). The vast deposit of
minable grade iron ore was discovered in 2011
within the Agbaja Ironstone Formation in part of the
Agbaja Plateau. The orebody covers a combined
area of about 22 square kilometers. The ore beds
lie within the horizontal Late Cretaceous Agbaja
Ironstone Formation which is comprised of an
upper unit of ferruginous sandstone and a top layer
of lateritic material. The deposit is described as a
channel iron deposit (CID) that is unique, with only
two known similar deposits of its kind in the world.
The primary ore mineral is magnetite (compared to
goethite elsewhere in Agbaja ironstones) with
minor goethite and hematite (Olabimpo, 2015)
The Kogi iron mine is an open pit mining
operation that is currently excavating ore and
overburden along two benches (Figure 12). Proven
13

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ore reserves at the current mine is estimated as 205
million metric tons of ore grading 45.7% Fe. Drilling
in other areas of the Agbaja Plateau has identified
additional 260 million tons of indicated reserves of
41.3% Fe and 120 million tons of inferred reserves.
The overburden is relatively thin and can be easily
removed with favorable stripping ratios. When in full
production, the mine will have a total capacity of 5
million tons of upgraded iron concentrate per
annum. Because the ore material is magnetic,
relatively soft and friable, it will only require a modest
effort and reduced expenses to liberate the iron ore
concentrate by moderate grinding and magnetic
separation. Microbial treatment processes will be
applied to reduce the high phosphorus content to
0.1%. Production of iron ore began in 2017 and is
projected to last for 21 years.
Laterite
In the last few years, the mining company
has focused efforts on determining if impurities
(phosphorus, alumina and sulfur) could be
metallurgically removed, and have recently
developed a process which will produce a 'cleaner'
material that could be used to produce steel in
electric arc furnaces. The Kogi Iron company holds
17 exploration licences in Kogi State, with the main
focus being the lease that covers the current mine
site of about 14 square kilometers. Other leases are
spread over more than half of the Agbaja Plateau
with prospective reserves of up to 1 billion tons of
iron ore
Agbaja Formation
Patti Formation
Lokoja Formation
Agbaja
Ironstone
Figure 9: Cross section and location of Agbaja Ironstone Formation
Konto-Karfe Ironstone
The Konto-Karfe Ironstone occurs as a ferruginous
sandstone bed a few meters thick in the Sakpe
Formation, north of Lokoja (north of the Niger-Benue
confluence) in Niger State. It is an extension of the
Agbaja Ironstone in the south Bida Basin. The
stratigraphic sequence, mineralogical
characteristics and textural features are similar to the
Agbaja Ironstone, although the Konto-Karfe iron ore
contains some siderite and is slightly of lower ore
grade of 47%Fe, and relatively lower phosphorus
content (Table 11).
Proven ore reserves are
estimated as 850,000 tons. The Bassa-Nge
ironstone which lies east of the Koton-Karfe deposit
is of similar stratigraphy and mineralogical
composition (Imrana, A. and Haruna, 2017).
Figure 10: Outcrop of Agbaja Ironstone
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Figure 11: Outcrop and Oolitic texture of Agbaja Ironstone
Figure 12: Open pit mining operations at Agbaja Kogi Mine
Enugu Ironstone
The Enugu Ironstone occurs within the Late
Cretaceous transgressive sequences in the
Anambra Basin in southeastern Nigeria, almost
stratigraphically equivalent to the Nupe Group in the
adjoining Bida Basin. Several ironstone occurrences
are found in the Awgu Formation, Mamu Formation
and Ajali Sandstone, but the most prominent iron
deposit is located in the Enugu area where it is well
exposed at Nsude, southwest of Enugu city.
(Hazel, 1955). The iron ore is up to 5 m thick,
goethitic in composition with oolitic and pisolithic
textures that are similar to the Agbaja Ironstone.
Estimated reserves of iron ore in the Enugu
Ironstone is in the range of 50 million tons with
average ore grade of 45% Fe. The iron ore is being
mined and utilized locally for small scale iron and
steel projects by the local people. Smaller deposits
are found at Ameki-Ohafia in Imo State and
Nsugbe in Anambra State.
Fe
Fe2O3
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
MnO
MgO
CaO
P2O5
Sulfur
Agbaja
Plateau
50.02
71.46
6.90
8.89
0.50
0.03
0.30
3.07
0.08
47.44
67.77
7.25
14.76
0.51
0.04
0.40
2.10
0.11
50.15
71.65
6.25
10.44
0.53
0.05
0.16
2.40
0.10
51.22
73.18
6.25
8.16
0.54
0.08
0.06
1.27
0.08
Enugu
Ironstone
44.20
63.14
13.83
10.09
1.18
0.07
1.55
42.53
60.76
16.43
10.54
1.32
0.07
1.33
44.20
63.14
14.24
9.16
1.36
0.07
1.42
Konto Karfe
Ironstone
48.45
69.28
16.20
12.60
0.26
0.16
0.34
0.14
1.20
0.26
47.96
68.58
18.32
11.10
0.32
0.07
0.07
0.15
0.95
0.11
Bassa Nge
Ironstone
46.90
67.41
8.29
10.87
0.26
0.13
0.46
0.17
1.45
0.05
Sources: Hazel, 1955; Uwadiale, 1989; Oladinpo, 2015:
15

A
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Lateritic Ironstone
Lateritic ironstones which are products of tropical
weathering of ferruginous sandstones occur in
some parts of central Nigeria particularly within the
Bida and Anambra basins in Kogi and Edo States
respectively. Lateritic iron ore occurs at Uzebba and
Iyuku in Etsako West LGA, Edo State, where
pisolitic or concretionary lateritic iron deposits occur
as thick caps on ferruginous sandstones. Chemical
analyses indicate iron content of 40 - 50% Fe and 10
- 12% Al. The minerals present include goethite,
hematite and halloysite, with minor gibbsite (Irabor
and Okolo, 2010). The Agbaja Ironstone is capped in
several places by lateritic iron ore up to 10 m thick.
Most of the lateritic iron ores are eroded remnants
that are not laterally extensive.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA'S IRON
AND STEEL INDUSTRY
For over 50 years, the successive governments in
Nigeria had aspired to build a public-funded iron and
steel industry, but so far, the efforts have not fully
materializd, due to several challenges including,
technical, managerial, financial, logistical, financial,
political and systemic corruption (Agbu, 2007). The
idea of setting up an iron and steel industry in Nigeria
was first discussed in 1958, but no action was
undertaken until
in the late 1960s when the new
Federal Government invited and received proposals
from several foreign firms, including those from the
USA, Canada, UK and Germany on the feasibility of
establishing iron and steel complexes. None of the
proposals were favorable because they were based
on the use of the sedimentary ironstones in Agbaja
and Enugu which were high in deleterious
admixtures (Damilek, 2017).
In
1967, as a follow-up of a
technical/economic cooperation agreement
between Nigeria and the USSR, a team of Soviet
experts conducted a feasibility study and
determined that the known iron ore deposits in the
country were of poor quality and recommended
further geophysical and geological investigations. In
1971, the National Steel Development Authority
(NSDA) was created to explore, and exploit iron and
steel raw materials and develop plans for the iron
and steel industry. Working alongside Soviet
experts from Technopromexport(TPE) who were
contracted to conduct geological and geophysical
exploration, new iron deposits were discovered in
1973 at Itakpe, Ajabonoko, Ochokochoko and
Koton-Karfe, all in the Okene-Lokoja area of Kogi
State (Olade,
1978). In 1979, t
he
NSDA was
dissolved and four new agencies were created; the
National Steel Council (NSC) to explore for steel
raw materials; the
National Iron Ore Mining
Company(NIOMCO) to exploit, process, and supply
iron ore concentrate for two steel manufacturing
plants; vis-à-vis the Ajaokuta Steel Company (ASC)
to make steel using blast furnace process
technology to make steel, and the Delta Steel
Company (DSC) in Aladja, Warri to produce steel by
direct reduction technology. Three steel rolling mills
were also to be built at Oshogbo, Jos and Katsina to
utilize steel products from ASC and DSC. The
concept of Ajaokuta Steel mill was for it to produce
1.3 million metric tons of liquid steel annually in the
first phase, 2.6 million metric tons in the second
phase, and 5.2 million metric tons in the third phase
respectively, while Aladja was expected to produce
about 1 million tons of steel annually.
Construction of the steel complexes
commenced in 1980, and by 1984, the ASC was over
90% complete while the DSC was commissioned on
schedule in 1982, along with the three steel rolling
mills completed by 1984.
For the next 20 years,
these projects did not proceed to full implementation,
and in 2005, ASC and NIOMCO were concessioned
to an Indian company Global Steel Holdings Nigeria
Ltd (GHNL) to operate for 10 years. After three years
of lack of progress, the contract was terminated. The
Indian company took legal action and went into
arbitration which was settled out of court in 2016 with
the signing of a modified agreement to resuscitate
the mining of iron ore while the Federal Government
took over the ASC which still lacked a blast furnace
and coke oven. The DSC was privatized and sold to
Global Infrastructure Nigeria Ltd (GINL) a subsidiary
of GSHL in
2005, and the company virtually
abandoned the project after accusation of asset
stripping. So, after spending nearly $6 billion dollars,
Nigeria's iron and steel industry is still in limbo, and
no steel has been produced from local raw materials.
The current Nigerian government is focusing efforts
in resuscitating the moribund iron and steel projects.
Figure 13: (Left) Blast furnace and Light/Medium Mill, Ajaokuta. (Right) Delta Steel Complex
16

A
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NIGERIA'S IRON ORES AS RAW MATERIALS
The basic geological raw materials used in the
manufacture of iron (pig iron for making steel) are
iron ore, coking coal, limestone
(CaCO3),
(dolomite) and refractory clays. For steel
production, alloying metals such as manganese,
chromium, molybdenum and nickel may be
needed. However, iron ore is the primary raw
material required for ore feed into steel works, while
the coking coal and limestone are only used for the
processing of the iron ore. For raw materials to be
viable and sustainable, they must satisfy the
following conditions: (1) occur substantially in one
or proximate location; (2) be of adequate quality;
and
(3) have sufficient quantity to meet the
production levels needed over several decades.
Nigeria has all the raw materials needed for
production of iron and steel, but the fundamental
challenges are whether they are of the right quality
and quantity.
Types of Iron Ore
Previous review of iron ore resources shows that
among the five types of deposits, only the
ferruginous quartzites and sedimentary ironstones
occur in substantial quantities at one or proximate
locations to be used as potential raw materials.
The ferruginous quartzites occur as several lenses
that are relatively thick and extensive,
concentrated around Okene in Kogi State, in which
the two largest deposits at Itakpe and Ajabonoko
(combined 250 million tons of 36%Fe) are a few
kilometers apart. The sedimentary ironstones at
Agbaja Plateau are up to 10 meters thick covering
an extensive area of about 150 square kilometers
around Lokoja with estimated reserves of 1 million
tons of 45% Fe. The other iron ore resources such
as the banded ferruginous schists at Maru and
Muro are of lower grade and not extensive enough
to be viable raw materials. The iron ore in the
amphibolites such as Kakun and Jaruwa are small
orebodies but of very good quality. The Gujeni
deposit has been selected for a small mining and
integrated steel production project, but
implementation is not assured. The lateritic
ironstones are not thick or extensive enough to be
of commercial interest.8
Table 5: Quantities of Basic Raw Materials Required for Steel Production
Basic Raw Materials
AJAOKUTA STEEL
DELTA STEEL
Iron Ore (conc.)
2.5 million
1.5 million
Coking Coal
1.2 million
5000
Limestone
660,000
130,000
Refractory Clay
63,000
13,000
Scrap Metal
-
Up to 160,000
Quality of Iron Ores
Iron Content
The quality of iron ore raw materials is very
important in establishing their potential beneficial
usage in iron and steel production. The basic
indicators of the usefulness of iron ore, are; (a) its
contents of iron (%Fe) (b) presence of deleterious
components, (c) mineralogical composition and (d)
textural characteristics -state of granulation
(fineness) of ore particles (Krzak and Paulo, 2018).
Iron ores can be classified according to ore grade
into three categories: low grade (25 - 40%Fe),
medium grade (40 - 60% Fe) and high grade (>60%
Fe). The acceptable standard of iron content of raw
materials for direct feed into blast furnaces starts
from 58% Fe and up to 63%, while for direct
reduction processes, ore feed averages about 67%
Fe. Because of the higher-grade ore requirement,
the initial plan for source of iron ore for ASC was
Guinea. High grade ores that naturally contain
>65% Fe do not require additional beneficiation
and are called “direct shipping ores”. However,
lower grade iron ores can be beneficiated to
enhance its iron content up to the desired level of
industrial specification for the different industrial
end use can attain the required input standards by
pre-feed beneficiation into concentrates or super-
concentrates, which incur additional overhead
costs in terms of energy and raw material quantity
and transportation
The iron ore from the Itakpe mine which is
the designated source for raw materials for the
steel works at Ajaokuta and Aladja is of relatively
low quality (36% Fe), and normally will not be used
as source of raw materials for iron and steel
production in most countries. The iron ore from
Guinea which was the initial negotiated source of
17

A
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iron ore for the Aladja direct reduction plant,
naturally contains over 65% Fe. The same applies
to the iron ores from Brazil which was also
considered as potential substitute after the
arrangement with Guinea failed. However, Itakpe
became the prime source of iron ore for both steel
works (Olayebi, 2014). The implications of using
such a low-grade iron ore includes the added
overhead costs for beneficiation to produce
concentrates and other additional costs for
equipment, increased energy costs, transportation
and extraction of more raw materials. To produce
the required quantity of about 3,5 million tons of
concentrates for both DSC and ASC will require
mining of over 20 million tons (6 x) of raw materials,
or 15 million tons for Ajaokuta alone. This is far in
excess of the designed production capacity of
Itakpe mine. The Agbaja iron ores averaging about
45% Fe are slightly of higher grade, but have other
serious limitations in terms of harmful admixtures
and poor texture and mineralogical characteristics.
Deleterious Constituents
The major deleterious constituents in iron ores
include phosphorus (> 0.07- 0.1%), sulfur (> 0.05-
0.3%), K2O + Na2O (> 0.3%), SiO2 (>4.0% Al2O3
(>2.5%), and TiO2 (> 0.8%) (Krzak and Paulo,
2018). High phosphorous and sulfur negatively
impact the mechanical properties and integrity of
steel products and may cause segregation during
solidification of castings. High alumina and silica in
iron ores causes operational problems during
sintering and blast furnace operations by producing
viscous slag that requires high coke rate. Titanium
increases the temperature of melts and destroy
furnace linings. The chemical composition of the
Itakpe iron ore shows that it is very much free of
impurities, while Agbaja iron ore contains high
phosphorus, sulfur and alumina contents.
(see
Table 5). However, at extra cost, it is possible to
remove these deleterious components prior to
beneficiation. Research at Kogi Iron has shown that
this is a possibility that can be achieved at
reasonable costs to allow the production of
“a
beneficiated iron ore concentrate suitable for the
production of pig iron and a refined metal with a
grade and composition suitable for the production of
billet” (Kogi Iron report). However, at the current low
price of iron ore, removal costs may not be
attractive.
Mineralogical and Textural Characteristics
The mineralogical characteristics and texture of iron
ores affect the processes of beneficiation by
magnetic and gravity methods. The economic
minerals of iron ores are mainly magnetite, hematite
and goethite-limonite. Magnetite and some
18
hematite are magnetic while goethite-limonite are
not magnetic except when beneficiated by
magnetizing reduction that converts the goethite to
magnetite when heated. (Uwadiale, 1998) The
mineralogical composition of iron ores affects the
ability to be easily beneficiated using gravity,
magnetic and flotation methods. The Itakpe iron ore
is coarse grained in texture and contains magnetite
and hematite as dominant ore minerals which
greatly facilitates the separation of ore from gangue
(Olayebi, 2014). On the other hand, the Agbaja
ironstones have unfavorable characteristics in
which ore is fine-grained, soft and friable and
composed mainly of goethite-limonite with minor
magnetite (Adedeji and Sale, i984), except at Kogi
Iron deposit where magnetite has been found to be
dominant (Olabimpo,
2015). The texture and
mineralogy of Agbaja iron ore make beneficiation
difficult. Adedeji and Sale (1984) found out that
Agbaja ore is very irreducible at 1100ºC because of
sintering of the ore.
Quantity of Iron Ores
Nigeria has been reported as having iron ore
reserves ranging from 2 billion to 5 billion tons, but
there is no indication how these figures were
derived and their official sources. Ore reserves can
be described as proven (indicated) or probable
(inferred). Proven reserves are the most reliable
estimates that are based on subsurface drilling and
extrapolations from detailed geological mapping,
whereas probable reserves are based on
inferences. The only iron ore deposits that have
been thoroughly investigated are the ferruginous
quartzites at Itakpe and Ajabonoko, and the oolitic
ironstones at Agbaja Kogi mines. Proven reserves
at Itakpe and Ajabonoko deposits are about 260
million tons of 36% Fe, whereas at Agbaja Kogi
mine, proven reserves are estimated as 460 million
tons of 42 to 45%Fe. So, the total proven reserves of
Nigerian iron ores are about 800 million tons for a
proposed annual production of 3.5 million tons of
concentrate for DSC (2.3 mt) and ASC (1.2 mt).
For comparison, South Africa has the
largest iron ore reserves in Africa with 2.7 billion
tons, and produces 12 million tons of crude (pig) iron
annually The Simandou iron mine in Guinea is, one
of the largest in the world has estimated reserves of
2.4 billion tons of 65%Fe. The largest iron ore
deposit in South Africa is the Sishen iron mine with
reserve estimates of 2.7 billion tons of 58.6% Fe,
with annual production of 31 million tons of iron ore.
The Carajas mine in Brazil is the largest in the world
with reserve estimates of 7.5 billion tons of 66% Fe,
with annual production in excess of 200 million tons
of iron ore.

A
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Table 6: Comparative Analysis of Iron Ore Characteristics and Reserves
Iron Deposit
Proven
Reserves (t)
Probable
Reserves
Average Fe
Content
Deleterious
Constituents
Mineralogical
Characteristics
Textual
Features
Itakpe Iron
200 Million
-
36%
-
Hematite
Magnetite
Crystalline
Coarse
Ajabonoko
60 Million
-
37%
-
Hematite
Magnetite
Crystalline
Agbaja
(Patti)
-
1 Billion
45%
P2O5 1.9 - 3,0%
S .08 -.15%
Al2O3 >8%
Goethite
Magnetite
Soft, Friable
Fine
Agbaja Kogi
Iron
460 Million
120
41%
P2O5 1.9 - 3,0%
S 0.08 -.15%
Al2O3 >8%
Magnetite
Soft, Friable
Fine
TOTAL
0.72 BT
1.12 BT
COMPARISON WITH OTHER IRON ORE DEPOSITS
Simandou
Iron, Guinea
2.4 Billion
-
65%
-
Hematite
Magnetite
Crystalline
Coarse
Sishen Iron
South Africa
2.7 Billion
-
59%
-
Hematite
Crystalline
Carajas Iron
Brazil
7.5 Billion
-
66%
-
Limonite
Hematite
Soft
Friable
RAW MATERIAL CHALLENGES FOR
NIGERIA'S IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Iron Ores:
Compared to acceptable standards
worldwide, the iron ore deposits in Nigeria do not
occur in sufficient quantity within a single location to
be minable for a large-scale iron and steel project.
As summarized in Table 5, among the known
deposits, only the ferruginous quartzites at Itakpe
with proven reserves of about 200 million have
been identified and prepared for mining by
NIOMCO. However, the estimated reserves are too
small, and may not last more than 15 years which
can be grossly inadequate to justify expected
returns on investment. The other known iron ore
deposits in the Okene area, such as Ajabonoko,
Agbado-Okudu, Ebiya, Ochokochoko etc. are too
small and scattered (about 10 km apart) to warrant
any consideration for future development. The ores
will be costly to mine and transport to Itakpe for
beneficiation.
The Agbaja Ironstone near Lokoja with
proven reserves of about 500 million tons and
probable reserves of 500 million tons are high in
phosphorus, sulfur and alumina. The removal of
these deleterious constituents at reasonable cost is
still a big hurdle to overcome, despite research
efforts at Kogi iron mine to produce billets of
acceptable quality. Even for a blast furnace
process, the Agbaja iron ore must still undergo
additional magnetic reduction in which the non-
magnetic minerals are converted to magnetite
before beneficiation.
19
During the initial pilot phase of mining at
Itakpe which began in 1987, iron ore produced by
NIOMCO were as follows: 50,000 tons in 1989,
359,156 in 1990 and 245,000 in 1991 (Agbu, 2007).
The total iron ore stockpile at the end of 1991 (after
5 years) was approximately 1.8 million tons. The
beneficiation plant completed in 1992 at Itakpe
mine had a designed capacity of 2.5 million tons of
concentrate per year. It is apparent that because of
the low quality of Itakpe iron ore, mining may be
incapable of meeting the concentrate requirements
of the steel processing plants.
Coal:
Coal for coking is another raw material
needed in substantial quantities in steel making. For
every ton of iron produced requires 0.8 -1 ton of
coking coal. For the Ajaokuta to produce 1.3 million
tons per annum of iron will require approximately 1
million tons of coking coal. Nigeria has proven
reserves of over 600 million tons of sub-bituminous
coal deposits of excellent quality in Enugu and Kogi
States but they are non-coking, and not suitable for
steel production. Exploration activities by NIRMEA
in the Lafia-Obi area of Nassarawa State identified
some coal seams (36 seams of which 4 are usable)
with coking properties, but they were found to be
high in ash and sulfur, and four seams of interest
cannot be easily mined because they are thin and
structurally disturbed by numerous faults (Ariyo,
pers. comm.). For the Nigerian blast furnace
operations, there is a compelling need to import
coking coal of I million tons per year. At an average
price of $200/metric ton, the cost of importing
coking coal will reach $200 million per annum.

A
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Limestone: Limestone for forming slag is an
important raw material in the melting of iron and
steel by both blast furnace and electric arc furnace
processes. It is estimated that not less than
600,000 tons of limestone or calcined lime (CaO)
will be needed annually. for the lime plants.
Although Nigeria is endowed with several hundred
million tons of limestone reserves, however, most
of these deposits are located in faraway places
such as Cross River State (Mfamosing limestone),
Benue State (Gboko Limestone} and Ogun State
(Ewekoro Limestone) where they are currently
actively used in cement production. The marble
deposits found nearby in Kogi State, such as the
Jakura and Ubo are recrystallized limestones that
are less suitable for slag forming due to their
crystalline state and presence of impurities. The
logistics and cost of hauling locally sourced
limestone to Ajaokuta or Aladja from distant
locations cannot be imagined. Available statistics
indicate that Nigeria had imported about 50,000
tons of calcium carbonate annually in recent years.
Logistics: The transportation of iron concentrates
from Itakpe mine to Ajaokuta and Aladia-Warri are
serious challenges to steel production. The
distance between Itakpe and Ajaokuta is 50km, and
Ajaokuta to Aladja is about 280km. The rail line
between Itakpe-Aja0kuta- Aladja was initiated in
the
1990s, but had fallen into disrepair along
several sections. However, the rail line was recently
repaired and reconfigured from ore transport to
dual usage for ore and human transportation. This
modification will create serious operational issues
for transportation of ore concentrate from Itakpe
mines.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on a holistic re-evaluation of the basic raw
materials needed for a viable iron and steel
industry, it is apparent that all the needed raw
materials constitute serious challenges for the
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