Where the sexes differ; crime, violence but not the economy

Abstract

A 2014 study confirms that males are more likely than females to get caught up in violence. This is despite the fact that both males and females are generally just as likely to be victims of crime. Women were more concerned than men for their safety when walking in neighbourhood, both during the day and night. In general both men and women had similar views of the political and economic aspects of the nation, but men were less trusting of the criminal justice system than women. It appears that the current state of crime and violence impacts the sexes differently, and that they respond differently to the perceived threat of violence. Despite a similar level of engagement in governance, males appear to be more wary of politics than women. Attitudes and choices of people are often associated with the person's sex. This is seen in choices of occupation (for example: women are nurses, construction workers are men) and the different expectations that society has of men and women (men earn money, and women stay at home to care for the family). These are gender norms, which have been accepted by society and which can be perpetuated by society. This phenomena has been termed "gendering". However, as women become better educated than man, and the equal rights movements agitate on equality for men and women, the traditional distinctions between what men and women do has been altering. Notwithstanding these changes, expectations of the roles of men and women are still evident in school children 1 , which suggests that traditional views are still strong. Given the gender based attitudes which still exist in today's society, this paper poses the question as to whether or not males and females have similar perceptions and experiences of crime, violence and the economy.

Full text

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Where the sexes differ; crime, violence but not the economy
William J. Fielding
(Draft 13 July 2015)
The College of The Bahamas
Summary
A 2014 study confirms that males are more likely than females to get caught up in violence.
This is despite the fact that both males and females are generally just as likely to be victims of
crime. Women were more concerned than men for their safety when walking in
neighbourhood, both during the day and night.
In general both men and women had similar views of the political and economic aspects of
the nation, but men were less trusting of the criminal justice system than women.
It appears that the current state of crime and violence impacts the sexes differently, and that
they respond differently to the perceived threat of violence. Despite a similar level of
engagement in governance, males appear to be more wary of politics than women.
Attitudes and choices of people are often associated with the person’s sex. This is seen in
choices of occupation (for example: women are nurses, construction workers are men) and
the different expectations that society has of men and women (men earn money, and women
stay at home to care for the family). These are gender norms, which have been accepted by
society and which can be perpetuated by society. This phenomena has been termed
“gendering”. However, as women become better educated than man, and the equal rights
movements agitate on equality for men and women, the traditional distinctions between what
men and women do has been altering. Notwithstanding these changes, expectations of the
roles of men and women are still evident in school children
1
, which suggests that traditional
views are still strong.
Given the gender based attitudes which still exist in today’s society, this paper poses the
question as to whether or not males and females have similar perceptions and experiences of
crime, violence and the economy.
This paper reports findings obtained in the 2014 study undertaken by Vanderbilt University
as part of its Latin American Public Opinion Project.
2
The methodology and background to
1
Nicolls, D., Russell-Smith, C., Dean-Patterson, S., Deveaux-Stuart, L. D., Gibson-Mobley, I.,
Williams, E. J, Pinder-Darling, A., & Fielding, W. J. (2014). Attitudes of high school students
regarding intimate relationships and gender norms in New Providence, The Bahamas. The
International Journal of Bahamian Studies, 20(1), 38-51. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.15362/ijbs.v20i1.225
2
The AmericasBarometer by the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP),
www.LapopSurveys.org.http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/core-surveys.php

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the study are reported in (Zechmeister, 2015).
3
As the project relates to The Bahamas, face-
to-face interviews were undertaken on New Providence (2,511 interviews), Grand Bahama
(522 interviews), Abaco (72 interviews), Eleuthera (77 interviews), Exuma & Cays (75
interviews) and Andros (71 interviews) so as to obtain a representative sample of households
across the nation. A selection of the interview questions related to violence, crime and the
economy are reported here.
General outlook
Females had a higher level of life satisfaction than males, Table 1, which was correlated with
their perception of their personal economic situation (Kendall’s tau = .089, p < .01 for males
and .081, p < .01 for females), but not with their perception of the national economic
situation, p > .05). This result indicates the economy of the individual is probably more
important to most people than concern about the national economy.
Table 1: Perception of males and females to economy and their life satisfaction.
Aspect:
Response
Male
Female
p
N
Satisfaction with your life
Very Satisfied
40.6%
46.1%
0.003
3,372
Perception of national economic situation
Better than
one year ago
12.2%
11.5%
0.831
3,262
Perception of personal economic situation
Better than
one year ago
17.7%
17.3%
0.832
3,305
In most aspects of political life males and females agreed in their opinions, but with the
exception of men having less pride in the political system than women, and thinking that
political leaders are not interested in what people think, Table 2. This finding may arise from
male respondents feeling marginalised by officialdom. If so, the concern arises that they may
find alternative ways of making their voices heard outside of the structures of governance.
Further, it might have been anticipated that as most politicians are male, female respondents
would have perceived that (male) politicians were less interested in what people (females)
think. The fact that the opposite was found, suggests that as suggested by Ian Bethell-
Bennett, the rhetoric of politicians can appear to marginalise males. If so, this may help
explain the reactions of males to this question.
3
Zechmeister, E. J. (Ed.) (2015). The political culture of democracy in the America, 2014.
Democratic governance across 10 years of the AmerasBarometer. Nashville, T.N.: Vanderbilt
University.
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/ab2014/AB2014_Comparative_Report_English_V3_revised_011315
_W.pdf

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Table 2: Perception and engagement in politics by sex.
Aspect: Responding “Not at all” unless otherwise
stated:
Male
Female
p
N
Respect for political institutions
7.8%
6.9%
.524
3,348
Respect for basic rights
9.8%
8.7%
.101
3,336
Pride in political system
8.4%
6.8%
<.001
3,353
People should support the political system
6.3%
4.9%
.150
3,343
Evaluation of administration's handling of economy
12.9%
12.7%
.598
3,319
Leaders are interested in what people think*
18.7%
14.6%
.001
3,337
Voted in 2012 general election: yes
74.8%
75.6%
.605
3,386
Would not vote if an election if held next week
25.2%
23.9%
.883
2,868
Understands important political issues*
7.0%
7.3%
.521
3,347
Identifies with a political party
37.8%
39.3%
.411
3,299
Interested in politics
31.6%
30.5%
.181
3,386
* “Strongly disagree”
Although men and women agreed on many on their perceptions regarding the criminal justice
system, there were differences between the sexes when it came to trusting the police,
opinions of obtaining a fair trial and actions as to how crime could be reduced, Table 3. The
difference between the sexes in approaching crime reduction (preventing rather than
increasing penalties) suggests that society as a whole is divided as to the best way forward.
Table 3: Perception of the criminal justice system by sex.
Aspect:
Response
Male
Female
p
N
Evaluation of administration's
handling of citizen security
Not at all
7.5%
7.7%
.687
3,314
Trust in judicial system
Not at all
8.3%
7.3%
.134
3,334
Trust in the national legislature
Not at all
12.0%
10.1%
.154
3,294
Courts guarantee fair trial
Not at all
5.7%
4.5%
.031
3,308
Trust in police
Not at all
10.2%
8.6%
.010
3,377
To reduce crime:
Implement pre-
ventative measures
17.1%
14.2%
.001
3,375
Increase punishment
of criminals
57.6%
63.7%
Males and females have similar perceptions of their neighbours, with respect to them being
trustworthy and getting along with each other, Table 4. This gender natural reaction can be
viewed as important when males are typically associated with crime and violence, and so
suggests that within the neighbourhood residents are seen as being positive contributors to
society.
Table 4: Perception of neighbours by sex.
Perception of neighbours
Response
Male
Female
p
N
Interpersonal trust, of neighbours
Very trustworthy
21.1%
24.7%
.100
3,290
Neighbours get along
Strongly agree
10.4%
10.7%
.713
3,366
Neighbours willing to help
Strongly agree
9.4%
10.1%
.698
3,330

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As might be expected, trust of neighbours and the feeling of safety in walking in the
neighbourhood, either during the day or night, were correlated, for both males and females,
(Kendall’s’ tau, p <.001). Women had a lower feeling of security in their neighbourhood,
both during the day and night, compared to men, although both sexes had similar opinions
regarding the neighbourhood violence and security, (Table 5). These responses are of interest
because although both males and females felt equally that neighbours get on with each other,
and would come to their help, these perceptions are not strong enough to overcome the
greater feelings of insecurity which females have in their neighbourhood. A question that
arises from this insecurity is how does it impact the way of life of females compared to
males? Also, what is causing the higher level of insecurity among women, is the insecurity
generated from people from outside of the neighbourhood?
Table 5: Perception of neighbourhood security by sex.
Aspect
Response
Male
Female
p
N
Perception of security: walking alone in neigh-
bourhood in daytime
Very Safe
22.9%
19.9%
.037
3,394
Perception of security: walking alone in neigh-
bourhood after dark
Very Safe
14.7%
12.0%
<.001
3,355
Perception of neighbourhood violence
Higher
11.0%
10.3%
.742
3,315
Perception of neighbourhood security
Very Safe
35.1%
34.4%
.185
3,403
Trend in neighbourhood violence
Higher
12.0%
10.2%
.229
3,303
Experience of crime
While both men and women were equally likely to have been victims of most forms of crime
included in the survey, males were more likely than females to have been victims of violent
crime, and to have been victims of crimes when a weapon was used. This extended to men
being more likely than women to have witnessed a violent attack as well as being more likely
to have had a person close to them killed by violence, Table 6. When a firearm was a
weapon used, there were no differences in the likely use of firearm types reported by the
sexes.
These findings support the conjecture that males are more than women likely to be associated
with crimes involving weapons, and so ultimately more violent crime events than women.

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Table 6: Victim of crime by sex.
Male
Female
p
N
Victim of crime, in last 5 years
10.6%
9.2%
.187
3,409
Had a car stolen, in last 5 years
8.2%
7.6%
.562
3,299
Victim of theft, in last 5 years
12.3%
12.8%
.715
3,336
Victim of robbery, in last 5 years
7.1%
5.6%
.078
3,352
Robbery with weapon
82.4%
43.6%
<.001
90
Victim of assault
10.3%
7.7%
.008
3,366
Assault with weapon
53.3%
35.0%
.038
135
Victim of threat of assault
8.8%
7.4%
.128
3,340
Assault threat with weapon
61.7%
34.1%
.010
104
Ever witnessed a violent attack
38.6%
26.9%
<.001
3,411
Person close to respondent killed by violence
39.9%
34.3%
0.001
3,415
The location where crimes took place was similar for both males and females, Table 7. It
should also be noted that in the survey “assault” did not include domestic violence, and so
this may help explain that the home was an equally safe space for both males and females.
Additionally, the small sample size may have prevented differences between the sexes from
being detected statistically.
Table 7: Place of crime by sex, percentage occurring at home.
Location of
Male
Female
p
N
Assault
14.3%
26.9%
.066
151
Threat of assault
23.1%
30.4%
.389
111
Robbery
28.1%
38.3%
.394
104
The most recent type of crime of which respondents were victims suggests that there may be
sex differences. Although a formal level of statistical significance was not found (Chi-
squared = 15.8, df = 9, N = 333, p = .072), the findings are in line with what we might expect
from previous knowledge of rape involving women and armed robbery involving men, as
such a single sided test, would indicate that sex differences do exist in Table 8.

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Table 8: Type of crime respondent was most recently a victim, percentage by sex.
Sex
Type of last crime:
Male
Female
Assault but not robbery
20.9%
16.0%
Armed robbery
19.8%
16.7%
Burglary of home while you were not at home
19.2%
25.0%
Unarmed robbery, no assault or physical threats
13.6%
14.1%
Unarmed robbery with assault or physical threats
10.7%
7.7%
Vandalism
6.2%
5.8%
Rape or sexual assault
1.7%
5.1%
Burglary of home while you were at home
1.7%
7.1%
Extortion
1.7%
Other
4.5%
2.6%
N
177
156
Respondent’s attitudes towards guns, that they increased security, was a minority view, but
males were more likely to have this view than females (Table 9). Given the fact that males,
rather than females were more likely to have been involved in crimes when a weapon was
used, and given their lower level of trust in the police, it might not be surprising that males
see gun ownership as the way to protect themselves. It is of interest to note that the view
regarding the safely which accrues from having a gun did not translate to respondents being
more or less likely to have carried a gun out of fear (p > 0.05). Therefore, in this instance,
there is a disconnection between perception and action. This may be because current policies
make it difficult for residents to own handguns, the most likely type of gun which might be
carried for personal protection. However, the results may suggest that if gun controls were
relaxed, this could result in a demand for handgun permits.
An alternative interpretation could be that males, who fear law enforcement agents, rather
than fear being innocent victims of crime, are carrying guns. If this is so, it would suggest
that there is real need for the police to have access to firearms if they are to be able to engage
armed and fearful persons.
Table 8: Attitudes towards firearms by sex.
Male
Female
p
N
Guns increase security: “Make safer”
36.8%
30.4%
0.001
3,350
Out of fear have you carried a gun
7.1%
4.1%
<.001
3,298
Attitudes towards violence
Respondents of either sex were equally as likely to have been brought up in households
where parents or guardian used violence (hit or physically punish) to correct a behaviour;
similarly, both sexes were equally likely to think that it was necessary to use violence a
correct a child, Table 9. This suggest that corporal punishment is not only a culturally
accepted norm, it is also equally accepted by both sexes which demonstrates it universal
nature y both fathers and mothers. However, the use of violence in a martial relationship was
viewed differently by the sexes, with men being more approving of husbands hitting their
wives, if they were unfaithful or failed to do chores. These responses may suggest that males
may think that their wives have certain obligations to them, which go beyond the convent of

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marriage, and may suggest that if these obligations are not fulfilled, the husband may
physically assault her. It is of interest to note that some females approved of wives being hit
in these circumstances. As such, these response may represented deep seated cultural norms
that the husband is the head of the household, and that he can demonstrate that he is “boss”
by using victimising other members of the household. So while violence directed towards
children is accepted by both sexes, the sexes differ on the use of violence on females in
marriages.
Table 9: Use of violence in family relationships, percentages within sex.
Aspect
Response
Male
Female
p
N
Necessary to use physical discipline with children
Always
5.6%
6.7%
.295
3,344
Parents used physical discipline
Always
9.9%
10.5%
.455
3,316
Approves of husband hitting wife if she neglects
chores
Would
approve
3.1%
1.8%
.042
3,356
Approves of husband hitting wife if she is unfaithful
Would
approve
9.1%
6.3%
<.001
3,296
Women are generally more satisfied with their lives than men. They were more satisfied with
politics and politicians than men and had more confidence in the criminal justice system than
men. Women like men had a similar view of their neighbours, in terms of trust and
relationships, even though women felt less safe walking around their neighbourhoods then
men.
Men and women were just as likely to have been victims of crime, but the nature of the
crimes varied. Men were more likely to have been victims of violent crimes. This may
explain why men were more likely than women to think that gun ownership would make
them safer, and this was reinforced by more male than female respondents indicating that
they had carried a gun out of fear.
Traditional views of the use of violence to punish children were equally demonstrated by
both males and females and men thought that they had a right hit their wife if she was
unfaithful or did not do chores. Similar views were found in high school children
4
which
suggests that these views have been passed from one generation to the next. This would
suggest that more effort needs to be made to encourage children to understand that non-
violent methods should be used to solve interpersonal disputes.
Acknowledgment
Thanks are extended to “the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP) and its major
supporters (the United States Agency for International Development, the Inter-American
Development Bank, and Vanderbilt University) for making the data available."
5
4
Nicolls, D., Russell-Smith, C., Dean-Patterson, S., Deveaux-Stuart, L. D., Gibson-Mobley, I.,
Williams, E. J, Pinder-Darling, A., & Fielding, W. J. (2014). Attitudes of high school students
regarding intimate relationships and gender norms in New Providence, The Bahamas. The
International Journal of Bahamian Studies, 20(1), 38-51. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.15362/ijbs.v20i1.225
5
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/citing-data.php