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From “Incel” to “Saint”: Analyzing the violent worldview behind the 2018 Toronto attack
Terrorism and Political Violence
Abstract
This paper combines qualitative and quantitative content analysis to map and analyze the “Incel” worldview shared by members of a misogynistic online community ideologically linked to several recent acts of politically motivated violence, including Alek Minassian’s van attack in Toronto (2018) and Elliot Rodger’s school shooting in Isla Vista (2014). Specifically, the paper analyses how support and motivation for violence results from the particular structure this worldview presents in terms of social categories and causal narratives.
... Ostatnią z głównych społeczności manosfery wypada omówić nieco dłużej, albowiem to ona jest dziś postrzegana jako główne źródło mizoginistycznej przemocy, w tym terroryzmu. O ile bowiem społeczność inceli, bo o nich mowa, nie jest wcale zupełnie różna od szerokiego spektrum organizacji i grup upowszechniających mizoginistyczne przekonania, o tyle zdaje się należeć do najradykalniejszych, uzasadniając i broniąc przemocy bezpośredniej, w tym ataków terrorystycznych (Baele, Brace, Coan, 2021, s. 1685. Dzięki temu też należą obecnie do najlepiej przebadanych ruchów manosfery (Han, Yin, 2023, s. 1934. ...
... Owo "nie tak" łatwo przekształca się w dehumanizację pod postacią animalizacji kobiet lub odbierania im zdolności do racjonalności. To dlatego incele z pewną łatwością, skrywającą głębokie rozczarowanie, a nawet rozpacz i bezsilność, są zdolni do obrażania kobiet i mówienia o nich jako o "femoidach" (od: female humanoid), "pizdach", "dziurach", "sukach", "szmatach" czy "świniach" (Cottee, 2021, s. 100;Hart, Huber, 2023, s. 3-5;Baele, Brace, Coan, 2021, s. 1677. ...
... Jedyną, choć niedającą szczęścia w relacjach z kobietami, przewagą inceli jest ich "prawdziwa wiedza" o kształcie i przyczynach nierówności oraz ich izolacji. I o ile połknięcie "czerwonej pigułki" daje właśnie możliwość "odkrycia", że za wszystko odpowiedzialne są kobiety motywowane seksualnie i powodowane atrakcyjnością fizyczną mężczyzn alfa, o tyle zażycie "czarnej pigułki", o której powiem jeszcze więcej w dalszej części, pozwala "odkryć", że dla gorszych, brzydszych, słabszych inceli nie ma nadziei na poprawę losu i jedynym sensownym aktem pozostaje przemoc -w ten sposób otwierają się drzwi do terroryzmu (Baele, Brace, Coan, 2021, s. 1674Cottee, 2021, s. 100;Fowler, 2022Fowler, , s. 1413Fowler, -1413Wieczorkiewicz, Herzyk, 2023;Hoffman, Ware, Shapiro, 2020, s. 567-568;Zimmerman, 2024, s. 170-171). ...
O ile przemoc wobec kobiet i jej ideologiczne uzasadnienia istnieją od zawsze, utrwalając i reprodukując wiekowe nierówności płci, o tyle w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach pojawiło się nowe zjawisko w postaci organizacji mężczyzn, które domagają się reakcji na to, co postrzegają jako erozję statusu mężczyzn i ich rosnącą dyskryminację. Ruchy te mają różne cele i promują rozmaite narzędzia wpływu, począwszy od perswazji i argumentacji na rzecz praw mężczyzn, aż po akceptację, a nawet wezwania do przemocy wobec kobiet i niektórych mężczyzn. Artykuł ten przedstawia podstawowe idee oraz główne grupy składające się na „manosferę” – rozdrobniony i wewnętrznie zróżnicowany zbiór społeczności internetowych komunikujących się głównie na forach oraz czatach, dyskutujących kwestie tożsamości współczesnych mężczyzn i ich praw w odniesieniu do wyobrażeń na temat pozycji i zachowań współczesnych kobiet.
... There is a term gaining popularity in the lexicon, incel (Beauchamp, 2019). The term reflects a contraction of the term "involuntary celibate" which is a means of derogating men who (1) struggle to fulfill their romantic/sexual agenda (Donnelly et al., 2001), (2) may be "antifeminist" and misogynistic (Baele et al., 2021), (3) have limited well-being (Costello et al., 2022;Speckhard et al., 2021), and (4) poor social skills, depression, low self-esteem, and self-pity (Scotto di Carlo, 2022;Stijelja & Mishara, 2022). However, most research on this topic has (a) focused on discourse analysis (Maxwell et al., 2020;O'Malley et al., 2022), (b) largely ignored women, (c) correlational, leaving the interpretation of effects a matter of debate, and (d) pathologized the suite a traits and effects circling around the central problem of an inability to satisfy one's romantic/sexual agenda. ...
... The Dark Tetrad traits are broadband traits but more "tangible", narrowband traits might also be relevant. We focus on self-esteem and misogynistic attitudes that have already been linked to being an "incel" (Baele et al., 2021;Scotto di Carlo, 2022;Stijelja & Mishara, 2022). Low self-esteem may be a product or a generator of mating failures. ...
... Specifically addressing the role of misogyny, it is strongly predicted by social antagonism, however, the effects on involuntary celibacy are more limited. These findings would contradict other work that has explored the relationship between involuntary celibacy and misogyny (Baele et al., 2021;O'Malley et al., 2022). ...
... There is a term gaining popularity in the lexicon, incel (Beauchamp, 2019). The term reflects a contraction of the term "involuntary celibate" which is a means of derogating men who (1) struggle to fulfill their romantic/sexual agenda (Donnelly et al., 2001), (2) may be "antifeminist" and misogynistic (Baele et al., 2021), (3) have limited well-being (Costello et al., 2022;Speckhard et al., 2021), and (4) poor social skills, depression, low self-esteem, and self-pity (Scotto di Carlo, 2022;Stijelja & Mishara, 2022). However, most research on this topic has (a) focused on discourse analysis (Maxwell et al., 2020;O'Malley et al., 2022), (b) largely ignored women, (c) correlational, leaving the interpretation of effects a matter of debate, and (d) pathologized the suite a traits and effects circling around the central problem of an inability to satisfy one's romantic/sexual agenda. ...
... The Dark Tetrad traits are broadband traits but more "tangible", narrowband traits might also be relevant. We focus on self-esteem and misogynistic attitudes that have already been linked to being an "incel" (Baele et al., 2021;Scotto di Carlo, 2022;Stijelja & Mishara, 2022). Low self-esteem may be a product or a generator of mating failures. ...
... Specifically addressing the role of misogyny, it is strongly predicted by social antagonism, however, the effects on involuntary celibacy are more limited. These findings would contradict other work that has explored the relationship between involuntary celibacy and misogyny (Baele et al., 2021;O'Malley et al., 2022). ...
... By violence, we mean a broad spectrum of behaviors, including physical violence, sexualized violence, online threats of violence, celebration of violence, and the use of aggressive or "violent" language online. Incels (short for "involuntarily celibate") are one of these communities, and they have been linked to the harassment, assault, and murder of women (e.g., Baele et al., 2019;Chan, 2023;Halpin et al., 2024). ...
... Incels are not a monolith and not all incels or communities promote violence and misogyny (DeCook & Kelly, 2022;Halpin & Richard, 2021). However, many incel communities argue that they are entitled to heterosexual sex, and are characterized by misogynistic attitudes and actions toward women (Baele et al., 2019;Gotell & Dutton, 2016;O'Donnell & Shor, 2022). These misogynistic incel communities are also fairly diverse, with roughly 50% of incels identifying as men of color, and members similarly reporting varied levels of age, educational attainment, and income (Halpin & Richard, 2021;Incels.is, ...
... Research on incel communities indicates that they believe feminism and women's rights movements have led to a loss of male dominance and have "unfairly" prevented men from their "entitled" access to women's bodies (Baele et al., 2019;Halpin, 2022;Halpin et al., 2023;O'Donnell & Shor, 2022). In their critiques and complaints, incels largely focus on a distorted view of second-wave feminism, which they perceive as being culturally dominant and harmful to men. ...
This study examines how involuntarily celibate (“incels”) men justify gender-based and sexualized violence against women. Based on an analysis of 22,060 discussion board comments, we argue that: (1) incel justifications of sexualized violence are tied to their perception of gender relations, (2) incels justify sexual assault as a form of revenge for their incel status, and (3) incels misuse science to argue that women enjoy sexual assault. Adapting the concept of “stochastic terrorism,” we argue that incels and similar communities produce stochastic gender-based violence, wherein communities justify and encourage acts of violence. Findings are discussed in relation to gender-based violence, rape culture, masculinities theory, and policy.
... chads are considered to be in the alpha group because they have relationships with stacys and are considered higher in the hierarchy. the incel group produces angry discourses against both stacys and chads because they cannot be with stacys themselves (Baele et al., 2019;tomassi, 2013). ...
... incel groups think that men are innocent in their relations with women and that women are to blame even in cases of violence. the idea that men are provoked in violent incidents also stands out (Baele et al., 2019;Kimmel & Kaufman, 1993). Furthermore, the incels argue that women are dominant in society and that an order favored by women exists. ...
... the incels argue that there is an order in which women are dominant or determinant, especially in relationships, and that men are victimized for this reason. the idea that women choose men in the formation of a relationship and set the standards, and therefore the isolated incels are victimized, is expressed as men being subjected to psychological violence (Baele et al., 2019;Ging, 2019). as seen in the comments, the incels' claim that men are victimized is also an important category. ...
In the study, the construction of hegemonic masculinity and misogyny discourses by Incels, who constitute a significant subculture and group within the manosphere in Turkey, are analyzed. The YouTube posts and comments of Incels were analyzed using the netnographic method. It was found that the Turkish manosphere represents an outward form similar to that found in Western societies. Similar to various Asian countries, it was observed that local culture influences the discourses and subculture of the manosphere. However, the jargon used by the Incel group under examination includes English terms commonly used in the Western manosphere. In this sense, it is evident that Turkish Incels have not developed a unique local language. As a result of the study, it was determined that the Incels construct hegemonic masculinity in a radical context and aim for a male-dominated society. Additionally, Turkish Incels frequently express the belief that men are innocent and victimized by women. While these discourses are grounded in global Incel rhetoric, they are shaped by factors specific to Turkey. Another significant finding of the study is that Turkish Incels often reference Turkish culture and religious beliefs in their misogynistic and derogatory remarks about women.
... It has been proposed that incels' societal violence represents an emergent trend of extremism and terrorism (Caruso et al., 2021;Zimmerman et al., 2018). Some of the most striking manifestations of incel terroristic attacks are the Isla Vista school shooting perpetrated by Elliott Rodger in 2014 and Alek Minassian's van attack in Toronto in 2018 (Baele et al., 2019;Vito et al., 2018;Witt, 2020). However, within the incel forums, there is an ambivalent approach toward these societal-terroristic acts of violence, thus making it difficult to attach the "terrorist" label to them as a group, especially as they do not align with the more traditional and organized terroristic groups (Sparks et al., 2022). ...
... Results indicated increased incel activity on YouTube over the past few years in videos and comments. The latter may have occurred in of discussion (Baele et al., 2019;Witt, 2020). These types of attack have been labelled as terrorist attacks because the violence can be linked with an organized extremist ideology (Witt, 2020). ...
... Additionally, violent attacks in the name of the incel culture have an enormous impact on the incel community (Witt, 2020). Indeed, the authors of the most notorious manifestations of incel violence have become celebrities in the incelosphere and are depicted as saints and role models to follow (Baele et al., 2019;Witt, 2020). ...
The incel community—which is characterized by an anti-feminist misogynistic ideology and has been linked with terrorist attacks—has become an increasing focus of attention among social scientists, policy makers, and professionals involved in preventing radicalization and extremism. In this systematic review we provide an up-to-date account of scientific research on the incel phenomenon. Using PRISMA guidelines, we initially identified 593 records, primarily through online database research. After full screening and duplicate removal, 78 articles remained. We divided the analyzed records into four macro-categorizations, covering theoretical, technological, violent, and personality-related components of the incel ideology. We examined the clinical implications of the analyzed findings, focusing on the potential criminological and pathological consequences related to the incel status—on a personal, interpersonal, and societal basis. Finally, suggestions regarding clinical intervention and future research foci are provided based on the knowledge gaps identified through the review.
... PUAs claimed to be able to teach anyone how to manipulate women into dispensing sex by mimicking a high sexual market value (Baele et al., 2021). This possibility strongly appealed to the lonely, young men who would one day be known as incels. ...
... The foundation of the incel narrative is a social hierarchy that serves both to explain their perceived victimization and reassure that they suffer this fate through no fault of their own (Van Valkenburgh, 2021). The hierarchy is based on supposedly immutable and intrinsic traits: at the top sit the alphas -a tiny minority of men with good looks and charisma; followed by the betas -the majority of men, inferior to alphas, but still capable of finding romantic success through effort; and finally the incels at the bottom (Baele et al., 2021;Ging, 2019). As a result of their subhuman status in the narrative, women are not placed on the hierarchy; instead, their level of attraction to men serves as the distinction between the various strata. ...
... First, the study of incel-associated violence is hindered by the difficulty of determining whether or not a violent incident is actually incel-associated. The motivation for attacks is sometimes assumed to be a personal grudge or connected to a related ideology -such as the racist, anti-immigration, and homophobic themes of the alt-right -and potential incel links are subsequently overlooked or ignored (Baele et al., 2021). Second, while there has been a worrying trend of incel-associated violence, the vast majority of incels do not actively commit or condone these acts (Hoffman et al., 2020). ...
This article outlines a new model for the initiation of intergroup conflict, in which resentment is theorized as the motivating factor. This model – drawing from existing theories in social psychology and international relations – describes the process by which members of a group become willing to engage in violent conflict with a target group, beginning with feelings of resentment arising from a perceived experience of victimization. The model is then applied to the involuntary celibate (incel) ideology and the trend of mass shootings perpetrated by incels, with two case studies.
... El términoïncel", abreviatura deçelibato involuntario"(involuntary celibate), hace referencia a personas, predominantemente hombres, que se autoidentifican como incapaces de establecer relaciones románticas o sexuales a pesar de desearlas . El fenómeno ha evolucionado desde sus orígenes como un grupo de apoyo en línea hasta convertirse en una comunidad digital con su propia terminología, creencias compartidas y, en algunos segmentos, una ideología distinctiva (Baele et al., 2019). ...
... "Blackpilled incels": Adherentes a la vertiente más pesimista y determinista, caracterizada por una visión fatalista sobre la inmutabilidad de su condición y la imposibilidad de cambio social (Baele et al., 2019). ...
7 de marzo de 2025 Resumen Este artículo ofrece un análisis exhaustivo del fenómeno sociocultural denomina-doïncel"(celibato involuntario). A través de una revisión de la literatura académica disponible, se examina su origen histórico, evolución como comunidad en línea, tipologías identificadas, características principales y su manifestación como subcul-tura digital contemporánea. El estudio adopta una perspectiva interdisciplinaria que integra elementos de la sociología, psicología social y estudios de género para proporcionar un marco teórico que permita comprender este fenómeno complejo. Se concluye identificando las implicaciones sociales más amplias y posibles direcciones para futuras investigaciones en este campo emergente. 1. Introducción El términoïncel", abreviatura deçelibato involuntario"(involuntary celibate), hace referencia a personas, predominantemente hombres, que se autoidentifican como incapa-ces de establecer relaciones románticas o sexuales a pesar de desearlas (Ging, 2019). El fenómeno ha evolucionado desde sus orígenes como un grupo de apoyo en línea hasta convertirse en una comunidad digital con su propia terminología, creencias compartidas y, en algunos segmentos, una ideología distinctiva (Baele et al., 2019). La relevancia del estudio de este fenómeno radica en sus implicaciones sociológicas, psicológicas y, en algunos casos, en materia de seguridad pública, dado que se han docu-mentado incidentes violentos vinculados a individuos que se identifican con esta comuni-dad (Hoffman et al., 2020). Este artículo pretende ofrecer una caracterización académica rigurosa del fenómeno, evitando simplificaciones y generalizaciones injustificadas, y con-tribuyendo al corpus de conocimiento sobre subculturas digitales contemporáneas. 2. Metodología Esta investigación se fundamenta en una revisión sistemática de la literatura académi-ca publicada sobre el fenómeno incel entre 2010 y 2024. Se incluyeron estudios empíricos, análisis teóricos y etnografías digitales procedentes de las bases de datos JSTOR, Sco-pus, Web of Science y Google Scholar. Adicionalmente, se consultaron fuentes primarias 1
... Both direct research and forum content analysis have identified an increased tendency or occurrences of interpersonal victimhood among incels (Baele et al., 2021;Costello et al., 2022;Daly & Reed, 2022). Victimhood implies a lack of control over their circumstances, instead implying external forces are to blame, a perspective aligning with Brzuszkiewicz's (2020) observation that the incel worldview promotes an external locus of control. ...
... The majority of participants emphasized the uncontrollability and permanency of their incel identity, as the aspects of themselves they feel are undesirable are physical, genetically determined characteristics (such as height). Weiner et al.'s (1988) finding that stigmas with a physical, uncontrollable, and stable cause are more often associated with reduced blame and increased compassion offers an explanation as to why incels believe they are deserving of their victimhood status seen in previous research (Baele et al., 2021;Costello et al., 2022;Daly & Reed, 2022;Maxwell et al., 2020;O'Malley et al., 2022). ...
Sexual and romantic rejection are issues that humans have faced for centuries. Recently, experiences such as these have developed into a form of identity and community rallying point. Involuntary celibates (incels) are one example of this phenomenon; however, the group have achieved notoriety for their association with violent attacks and promotion of misogyny in response to their frustration. While recent work has identified that incels suffer from more mental and relational health issues, what is left to be determined is why individuals who are experiencing romantic or sexual rejection would adopt the incel label, given the infamy of the group. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, the present study explored the psychosocial influences and drivers behind incel identity development via interviews with self-identified incels. Six superordinate themes were identified, including a history of social exclusion, blame attribution, psychosocial insights, responses to rejection, the value placed on feeling included, and the development of a (threatened) social identity. These results reveal how social rejection and exclusion impact incel identity formation suggesting that theories like interpersonal rejection theory, social identity theory, and attribution theory may help explain why some men adopt the incel label. Overall, the study highlights the complexity of the incel phenomenon and the need to provide more effective support for self-identified incels.
... Em síntese, os indivíduos não têm como mudar o seu valor sexual de mercado, aprisionados a fatores genéticos, que determinam quais traços associados à virilidade o sujeito possui, sendo este o único critério tomado pelas mulheres na escolha de seus parceiros. Portanto, homens diferentes do padrão caucasiano, com pouca musculatura, estão fadados ao celibato involuntário e ao fracasso nas relações, numa visão desesperançosa de suas perspectivas quanto ao futuro (Baele et al., 2021). Para os incels, esta é a realidade que a maior parte do entorno social busca negar, iludindo-os com a ideia de que a personalidade também é importante em um relacionamento, e de que não fazem esforço suficiente para encontrar uma parceira. ...
... O sexo feminino é um antagonista, por negar a satisfação sexual desejada, mas figuras masculinas também ocupam este lugar. A figura do Chad, o macho alfa como o ideal dos desejos femininos, é vista com inveja por conta de seus privilégios sociais e vantagens conquistadas pela aparência física (Baele et al., 2021;Maxwell et al., 2020). Embora os incels cobicem as mulheres e se ressentem pela ausência do desejo feminino por eles, a sua filosofia as define como inferiores. ...
Este artigo objetiva apresentar uma tentativa de compreensão psicanalítica sobre os incels, indivíduos que se reconhecem como celibatários involuntários, a partir dos seus relatos na internet. Organizam-se em comunidades on-line específicas, onde compartilham o incômodo com a falta de relações românticas e sexuais e a posição desfavorecida que ocupam socialmente por não se adequarem ao padrão de masculinidade hegemônico. Foi realizada uma análise de conteúdo em fóruns online incels, de postagens onde os participantes falavam de suas histórias de vida e de suas experiências, sendo selecionados 45 tópicos, dos quais emergiram seis categorias temáticas, compreendidas à luz da teoria kleiniana. Tais categorias centralizaram-se na percepção de um mundo hostil, solidão, desejos de vingança, desesperança, noções rígidas sobre sexo e gênero, bem como um senso de privilégio ferido (no caso, o privilégio de ser alvo do desejo feminino). Nos discursos analisados evidenciou-se a presença de culpa e inveja, do uso exacerbado de defesas psíquicas regressivas para lidar com as angústias, de dificuldades nas relações objetais, que nesses casos culmina com intensas manifestações de insegurança, autodepreciação, impulsos hostis, desesperança e misoginia.
... Incels have created an online ecosystem of ideas and propaganda materials essential for the growth, development, and cementing of an incel community with international reach (Baele, Brace, and Coan 2021). Its members are diverse, marked by ideological differences regarding key issues: the definition of an incel, the source of their problems, and proposed solutions. ...
... Incel forums can, therefore, be understood as backstage settings, where incels can relax and freely discuss their inceldom apart from their regular social life. However, incel forums are far from non-judgmental spaces; they deny outsiders access, enact strict internal norms and rules limiting opposing views and expressions, and ban defectors (Baele, Brace, and Coan 2021;Pelzer et al. 2021). Although incels are not always sympathetic to one another, the onstage setting of incel forums allows them to express shame and masculinity in particular ways, opportunities that are limited offline. ...
This article draws on Goffman’s stigma theory to explore how incels (involuntary celibates) alleviate stigma and negotiate masculinity by employing normification, minstrelization, and militant chauvinism. Using netnographic research, I qualitatively explore three incel forums consisting of 927 comment threads. While incels advocate antifeminism and misogyny, they also exhibit traits and behaviors usually avoided in subcultures dominated by men, such as narratives of loneliness and inadequacy related to hegemonic ideals of masculinity and hyper-masculinity. This article explores the ambiguity of gender processes online, identity negotiation among incels and the use and combination of various stigma management strategies to uphold, challenge, or reject hegemonic masculinity. I argue that closer attention to stigma can help us understand incels’ countercultural expressions within broader social and cultural notions about masculinity and shame.
... A wealth of studies has examined the production of online misogyny and the continuum of articulations that exist and coalesce in subcultural online communities from the moderate, tepidly antifeminist, and misogynistic beliefs, which are fairly mainstream and pass relatively unremarked in public discourse today, to the more brazenly radical and even violent forms of misogyny encouraging and glorifying the killing of women (see e.g., Baele, Brace, & Coan, 2019;Bratich & Banet-Weiser, 2019;4 Askanius, Brock, Kaun, and Larsson International Journal of Communication 17(2023) Jones, Trott, & Wright, 2019). Often examining misogyny as a mode of violent extremism in its own right, researchers have focused on the mechanism that makes it conducive to deadly violence in the context of the manosphere, Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW), Incels, PickUp artists, and individual men's rights activists and influencers. ...
... 1679). In this logic, "all men have thus 'access' to women and their 'entitlement' to sex is never 'denied' by women" (Baele et al., 2019(Baele et al., , p. 1679. ...
This article explores the discursive linkages between violent misogyny and violent right- wing extremism in the popular Swedish online discussion forum Flashback, which affords anonymous and relatively unmoderated commenting. Empirically, it focuses on the articulations of misogyny and anti-feminism mapped onto extreme right ideology including white supremacism in user comments posted across 16 Flashback threads. To analyze the extensive data set, we first drew on a collocation analysis of user comments (N = 20,359) scraped from a strategic selection of threads. From this sample we chose 36 combinations to be considered for a closer reading. In the second analytical step, critical discourse analysis coupled with the Essex School’s logics approach helped us unpack the logics of conspiracy and male entitlement, as well as the fantasmatic projections of Swedish women as both “race traitors” and “victims” at the heart of extreme right discourse in and beyond Sweden today.
... Natural language processing techniques have been employed to analyze the linguistic characteristics of Incel discourse, uncovering patterns of extreme negativity, misogyny, and self-victimization. Sentiment analysis, for instance, has illuminated the prevalence of hostile sentiments in these online spaces (Jaki et al., 2019;Pelzer et al., 2021), while topic modeling has unveiled recurrent themes and narratives driving discussions (Mountford, 2018;Baele et al., 2021;Jelodar and Frank, 2021). Other studies have focused on broader communities of misogynistic movements, tracking their evolution over time (Ribeiro et al., 2021a). ...
... According to their analysis, expressions of hatred toward women emerged as the most prevalent form of toxic language (see Jaki et al., 2019 for a similar approach). On a broader level, Baele et al. (2021) employed a mix of qualitative and quantitative content analysis to explore the Incel ideology prevalent in an online community linked to recent acts of politically motivated violence. The authors emphasize that this particular community occupies a unique and extreme position within the broader misogynistic movement, featuring elements that not only encourage self-destructive behaviors but also have the potential to incite some members to commit targeted acts of violence against women, romantically successful men, or other societal symbols that represent perceived inequities. ...
This study investigates the prevalence of violent language on incels.is. It evaluates GPT models (GPT-3.5 and GPT-4) for content analysis in social sciences, focusing on the impact of varying prompts and batch sizes on coding quality for the detection of violent speech. We scraped over 6.9M posts from incels.is and categorized a random sample into non-violent, explicitly violent, and implicitly violent content. Two human coders annotated 3,028 posts, which we used to tune and evaluate GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 models across different prompts and batch sizes regarding coding reliability. The best-performing GPT-4 model annotated an additional 45,611 posts for further analysis. We find that 21.91% of the posts on the forum contain some form of violent language. Within the overall forum, 18.12% of posts include explicit violence, while 3.79% feature implicit violence. Our results show a significant rise in violent speech on incels.is, both at the community and individual level. This trend is particularly pronounced among users with an active posting behavior that lasts for several hours up to one month. While the use of targeted violent language decreases, general violent language increases. Additionally, mentions of self-harm decline, especially for users who have been active on the site for over 2.5 years. We find substantial agreement between both human coders (κ = 0.65), while the best GPT-4 model yields good agreement with both human coders (κ = 0.54 for Human A and κ = 0.62 for Human B). Overall, this research offers effective ways to pinpoint violent language on a large scale, helping with content moderation and facilitating further research into causal mechanisms and potential mitigations of violent expression and online radicalization in communities like incels.is.
... Research with both incel participants and forum content analysis has identified an increased tendency or occurrences of interpersonal victimhood (Baele et al., 2021;Costello et al., 2022;Daly & Reed, 2022;Maxwell et al., 2020;O'Malley et al. 2022)which implies that incel identity and victimhood are intrinsically linked (Cottee, 2020). Victimhood implies a lack of control over their circumstances and experiences, instead implying external forces are to blame, a perspective aligning with Brzuszkiewicz's observation of the adoption of external locus of control in the incel worldview (2020). ...
... The majority of participants emphasised the uncontrollability of their incel identity, namely that they are unable to alter their circumstances, as the aspects of themselves they feel are undesirable are physical characteristics (such as height) that have a genetic basis. Weiner et al.'s (1988) finding that stigmas with a physical, uncontrollable, and stable cause are more often associated with reduced blame and increased compassion offers an explanation as to why incels believe they are deserving of their victimhood status, as demonstrated in previous research (Baele et al., 2021;Costello et al., 2022;Daly & Reed, 2022;Maxwell et al., 2020;O'Malley et al., 2022). ...
Although sexual and romantic rejection is not exclusive to the 21st century, it is only recently that this experience has developed into a form of identity and community rallying point. Involuntary celibates (incels) have been associated with violent attacks and misogyny in the mainstream and, more recently, have become the subject of exploratory research that has identified greater rates of mental and relational health issues among the incel community. What is left to be determined is why individuals who are experiencing romantic or sexual rejection would adopt the incel label, given the notoriety associated with this group. This research aimed to investigate psychosocial influences and drivers behind incel identity development by conducting interviews with self-identified incels. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, six superordinate themes are identified. The study reveals how social rejection and exclusion impact incel identity formation. It suggests that theories like interpersonal rejection, social identity, and attribution theory can help explain why some men adopt the incel label. Overall, the study highlights the complexity of the incel phenomenon and the need to provide more effective support for self-identified incels.
... i) right-wing extremism, ii) left-wing extremism, iii) nationalism/separatism, iv) religious extremism, or v) single-issue extremism (e.g., climate, abortion) (Doosje et al., 2016). More recently, some have also highlighted anti-government extremism (CTA, 2023) and misogynous extremism associated with the "Incel" community (an abbreviation for "involuntary celibates") (Baele et al., 2019;Hofmann et al., 2020) as emerging extremism orientiations While these extremist positions often are central to radicalization research, focusing on specific variants or extremist positions runs the risk of downplaying the fact that radicalization does not necessarily stem from any specific ideology nor worldview. Within the radicalization literature, it is accepted that radicalization can occur in relation to both beliefs and/or behaviors-a distinction often referred to as cognitive versus behavioral radicalization (Borum, 2011a;Kundani, 2012;Malthaner, 2017;Schmid, 2013;Wolfowicz et al., 2021). ...
... This "humor," or euphemistic language, often carries a dehumanizing tone. A prominent example of this can be found in Incel communities (involuntary celibates), online forums characterized by a misogynistic worldview (Baele et al., 2019). In these communities, women are referred to as "femoids" or "foids"-terms used to portray them as non-human, either as sexually driven primates or emotionless robots. ...
In May 2023, a then 16-year-old Danish boy was found guilty of affiliation with the far-right extremist terrorist organisation Feuerkrieg Division, which he had become acquainted with through online gaming platforms. In this article, we address the issue of such radical digital lives, where particularly young people engage in extremist online environments that cultivate and propagate hateful extremist ideologies and encourage various forms of public violence, including terrorism. This article aims to provide an overview of the social and psychological mechanisms that may underlie affiliation with extremist digital communities, a process we refer to as online radicalisation. Our main argument throughout the article is that although online radicalisation does not entail any new or distinct factors or mechanisms compared to analogue radicalisation, virtual extremists exhibit several characteristics that can accelerate and intensify a violent radicalisation trajectory. We elaborate on this argument in three parts. First, we provide an in-depth description of the abovementioned case from Holbæk, Denmark, and the online radicalisation trends it exemplifies, as well as a comprehensive definition of the concepts of radicalisation and extremism in an online context. Next, we introduce and describe some of the most central radicalisation mechanisms in both becoming and being involved in an extremist digital community. The article concludes with a discussion of how online radicalisation may be prevented among young people who continue to navigate an increasingly digital world. Specifically, we demonstrate and critically discuss how such prevention should focus on i) enhancing the knowledge of professionals about the digital habits and behaviours of particularly adolescents, ii) engaging in a dialogic (in contrast to monologic) conversation with adolescents about their online activities, and iii) facilitating meaningful communities as alternatives to radical and extremist environments.
... i) right-wing extremism, ii) left-wing extremism, iii) nationalism/separatism, iv) religious extremism, or v) single-issue extremism (e.g., climate, abortion) (Doosje et al., 2016). More recently, some have also highlighted anti-government extremism (CTA, 2023) and misogynous extremism associated with the "Incel" community (an abbreviation for "involuntary celibates") (Baele et al., 2019;Hofmann et al., 2020) as emerging extremism orientiations While these extremist positions often are central to radicalization research, focusing on specific variants or extremist positions runs the risk of downplaying the fact that radicalization does not necessarily stem from any specific ideology nor worldview. Within the radicalization literature, it is accepted that radicalization can occur in relation to both beliefs and/or behaviors-a distinction often referred to as cognitive versus behavioral radicalization (Borum, 2011a;Kundani, 2012;Malthaner, 2017;Schmid, 2013;Wolfowicz et al., 2021). ...
... This "humor," or euphemistic language, often carries a dehumanizing tone. A prominent example of this can be found in Incel communities (involuntary celibates), online forums characterized by a misogynistic worldview (Baele et al., 2019). In these communities, women are referred to as "femoids" or "foids"-terms used to portray them as non-human, either as sexually driven primates or emotionless robots. ...
In May 2023, a then 16-year-old Danish boy was found guilty of affiliation with the far-right extremist terrorist organisation Feuerkrieg Division, which he had become acquainted with through online gaming platforms. In this article, we address the issue of such radical digital lives, where particularly young people engage in extremist online environments that cultivate and propagate hateful extremist ideologies and encourage various forms of public violence, including terrorism. This article aims to provide an overview of the social and psychological mechanisms that may underlie affiliation with extremist digital communities, a process we refer to as online radicalisation. Our main argument throughout the article is that although online radicalisation does not entail any new or distinct factors or mechanisms compared to analogue radicalisation, virtual extremists exhibit several characteristics that can accelerate and intensify a violent radicalisation trajectory. We elaborate on this argument in three parts. First, we provide an in-depth description of the abovementioned case from Holbæk, Denmark, and the online radicalisation trends it exemplifies, as well as a comprehensive definition of the concepts of radicalisation and extremism in an online context. Next, we introduce and describe some of the most central radicalisation mechanisms in both becoming and being involved in an extremist digital community. The article concludes with a discussion of how online radicalisation may be prevented among young people who continue to navigate an increasingly digital world. Specifically, we demonstrate and critically discuss how such prevention should focus on i) enhancing the knowledge of professionals about the digital habits and behaviours of particularly adolescents, ii) engaging in a dialogic (in contrast to monologic) conversation with adolescents about their online activities, and iii) facilitating meaningful communities as alternatives to radical and extremist environments.
... identity involves cognitive schemas-learned patterns of thoughtfeeling that mediate experience (D'Andrade & Strauss, 1992), which are constructed through participation in social structures and language, resulting in shared perspectives or worldviews of cultural groups (Baele et al., 2021;Lakoff, 1996). In this article, we adopt a definition of worldviews as culturally transmitted systems of beliefs and value assumptions about "what is and what ought to be" that serve as interpretive frameworks guiding people's thoughts and behaviors (Koltko-Rivera, 2004), characterize what it means to be a member of a cultural group, and contribute to interpersonal solidarity within a cultural group. ...
The spread of digital communication around the globe has raised questions about the nature of digitally mediated cultural identity and how worldviews are constructed in the context of permeable and dynamic communities less tethered to physical geography. To expand research on the impacts of digital communication on cultural identity development among adolescents in the Majority World, the present study compared the worldviews of indigenous Maya adolescents before and after the Internet and mobile devices became widely used in their community. Adolescents were interviewed in 2009 (N = 80; 40 girls, Mage = 16.94) and in 2018 (N = 79; 44 girls, Mage = 15.91) using eight vignettes that were developed from ethnographic work in the community and designed to elicit participants’ cultural beliefs and values. In each story, one character articulates a traditional, collectivistic worldview, and another articulates a Western, individualistic worldview present in the community. Participants were asked who they agreed with and why, and responses were analyzed quantitatively (pattern of character endorsements) and qualitatively (frameworks of meaning). Analysis of covariance showed no differences in character endorsements across the two cohorts. Schooling, not the use of mobile devices or social media, uniquely predicted alignment with individualistic characters in regression analyses. Although individualistic values did not increase, qualitative analyses of frameworks of meaning showed that adolescents in the two cohorts differed in how they integrated individualistic and collectivistic perspectives. The study demonstrates the importance of locally relevant mixed methods for understanding changes in the contents of cultural identity over historical time.
... They share experiences and grievances of loneliness, social isolation, alienation, and romantic rejection (Hoffman et al., 2020). Incels believe they cannot change their 'inceldom' status due to women's perceived genetic selectivity, which leads them to reject incels as sexual and romantic partners in favor of better-looking men (Baele et al., 2021). Their online activity varies, with some incels posting more extensively than others, amplifying controversial voices within the incel subculture that can result in broad generalizations about the entire incel community (Baele et al., 2022). ...
... These highly active members are seen as the greatest resource for new members to obtain information they desire, and for longer-term members to discuss their shared world-view. [24] give 7 points that future researchers should focus on when analyzing the behavior and interactions between users of Incel web forums. They say: "[...] as already observed, it appears that a group of participants was extremely active, and much remains to be understood in terms of their influence in leading discussions and shaping the underlying worldview."It ...
... Carla J. McDonough's characterization of "the desire to cling to a certain model of masculinity, even as it fails, and at times destroys, its participants" (1997,15) illustrates the way this type of independent, strong, and thick-skinned masculinity is not just impossible, but also unhealthy and dangerous, from fueling violence (e.g., Baele, Brace, and Coan 2019;Haider 2016) to leading to reflexive, inward-turned harm (e.g., Inckle 2014; Kalish and Kimmel 2014). In relation to the latter, Raewyn Connell argues that "the constitution of masculinity through bodily performance means that gender is vulnerable when the performance cannot be sustained-for instance as a result of physical disability" (2005, 54; see also Mara 2012, 255). ...
... Among others, Lindgren (2018) calls for combining methods from the qualitative and computational realms in a strategic 'methodological bricolage' to understand what goes on in the data, to find patterns, but also to explain why they arise and what happens to the outliers -that is to say, complementing 'big data' with 'thick data'. Computational methods can enhance digital media research in two meaningful ways: they can help validate and refine observations derived from qualitative examination of a limited sample, while also revealing overarching trends and patterns that might remain concealed during close readings of specific text segments (Baele et al., 2021). In particular, topic modelling has proven useful in enhancing qualitative inquiries into the linguistic elements of contention in discourse around politically charged topics such as migration, gender, and vaccination (Askanius et al., 2023;Hammarlin et al., 2024;Törnberg & Törnberg, 2016). ...
This article employs a mixed-methods approach to explore the narrative articulation of crises in discussions around immigration and integration on Flashback Forum in Sweden. Using a combination of topic modelling and narrative analysis, it follows a two-step research design. First, topic modelling helps to identify key topics in the data and select a corpus for qualitative analysis. Second, drawing on Berger’s (2018) extremist crisis typology, we explore the crisis-narrative constructions around these topics, highlighting the extremist components within these. Our findings show that the prevalent topics in these discussions are not about immigration per se – rather, they address societal issues where perceived crises with immigration at their root are articulated in terms of how they disrupt everyday life in Sweden. Our analysis reveals how mundane concerns around immigration ventilated on Flashback mix with overtly extremist discourse and conspiracy beliefs, explicating Flashback as a site of everyday extremism.
... Ducol,39 in his assessment of a French "Jihadosphere" community, also uncovered a small group of active members who drove the flow of online discussions-particularly the jihadi content. Similar patterns were uncovered by Baele et al. 40 who identified a handful of "hyperactive" posters in an Incel forum, as well as by Shrestha et al. 41 who found a group of active users in a Swedish far-right forum who were influential in generating online discussion. Most recently, Scrivens 42 identified several sub-types of super-poster profiles within a sub-forum of a RWE forum which included high-intensity posters, high-frequency posters, and high-duration posters. ...
There is an ongoing need for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to identify and examine the online posting behaviors of violent extremists prior to their engagement in violence offline, but little is empirically known about their online presence generally or differences in their posting behaviors compared to their non-violent counterparts particularly. Even less is empirically known about their persisting and desisting posting patterns. This study drew from a unique sample of violent and non-violent right-wing extremists to examine online changes in posting patterns during the beginning, middle, and end of their observed posting activity. Here we identified persister and desister posters to create four sample groups: non-violent persisters, non-violent desisters, violent persisters, and violent desisters. We then calculated the average number of posts for each sample group as well as quantified the existence of extremist ideologies and violent extremist mobilization efforts across each observed posting period. Overall, we identified several noteworthy posting patterns that may assist law enforcement and intelligence agencies in identifying credible threats online. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the analysis, its limitations, and avenues for future research.
... Moreover, suicidal ideation was identified in each case. Indeed, the incel subculture and ideology is noted to frequently experience suicidal ideations (Baele, Brace, and Coan 2019;Daly and Laskovtsov 2021). As Baselice et al. (2023) explains, "the violence risk is not just for others, but for the Incel themselves" (p. ...
... 32 A crisis narrative can be understood as a claim or shared belief amongst group members that an in-group faces a crisis that has been caused by the actions of a nefarious out-group. 33 These explanatory or justificatory narratives are often radically at odds with normative or consensus views of reality. Berger 34 describes some common themes within these narratives-they are often conspiratorial, dystopian, and apocalyptic. ...
... (Carian, DiBranco, and Ebin 2022, vii; see also : Vito, Admire, and Hughes 2018). This dynamic is illustrated by the reception of the Toronto attack, where online incel communities celebrated the attack, calling the perpetrator a "Saint" (Baele, Brace, and Coan 2021) and fantasizing about future attacks that combine rape and murder to traumatize families and provoke victims' suicide (Futrelle 2018). ...
In this short essay, we show that, despite the recent turn to including masculinity and male supremacist ideology into Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism programming (P/CVE), current deradicalization approaches often remain based on ideas about male victimhood and gender hierarchies that are eerily similar to those that are at the core of male supremacist ideology and (interpersonal and political) misogynist violence. We argue that to effectively address male supremacist radicalization, P/CVE approaches must challenge and disrupt their own underlying male supremacist views of gender relations.
Özet Çalışma, incel hareketinin yarattığı psikolojik ve sosyolojik sorunları ve toksik maskülenite etkisindeki erkeklik normlarının etkisini vurgulamayı amaçlamaktadır. İnternette kendine özgü bir topluluk olarak gelişen “incel” (involuntary celibates – istemsiz bekârlar) hareketi, kökenleri ve evrimsel süreci itibarıyla dikkat çekici bir toplumsal fenomen haline gelmiştir. Sosyal izolasyon ve dışlanmışlık gibi duygusal dinamiklerden beslenen bu hareket, çevrimiçi platformlar aracılığıyla yayılmış ve giderek kendine ait bir kimlik ve söylem oluşturmuştur. Toksik maskülenite kavramının incel topluluğu üzerindeki derin etkileri, erkeklik rollerinin bu grup içinde nasıl yeniden şekillendiği üzerinden ele alınmaktadır. Psikolojik ve sosyolojik açılardan değerlendirilen bu profiller, kadın erkek eşitlik dinamiklerine ve dışlanma duygusunun incel bireyler üzerindeki etkilerine işaret etmektedir. Kadın düşmanlığı ve cinsiyet temelli şiddet eğilimleri, incel hareketinin merkezinde yer almakta ve topluluk içinde belirgin bir öfke ve düşmanlık kültürünü beslemektedir. Hareketin çevrimiçi mecralardaki varlığı ve bu platformlar üzerindeki şiddet eğilimli söylemleri, cinsiyet ilişkilerinde derin bir gerilimi yansıtmaktadır. İncel topluluğunun sosyal medya ve forumlar üzerindeki temsil biçimi, radikalleşme süreçlerini hızlandırmakta ve bu topluluğun toplum üzerindeki yıkıcı etkisini artırmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: incel, toksik maskülenite, şiddet, dijitalleşme
In this paper, we explore how taboos act as drivers for reproducing countercultures. We define taboo utterances as those that either constitute socially prohibited acts (e.g., slurs), express elements of a prohibited ideology (e.g., claims advocating the subjugation of women), or promote socially prohibited actions (e.g., violence against women). We show how in certain communities, taboo utterances are not only tolerated but become highly rewarded in that they function as mechanisms of resistance and identity formation. We examine this dynamic in incel communities (involuntary celibates) as a case-study. We show how by embracing taboos, incels not only signal their rejection of mainstream norms and values, but primarily seek to forge a shared ideology and a group identity. This requires an explanation of how and why taboos can be repurposed to gain value within incel counterculture. We propose that one such explanation is the driver for social status. We argue that exploiting taboos becomes a currency of status for incels: they gain acceptance and approval within the community, and this in turn creates an arms race to become more and more transgressive and extreme. We explain this via the creation of ideological roles that serve to justify and rationalise overt extreme misogyny. We conclude with brief ethical considerations about normalizing misogyny in incel communities and spilling over into mainstream culture.
The incel community presents an intriguing case within social movement studies, marked by a collective sense of victimhood, a negative collective identity, and a self-deprecating view that starkly contrasts with the positive self-image and objectives typical of most social movements. This discrepancy raises questions about what motivates members to continually engage with the community. This study conducts online observations and discourse analysis to offer an in-depth examination of the community's interaction patterns, discursive practices, and ideological beliefs. Using Randall Collins’ Interaction Ritual Chain framework, the analysis uncovers a paradoxical emotional landscape, challenging traditional models of social interactions and emotional energy as described in his framework. Contrary to the anticipated positive emotional outcomes from successful interaction rituals, incels predominantly display negative emotional expressions, which are transformed into discursive symbols fundamental to group identity. This dynamic is especially evident in discussions of suicide, where members frequently and actively encourage each other to take their own lives. The study elaborates on Collins’ theory by proposing the concept of “dark emotional energy” to elucidate the dynamics that not only perpetuate harmful group dynamics but also bolster a collective sense of belonging, providing insights into the complex mechanisms through which destructive ideologies are maintained within online communities.
Mating and labor markets are fundamental drivers of societal dynamics. Yet, equity of access to these domains differs between the sexes due to numerous biological, economic, psychological, and socio-cultural factors. These inequalities and their impacts can accentuate perceptions, preferences, and behaviors of males and females in different ways. Utilizing a large cross-sectional sample of those currently engaged in the Australian mating market ( n = 1072 online daters), we explored the impact of sex and individual differences on the perceptions of men's ease of access to a decent job in the labor market (opportunity), women's economic dependence on men (economic inequality), and relative reproductive opportunity (dating access) for both sexes. Our study identifies both sex differences and symmetries in socio-economic factors (such as education level and having offspring) correlating with the perceptions of both economic and dating market access for Australian online daters. Additionally, key resource endowment indicators (income and unemployment) also reflect differences in both sexes’ perceptions of both access and gender equity. That said, our study finds that perceptions of access to both (economic and mating) markets shows far greater variation based on biological age (especially for women) than any other factor.
The online communities of involuntary celibates, or incels, have garnered increased attention for their extreme misogyny and links to violent attacks against women. However, little is known about how (pseudo‐)psychological theories are used among the incel community to construct their identities and justify a worldview that centres on hatred against women. This study uses a critical discursive psychological approach to examine identity constructions in discussions on the so‐called blackpill worldview within the online community incels.is. Our analysis of more than 1000 discussion threads written in 2020 reveals three distinct incel identities: incels as victimised martyrs, incels as aggrieved masculine actors, and a divided identity negotiating the boundaries of ‘pure’ and ‘impure’ inceldom. These identities are constructed through psychological notions, specifically, fatalism, ‘just‐world’ beliefs, evolutionary psychology, eugenics and theories of interpersonal attraction—that serve as interpretative repertoires expressed through a plethora of rhetorical strategies and affective–discursive practices. The study highlights the importance of understanding how psychological concepts are appropriated in the construction of ingroup identities and justifications of outgroup hate within misogynist online communities.
This study examines whether male subjects who agree with core beliefs of the extremist “incel” movement are more supportive of political violence, and why this may be the case. It employs an original public opinion survey using a representative sample of 900 American males and finds that subjects who hold incel beliefs are 124% more supportive of political violence as an abstract behavior and are 45% more supportive of political violence when it is put into a specific context. Furthermore, using serial mediation analysis, it determines that incel beliefs are linked to support for political violence through masculine gender role stress and aggression as well as though outgroup hate and illiberal attitudes.
The incel population comprises men experiencing involuntary celibacy who mingle based on their challenges in establishing romantic connections. Despite the current issues plaguing incel forums (e.g., violent content), they were originally conceived as platforms for social support to alleviate loneliness among sexually inexperienced individuals. However, documentation of support types within these forums is limited. The aim of this study was to document the exchange of social support within incel forums, utilizing Braithwaite et al.’s (1999) adaptation of Cutrona and Suhr’s (1992) social support typology (informational, emotional, esteem, network, tangible support) to analyze the forms of support exchanged within incels forums. Thematic analyses of 37 threads from r/IncelExit (i.e., users seeking to leave inceldom) and Incels.is (i.e., users deeply entrenched in inceldom) reveal a prevalence of informational support, followed by emotional support. These findings align with existing literature positing that informational support is the prevailing type in online interactions on forums between strangers, where anonymity also facilitates the intimate exchanges characteristic of emotional support. Notable distinctions emerge between the two forums: r/IncelExit favoured informational support (prioritized when the problem is perceived as controllable) to suggest concrete actions to resolve the problem, while Incels.is emphasized emotional support (prioritized when the problem is perceived as uncontrollable) to show empathy and understanding of the situation. Our findings also reveal that antisocial support (i.e., encouraging self-destructive behaviours instead of providing genuine support) was sometimes present, especially on Incels.is. This study provides an initial exploration of support dynamics in incels forums, with implications for interventions.
Debates are ongoing about the harm misogynistic online communities pose to young men’s identity and understanding of masculinities. This study aims to nuance our understanding of the online incel community by analysing 14 interviews with young men from five different continents who identify or formerly identified as incel or involuntary celibate. I use a subcultural theoretical framework, and my analysis identifies three forms of subcultural involvement of incels, varying from being all-encompassing, active participation and loose attachment. Drawing on the concept of digital drift, including insights from both traditional and post-subcultural traditions, I show how incels can flexibly drift across categories, changing their level of involvement and attachment to the incel subculture over time. The article highlights the need for more direct, critical engagement with young men involved in the incel subculture to account for the various ways these young men interact with this online phenomenon.
This paper aims to analyze the phenomenon of gender hatred, with a particular focus on fo-rums where widespread misogyny forms an ideology based on exclusion, the rejection of diversity, and a - false - attachment to traditional values, typical of the alt-right. The study was conducted within the Manosphere, a space where subcultures of predominantly male groups coexist, sharing hatred and frustration towards women. The specific group under ex-amination is that of the Incels, individuals who identify as involuntary celibates due to rejec-tion by women. In the Italian context, they tend to congregate primarily in the digital space provided by “Il Forum dei Brutti”. Within this framework, a Netnographic analysis was em-ployed to explore the connection between hatred towards the female gender and one’s rela-tionship with the maternal figure. A sample of 771 comments was collected and categorized, revealing results grouped into four main categories. The findings underscore the intricate nature of the relationship between internalized misogyny and one’s connection with their mother.
In 2010, in the English-language kink fanfiction community of the American television show Supernatural (2005–20), the Omegaverse genre emerged. In this universe, humans have canine-like sexual characteristics and society is structured around a sexual hierarchy stratified by whether one is an alpha, a beta or an omega. In the years since, the genre has spread globally, finding particular popularity in Japanese Boys Love (BL) media. The Omegaverse represents one part of a global boom in zoomorphism, the depiction of humans with animal-like characteristics, for representing and understanding human societal norms. Through a textual and discourse analysis of three Japanese Omegaverse BL manga series and associated reviews from BL fan site Chill Chill, this article discusses the appeal of zoomorphism, its boom in popularity and the reasons for its global spread. Drawing on animal studies, I highlight how the Omegaverse provides a space to critique and explore issues surrounding relationships in the real world, arguing that this suggests that the global appeal of zoomorphism is in how the animal can reflect what it means to be human.
This study aimed to explore how certain marginalized adult white male incels choose to present themselves to a global YouTube audience and address the misunderstandings about them perpetuated by often negative media portrayals. This qualitative case study, conducted on July 24, 2024, analyzed four purposively-sampled YouTube confessionals from adult white male incels of varying ethnicities and ages, published between April 13, 2022, and May 13, 2024. The study included: “YouTuber 1” (70 subscribers, 2,946 views, 16.5 minutes long, 62 likes), “YouTuber 2” (1,440 subscribers, 5,321 views, 17 minutes long, 145 likes), “YouTuber 3” (893 subscribers, 20,663 views, 8 minutes long, 552 likes), and “YouTuber 4” (2,040 subscribers, 9,933 views, 47 minutes long, 193 likes). These videos were selected for their confessional-style content. They were transcribed using a YouTube transcribing tool and analyzed thematically, following Bantugan’s (2024) approach to studying males sharing on YouTube about their social marginalization. Incels often experience profound social isolation and rejection, which significantly impacts their responses to intimacy issues. Many report feeling less socially and sexually successful compared to others, which leads to feelings of inadequacy. Judgments based on appearance further exacerbate these difficulties, as a lack of validation can harm self-esteem and hinder social and romantic opportunities. Mental health issues, such as autism and borderline personality disorder, contribute to these struggles, with mental health conditions often linked to challenges in social interactions. Perceptions of fundamental gender differences also influence their interactions and expectations with the opposite sex. Despair and a nihilistic outlook are common, leading to a belief that their situation is unchangeable and fostering maladaptive coping strategies. Additionally, a deep-seated desire for recognition and understanding underscores their need for acceptance, with feelings of being misunderstood worsening negative emotional outcomes.
Forums for involuntary celibates (incels) are online spaces where males who struggle with a lack of sexual relations engage in misogynistic and fatalistic discussions, including suicidality. Current knowledge of what is associated with their suicidal feelings is limited. We sought to identify the psychological stressors underlying incels’ expressions of suicidality by analyzing posts made in the forum r/SuicideWatch. We extracted the entire posting history of 116,266 users who had contributed to incel forums on the social media platform Reddit. We then filtered posts (N = 13,187) made in r/SuicideWatch and used thematic analysis to identify common themes. We identified six themes associated with suicidality: social isolation and loneliness, frustration with involuntary celibacy, appearance concerns, mental health issues, family problems, and feeling worthless. We discuss reinforcement mechanisms through which suicidal expressions online may be maintained in this community. Our analyses of the suicidality of incel forum users were limited to posts of users who contributed to r/SuicideWatch. These users may have been qualitatively different from suicidal incels who did not contribute to this forum. Several reasons are suggested for suicidality in incels, including factors associated with their incel identity. Suicide prevention in this community would benefit from multifaceted prevention and intervention strategies.
The forums of involuntary celibates (incels) are easily accessible and increasingly receiving attention from media, scholars, and non-incels, mostly for their troubling content against women. This study aimed to (a) qualitatively describe the different impressions of visitors and (b) quantitively examine the sociodemographic characteristics associated with the prevalence of each category of impressions. The sample comprised 390 adults (43% women; 2.56% self-identified incels; M age = 26.86) who have visited incel forums at least once. They completed an online questionnaire on sexual inexperience in adulthood and described their impressions of incel forums in an open-ended question. An inductive content analysis revealed that impressions of incel forums were positioned on a continuum ranging from threat (39.53%) to shelter (11.90%) with four intermediate categories: incel forums as testimonies of dysfunctional thoughts (20.04%), incel forums perceived as odd (11.02%), ambivalent impressions (3.45%), and incel forums as gatherings of individuals with difficulties (14.14%). Chi-square analyses revealed that, among participants who perceive incel forums as a threat, women, other genders individuals, and non-incels were overrepresented compared to men and incels, who were more likely to perceive incel forums as a shelter. t-test analyses revealed that participants who perceived incel forums as a shelter were older at first sexual intercourse. These results suggest that incel forums are not perceived as dangerous by all outsiders and that those who have more positive impressions (i.e., men, late sexual starters) are those most likely to relate to them. The implications for future research and professional practice are discussed.
Despite the infrequent nature of terrorism in Canada, multiple high-profile extremist incidents have specifically targeted women including the 2018 Toronto van attack. Using a mixed-methods approach informed by constructivist grounded theory, we examine fear and perception of victimization risk of terrorism in Canada in 262 individuals from a gendered perspective, contrasting it with similar measures for crime, finding that women both significantly fear and perceive a higher likelihood of terrorist victimization than men. An examination of cognitive schemas of terrorism revealed divergent patterns by gender, demonstrating that women were also significantly less likely to associate mental illness with terrorism.
In critique of Habermas's public sphere, Nancy Fraser offered the ‘subaltern counterpublic’ – arenas of refuge from and counter-organizing against the wider public. But does this (re)configuration of the public sphere hold in the age of extremism on the internet? I examine the trajectory of incel as a community, interrogating whether this extremist contingent follows Fraser's subaltern counterpublic or if they exemplify a new counterpublic – the ultra altern, or ‘ultern’, counterpublic. I explore the ways that the ultern counterpublic differs from the subaltern and its relationship to the general public sphere, particularly within the critical intervention of the internet. I finally offer a brief analysis of another movement – the KKK – within my new framing, to further detail the differences between the ultern and subaltern counterpublic.
Web tabanlı iletişim teknolojileri birçok yeniliği ve özgürlüğü beraberinde getirdiği gibi birçok olumsuz söylemin ve grubun oluşmasına da yol açmıştır. Bu topluluklar arasında manosfer grupları öne çıkmaktadır. Manosfer, çevrimiçi ağlarda kadınlara yönelik düşmanlık besleyen söylemler üreten ve erkek üstünlüğünü savunan grupları tanımlamak için kullanılmaktadır. Manosfer kavramı aslında çok eski bir kavram olmasına rağmen internet ve sosyal medya ağlarında oluşturulan gruplarla son yıllarda daha sık öne çıkmaya başlamıştır. Bu çalışma, Web of Science veri tabanında yer alan “manosfer” konulu araştırma makalelerini bibliyometrik yöntemle incelemiştir. Web of Science veri tabanında yer alan manosfer konulu 79 araştırma makalesinin bibliyometrik verileri VOSviewer programı yardımıyla görselleştirilmiştir. Çalışma, Türkçe literatürde sık kullanılmayan manosfer kavramını tanıtmayı amaçladığı gibi bu alanda yapılan çalışmaların odaklandığı noktaları da belirmeyi hedeflemektedir. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen 79 araştırma makalesinin 2016 yılından itibaren yayımlanmaya başladığı Türkiye’de yer alan araştırmacıların bu konuda çalışma yayımlamadığı belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca çalışma sonucunda manosfer ile cinsel istismar, siber nefret, çevrimiçi cinselleştirme, cinsiyet politikaları ve ideoloji arasındaki ilişkiye odaklanılmadığı belirlenmiştir.
There is increasing awareness of the gendered violence undertaken by incels (involuntary celibates), both online and offline. Much of the analysis of the phenomenon has focused on what incels mean for our understanding of gender, as well as the role that the internet plays in fostering extremist ideologies. This article instead provides a comparative critical frame analysis of policy responses in Sweden and the United Kingdom. Using critical frame analysis, research finds that that there is greater engagement with the topic among parliamentary actors in the United Kingdom than in Sweden, although there appears to be a clearer response in Sweden where it is subsumed within countering violent extremism strategies. However, neither country has developed specific policies to tackle the threat posed by incels; moreover, there are diverse policy frames at work which to some extent makes it difficult to create targeted policies. Theoretically, we argue that this absence of policy should be understood as an abdication of responsibility.
Cet article a pour but de décrire la manosphère anglophone à travers les différentes communautés qui la composent. Au-delà des éléments historiques et idéologiques ainsi présentés, une revue transdisciplinaire de la littérature présentera l’état des recherches en sciences sociales sur la manosphère.
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