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The Spiritual Conquest of Latin America (full text added)

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Abstract

The notion of a “spiritual conquest,” as opposed to a military conquest by Spanish forces and indigenous allies, was developed in detail in Robert Ricard’s eponymous 1933 work. While the metaphor of a “spiritual conquest” is broadly understood and used, many recent historical works eventually turned their attention to a close analysis of distinct processes and tendencies in terms of the methods, practices, and dynamics of colonial evangelization in Spanish and Portuguese America. The topical sections below address important work in this area of inquiry published in the last twenty-five years, with occasional references to earlier foundational works.
TheSpiritualConquestofLatinAmerica
DavidTavárez
LASTMODIFIED:31JULY2019
DOI:10.1093/OBO/9780199766581-0219
Introduction
Thenotionofa“spiritualconquest,”asopposedtoamilitaryconquestbySpanishforcesandindigenousallies,wasdevelopedindetailin
RobertRicard’seponymous1933work.Whilethemetaphorofa“spiritualconquest”isbroadlyunderstoodandused,manyrecenthistorical
workseventuallyturnedtheirattentiontoacloseanalysisofdistinctprocessesandtendenciesintermsofthemethods,practices,and
dynamicsofcolonialevangelizationinSpanishandPortugueseAmerica.Thetopicalsectionsbelowaddressimportantworkinthisareaof
inquirypublishedinthelasttwenty-fiveyears,withoccasionalreferencestoearlierfoundationalworks.
FoundationalWorks
Theterm“spiritualconquest”wasoccasionallyemployedasadescriptionandmetaphorincolonialtimes(seeRuizdeMontoya1993,cited
underSelectedEditionsofPrimarySources).Nonetheless,RobertRicard’s1933seminaltreatise,whichreachedavarietyofpublicsafter
beingtranslatedintoEnglish(Ricard1966),wasthefirstcontemporaryanalysistodeploythenotionofspiritualwarfareanddominationasa
generaldescriptorforthevariousprojectsandmethodsembracedbyFranciscans,Dominicans,andAugustiniansinearlycolonialMexico.
DecadesafterthepublicationofRicard’swork,otherimportantmonographsfocusedonFranciscanideologyandmillennialisttendencies
(Phelan1970)andFranciscaneducationenterprises(Kobayashi1974).
Kobayashi,JoséMaría.Laeducacióncomoconquista:EmpresafranciscanaenMéxico.MexicoCity:ElColegiodeMéxico,1974.
Kobayashi’sstudywasamongthefirsttobedevotedexclusivelytothestudyofFranciscanmissionarymethodsinNewSpain.Itaddresses
Franciscanapproachestocatechesisandteaching,withparticularattentiontotheemergenceanddevelopmentoftheColegiodeSanta
CruzatTlatelolco.
Phelan,JohnLeddy.TheMillennialKingdomoftheFranciscansintheNewWorld.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1970.
AcelebratedworkthatmadeconvincingconnectionsbetweenthemillennialistthoughtoftheologianssuchasJoachimdaFiore,andthe
beliefsandmotivationsofFranciscansintheAmericas.PhelannoteshowinfluentialFranciscansinNewSpainbelievedthatthemass
indoctrinationofnativepeoplesintheAmericasandinAsiawasproofthattheAgeoftheHolySpirithadarrived.Thisagehadbeen
precededbytheAgeoftheFather,andtheAgeoftheSon,twostagesdividedbythearrivalandteachingsofJesus.
Ricard,Robert.TheSpiritualConquestofMexico:AnEssayontheApostolateandtheEvangelizingMethodsoftheMendicant
OrdersinNewSpain:1523–1572.TranslatedbyLesleyByrdSimpson.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1966.
RicardaddressesthecomplexityofmissionaryendeavorsinCentralMexicowithafocusonFranciscansasdemiurgicfigures,butalso
reflectssagelyonthelimitsandcontradictoryresultsthefriarshadachievedbythelate16thcentury.EnglishtranslationofLa“conquête
spirituelle”duMexique:essaisurl’apostolatetlesméthodesmissionnairesdesordresmendiantsenNouvelle-Espagne,de1523–24à
1572(Paris:Institutd’Ethnologie,1933).
EvangelizationandEducation
Acentraltopicofinquiryhasbeeneducationalprojectsledbymissionariesinthe16thcentury.Thehistoriographyisdenserwithregardsto
FranciscaneffortsincentralMexico.Inparticular,theFranciscanschoolofSantaCruzinTlatelolco,foundedin1536,becamealeading
centerfortheinstructionofnativeelitesintheliberalartsandLatin,anditsmanyenterprisingalumnilaterworkedtogetherwithleading
Franciscansongrammaticaldescriptions,dictionaries,catecheticalworks,andculturalencyclopedias(Baudot1990,GómezCanedo1982,
Mathes1982).Anotherlastingtermhas“Nahuatlization”(Dibble1974),whichaddressedthemanywaysinwhichmissionariesadapted
ChristianteachingstoNahuaculturalunderstandings.Morerecently,preciseintellectualandrhetoricallinksbetweenclassicaland
RenaissanceworksandlearnedtextsproducedinNahuatlhavebeeninvestigatedinTavárez2013,Laird2017,andPollnitz2017,while
Galindo2018focusedonlatecolonialFranciscaneducationalprojects.
Baudot,Georges.LapugnafranciscanaporMéxico.MexicoCity:AlianzaEditorialMexicana,ConsejoNacionalparalaCulturay
lasArtes,1990.
Inthisaccessiblework,BaudotexaminestheeffortsoftheFranciscanordertoassertandmaintaintheirdominanceintheindigenous
parishesofCentralMexico.ThebookalsoaddressesthevariousconflictsbetweentheFranciscansandothermendicantsandchurchand
secularauthorities.
Dibble,CharlesE.“TheNahuatlizationofChristianity.”InSixteenth-CenturyMexico:TheWorkofSahagún.EditedbyMunroS.
Edmonson,225–233.Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1974.
Thisshortarticleisrecognizedbymanyscholarsinthefieldforproposingtheterm“Nahuatlization”tonameandrecognizethevarious
linguistic,cultural,andconceptualaccommodationsofChristianbeliefsandpracticestoNahualanguageandculture,asunderstoodby
earlymissionaries.
Galindo,DavidR.ToSinNoMore:FranciscansandConversionsintheHispanicWorld,1683–1830.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,2018.
AnovelanalysisoftheexpansionofFranciscanevangelizationthroughoutNewSpain,SouthAmerica,andSpainbetweenthelate17th
andearly19thcenturies.ItfocusesonFranciscancollegesestablishedduringthatperiod,andonhowtheseinstitutionshelpedshape
popularChristiandevotionsintheSpanishAtlantic.
GómezCanedo,Lino.Laeducacióndelosmarginadosdurantelaépocacolonial:escuelasycolegiosparaindiosymestizosen
laNuevaEspaña.MexicoCity:EditorialPorrúa,1982.
ThisbookcoversabroadspectrumofeducationalpracticesandinstitutionsincolonialMexico.However,formanyyearsitscoverageof
indigenouseducationandcatechesishasbeenasourceofsupportandinspirationforscholarswhohavefocusedonnativeeducationand
evangelization.
Laird,Andrew.“AMirrorforMexicanPrinces:ReconsideringtheContextandLatinSourcefortheNahuatlTranslationofAesop’s
Fables.”InBriefFormsinMedievalandRenaissanceHispanicLiterature.EditedbyBarryTaylorandAlejandroCoroleu,132–167.
NewcastleuponTyne,UK:CambridgeScholars,2017.
AnexcitinganderuditeanalysisofthecontextandsignificanceoftheLatinsourcethatwasthebasisforamanuscriptcontainingan
adaptationintoNahuatlofAesop’sFables.Itaddressespreviousworkonthismanuscriptcritically,andexaminesthecharacteristicsofthe
moralexamplescontainedintheNahuatl-languageAesop.
Mathes,Miguel.SantaCruzdeTlatelolco:laprimerabibliotecaacadémicadelasAméricas.MexicoCity:SecretaríadeRelaciones
Exteriores,1982.
ThisconciseworkisanecessaryreferenceforscholarswithaninterestinlibrariesandFranciscanorindigenousintellectuals.Itcontainsa
valuableinventoryofbooksthateitherpassedthroughthelibraryoftheFranciscanColegiodeSantaCruzorwereheldatthelibraryofthe
order’shouseatTlatelolco,andarenowattheSutroLibraryandinothercollections.
Morales,Francisco,ed.FranciscanosenAmérica.500añosdepresenciaevangelizadora.MexicoCity:ConferenciaFranciscana
deMéxico,CentroaméricayelCaribe,1993.
Thiswork,alongwiththeauthor’sessay“NewWorldColonialFranciscanMysticalPractice”—inANewCompaniontoHispanicMysticism,
editedbyHilaireKallendorf,71–102.(Leiden,TheNetherlands:Brill,2010)—showcasetheresearchofaMexicanFranciscanscholarwho
hasdevotedhiscareertothehistoryofhisorderinNewSpain.Morales’seditedvolumeprovidesacompendiumofchaptersonFranciscan
evangelization,andthechapterdelvesdeeplyintoFranciscancontemplationandmysticisminthecolonialAmericas,whichalsoinformed
theirevangelizationefforts.
Pollnitz,Aysha.“OldWordsandtheNewWorld:LiberalEducationandtheFranciscansinNewSpain,1536–1601.”Transactions
oftheRoyalHistoricalSociety27(December2017):123–152.
Providesanengagingsynthesisofsecondaryandprimarysourcesregardinganeducationinthetriviumandquadriviumforindigenous
peoplesin16th-centuryNewSpain.ItplacesparticularemphasisontheconvergencebetweenErasmistthoughtandthe“goodwords”
promotedaspartofNahuatlrhetoric.
TanckdeEstrada,Dorothy.PueblosdeindiosyeducaciónenelMéxicocolonial,1750–1821.MexicoCity:ColegiodeMéxico,
1999.
Ahighlyrespectedworkthatoutlinestheeducationalinstitutionsandsmallestablishmentslocatedinclosetotwo-thirdsofindigenous
communitiesinlatecolonialMexico.Itsanalysisalsoaddresseseducationalpoliticsandlocalelectionsontheeveofindependence.
Tavárez,David.“NahuaIntellectuals,FranciscanScholars,andtheDevotioModernainColonialMexico.”TheAmericas70.2
(October2013):203–235.
Adetailedanalysisofseveral16th-centurycollaborativeprojectsregardingtheadaptationofThomasàKempis’sOntheImitationofChrist
intoNahuatlandotherworksalignedwiththedevotiomodernaandothercontemplativepractices.Itoutlinesimportantdynamicsintermsof
Nahua-FranciscanscholarlycollaborationsattheColegiodeSantaCruz.
FrontierMissions
Incontrastwitheducationandevangelizationinurbansettingsandindigenousterritoriesfirmlyunderthepoliticalandmilitarycontrolof
SpanishandPortugueseauthorities,immenseterritorieslaybeyondcolonialcontrol,andavarietyoffrontiersettlementsmarkedthe
contoursofoftenimpreciseandflexibleboundaries.TwoofthemostresearchedcasestudieshavebeenJesuitmissionsamongthe
GuaraníinParaguay—asshowninWilde2011,Boidin2011,Sarreal2014—andinnorthernNewSpain,particularlyamongtheYaquiof
Sonora—reflectedinHu-Dehart1981,TorreCuriel2013,Folsom2014,andVelascoMurillo2016.Otherrecentworkhasfocusedon
missionaryexperiencesinCaliforniaandNewMexico—Knaut1997,Haas2014—whiletheWesternMesoamericanzonesofcontact
presentadifferentsetofdynamicscharacterizedbyoccasionalresistancebutrareactsofrebellion—asseeninLaraCisneros2002.
Boidin,Capucine.GuerreetmétissageauParaguay,2001–1767.Rennes,France:PressesUniversitairesdeRennes,2011.
ApoignantregressivehistoryofGuaranílanguageandculturethatfocusesontheendoftheParaguay’swaragainsttheTripleAlliance
(1864–1870)andontheexpulsionoftheJesuitorderin1767asimportanteventsthroughwhichthelatecolonialandnationalhistoryof
formerJesuitmissionsmaybereconstructed.
Folsom,Raphael.YaquisandtheEmpire:Violence,SpanishImperialPower,andNativeResilienceinColonialMexico.NewHaven,
CT:YaleUniversityPress,2014.
ArecentexaminationofthemilitaryconfrontationsbetweenlocalleadersintheYaquimissionsandSpanishandmestizocolonists,witha
focusonthestrategies,communications,anddiplomacyofYaquirebels.
Haas,Lisbeth.SaintsandCitizens:IndigenousHistoriesofColonialMissionsandMexicanCalifornia.Berkeley:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,2014.
AcloseexaminationofinterethnicrelationsamongnativeCalifornians,andbetweenthesecommunitiesandSpanishandmestizocolonists.
Haaspresentsamultifacetednarrativethatdepartswithsettlementandcolonizationinthelate18thcentury,andwhichaddressesthe
politicsofChristianimagesandworshippractices,alongwithastudyofindigenousautonomy,thetransitiontocitizenshiprightsandnovel
arrangementsundertheMexicannation-state,andapivotalevent:themotivationsandsequelsoftheChumashrevoltof1824.
Hu-Dehart,Evelyn.Missionaries,Miners,andIndians:HistoryofSpanishContactwiththeYaquiIndiansofNorthwesternNew
Spain,1533–1830.Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,1981.
AclassicworkthataddressesthecomplexsociopoliticalrelationsamongYaquicommunities,missionaries,settlers,andthemilitary.With
precisebrushstrokes,itoutlinesthedevelopmentofJesuitmissions,evangelizationpolicies,andavarietyofYaquiresponsestocolonial
hegemony.
Knaut,AndrewL.ThePuebloRevoltof1680:ConquestandResistanceinSeventeenth-CenturyNewMexico.Norman:University
ofOklahomaPress,1997.
AconciseaccountofthedevelopmentofmissionsamongPueblopeoplesinthe17thcentury,leadinguptothe1680revolt.Itarguesthat
thePueblo,intheend,refusedtotakeinthe“bitterpill”ofconversion,andtookuparmsagainstamulti-ethnicgroupofsettlersand
missionaries.
LaraCisneros,Gerardo.Elcristianismoenelespejoindígena:ReligiosidadeneloccidentedelaSierraGorda,sigloXVII.Mexico
City:InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria,2002.
TheSierraGordaanditsindigenouspopulationweresomewhatperipheralintermsofevangelizationefforts,andthiscarefullyframedstudy
addressesDominicanmissionsandtheestablishmentofparishesintheSierraGorda.Itssharpfocusonautonomousreligiouspractices—
inparticular,anunauthorizedandspontaneousindigenousdevotiontoaChristfigureatXichú—providesanecessarycounterpointtothe
analysisofCentralMexicanorthodoxChristianity.
Sarreal,JuliaJ.S.TheGuaraníandTheirMissions:ASocioeconomicHistory.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2014.
ProvidesanexactingandauthoritativeoutlineofthedevelopmentofJesuitmissionsamongtheGuaraní.Besidesreligiousorganization,
thisworkaptlyaddressesthesemissions’socialdynamics,economicpolicies,andwarfarestrategies.
TorreCuriel,JoséRefugiodela.TwilightoftheMissionFrontier:ShiftingInterethnicAlliancesandSocialOrganizationinSonora,
1768–1855.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2013.
AnoverviewofsocialandpoliticalchangesinmissionsettlementsinnorthernNewSpainaftertheJesuitexpulsion.Broadandambitious,it
alsoaddressesthemultiplefactorsthatledtoanindigenouspopulationdeclineinBourbonMexico.
VelascoMurillo,Dana.UrbanIndiansinaSilverCity:Zacatecas,Mexico,1546–1810.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,
2016.
InsightfulworkonthemigrationandincorporationofindigenousmigrantsintothesocialfabricoftheminingtownofZacatecasinnorthern
NewSpain,withananalysisofmissionaryactivitiesandtheChristianpracticesofurbanIndians.
Wilde,Guillermo,ed.Saberesdelaconversión:Jesuitas,indígenas,eimperioscolonialesenlasfronterasdelacristiandad.
BuenosAires:EditorialSB,2011.
Animpressivecollectionofessaysbyspecialistsinthefieldthataddressmissionaryactivities,education,andmusicinavarietyofcolonial
frontiersettings,andnativepopulations,includingMapudungun(Mapuche),Tupí,andGuaranísettlements.
ConversionDilemmas
Incorporationoranewstart?Newdevotions,oranappealtoancientbeliefs?Toleranceorpunishment?Theseweresomeoftheimportant
dilemmasthatmissionaries,bishops,andparishpriestsfacedastheysoughttopersuadeindigenouspeoples,capturetheirimagination,
andguidetheirdevotion.Twoearlierworks—KlordeAlva1982andMacCormack1991—addressthevarietyofresponsesofnative
neophytes,andtheperceptionofindigenousdeitiesthroughmodelsprovidedbyRenaissancethoughtandreferencestoclassicalantiquity.
Poole1995andBrading2001examinethecultofGuadalupeasmetaphor,casestudy,andhighlydebatedhistoricaldevelopment.
Estenssoro-Fuchs1998,GriffithsandCervantes1999,andPenyakandPetry2009addressthecontinuumfromincorporationofancient
beliefstotheemergenceofnewChristiandevotions.
Brading,DavidA.MexicanPhoenix:OurLadyofGuadalupe,ImageandTraditionAcrossFiveCenturies.Cambridge,UK:
CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.
AremarkableintellectualandsocialhistoryoftheemergenceoftheGuadalupandevotioninMexico,anditsinfluenceinLatinAmerica.It
advancesamoretraditionalview,closetocurrentChurchteachings,thatpresentsAntonioValerianoandother16th-centuryNahuaauthors
andtextsastheearliestsourcesfortherecordingofGuadalupanmiraclesandnarratives.
Cervantes,Fernando.TheDevilintheNewWorld:TheImpactofDiabolisminNewSpain.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,
1994.
ExaminestheologicaldiscoursesaboutthepresenceandinfluenceoftheDevilinindigenousandhybriddevotionsandritualpracticesin
NewSpain,withacarefulanalysisofthedevelopmentofFranciscanthought.
Estenssoro-Fuchs,JuanCarlos.Delpaganismoalasantidad:laincorporacióndelosindiosdelPerúalcatolicismo,1532–1750.
Lima,Peru:InstitutoFrancésdeEstudiosAndinos,1998.
AcriticalreassessmentofearlierhistoriographyabouttheChristianconversionandevangelizationofAndeanpeoples.Insteadoffocusing
onmodesofresistanceoronparallelswithAndeanbeliefsorcosmologies,thisworktracestheemergenceofAndeanChristiantraditions
acrossvariousfields,includingliterature,music,andthearts.
Griffiths,Nicholas,andFernandoCervantes,eds.SpiritualEncounters:InteractionsbetweenChristianityandNativeReligionsin
ColonialAmerica.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1999.
Ausefulanthologywhosechaptersmovefromurbantoruralspaces,fromconversiontopunishment,andfromMesoamericatotheAndes
andNewFrance.ThecommonthreadistheincorporationofindigenouspracticesandbeliefsintocolonialChristianpracticesinthe
Americas.
KlordeAlva,J.Jorge.“SpiritualConflictandAccommodationinNewSpain:TowardaTypologyofAztecResponsesto
Christianity.”InTheIncaandAztecStates,1400–1800:AnthropologyandHistory.EditedbyGeorgeA.Collier,RenatoI.Rosaldo,
andJohnD.Wirth,345–366.NewYork:AcademicPress,1982.
Aclassic,earlyinfluentialessaythatlistsavarietyofvantagepointsandreactionstoChristianityonthepartofvarioussegmentsofNahua
societyinthe16thcentury.
MacCormack,Sabine.ReligionintheAndes:VisionandImaginationinEarlyColonialPeru.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversity
Press,1991.
MasterfulreviewoftheinterpretationofAndeancosmologies,deities,andIncastatecultsbycolonialchroniclersandobservers,withan
emphasisonhowtheseunderstandingsweremediatedbyknowledgeaboutreligionandsocialorganizationinclassicalantiquity.
Penyak,LeeM.,andWalterJ.Petry,eds.ReligionandSocietyinLatinAmerica:InterpretativeEssaysfromConquesttoPresent.
Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,2009.
Vibrantcollectionofessaysbyhistorians,withafocusonevangelizationeffortsamongindigenouspeoples,Africans,women,andother
colonialandpostcolonialpopulations.Itsscopeandbreadtharewide,andtheessaysprovideaselectionofimportantexamplesandcase
studies.
Poole,Stafford.OurLadyofGuadalupe:OriginsandSourcesofaMexicanNationalSymbol,1531–1797.Tucson:Universityof
ArizonaPress,1995.
AhighlyinfluentialexaminationoftheemergenceoftheGuadalupannarrativeandlegendincolonialtimes.Itfocusesonthedocumentary
gapsinthehistoricalrecordbeforetheappearanceofGuadalupanworksinSpanishandNahuatlin1648and1649,andemphasizesthe
actionsofSpanishandCreoleauthoritiesastheearliestandforemostpromotersofGuadalupandevotions.
Prieto,AndresI.MissionaryScientists:JesuitScienceinSpanishSouthAmerica,1570–1810.Nashville:VanderbiltUniversity
Press,2011.
AnaccountofthedevelopmentofscientificmethodsofinquirybyJesuitmissionariesinSouthAmerica.Itbringsafreshperspectiveinto
JesuitlearningandtheChristianizationofindigenousknowledgedeemedasdemonic.
Schwartz,StuartB.AllCanBeSaved:ReligiousToleranceandSalvationintheIberianAtlanticWorld.NewHaven,CT:Yale
UniversityPress,2008.
AnambitiousandbroadinquiryintothemanyformsthattoleranceforheterodoxbeliefandChristianpracticestookintheIberianAtlantic,
basedchieflyonacontrastdrawnbetweencommonerpracticesandthoseofelitepopulations.
TheWordTranslated
HowshouldtheChristianwordbetranslatedandadaptedintoindigenouslanguages?Thisfundamentalquestionwasaddressedthrougha
varietyofmethodsandpractices,followedthecontourofchangingpolicies,andreflectedRenaissance,Counter-Reformation,andBourbon
languageideologies,asshownbyalongitudinalstudyinTavárez2000.ForNahuacatechesis,theinfluentialworkinBurkhart1989
demonstratedtheincorporationandrepurposingofpreconquestcosmology,whileMannheim1991,MacCormack2006,Durston2007,and
Dedenbach-SalazarSáenz2013analyzedtheadaptationofChristianteachingsintoQuechua,andHanks2010showedtheimpactof
FranciscanlexicographyandtranslationsonYucatecMayatexts.
Burkhart,Louise.TheSlipperyEarth:Nahua-ChristianMoralDialogueinSixteenth-CenturyMexico.Tucson:UniversityofArizona
Press,1989.
AnextremelyinfluentialstudythateloquentlyoutlinesthetransformationofChristianmeaningsastheypassedthroughthemultiplesieves
ofNahuamoralandcosmologicaldiscourses,asunderstoodbymissionarytranslators.Itleavesreaderswiththeparadox,andrealities,of
adeeplyhybridNahuaChristianitythatwasproducedbymissionarieswhoultimatelybecame“missionized.”
Dedenbach-SalazarSáenz,Sabine.Entrelazandodosmundos:Experimentosyexperienciasconelquechuadelacristianización
enelPerúcolonial.Quito,Ecuador:Abya-yala,2013.
AnimportantstudythatoutlinesthediversityofmethodsandapproachesinthegenerationofcatecheticaldiscoursesinQuechua.This
volumealsoarguesthattheseambiguousanddiversemeaningswereabsorbedintothewritingsofGuamanPomaandintheHuarochirí
Manuscript.
Durston,Alan.PastoralQuechua:TheHistoryofChristianTranslationinColonialPeru,1550–1650.TerreHaute,IL:Universityof
NotreDamePress,2007.
AnexactingsurveyoftheemergenceofcatecheticaltextsanddevotionalwritingsandsongsinQuechua.Itmovesauthoritativelyfromthe
fluidityoftranslationapproachesduringtheFirstEvangelizationtothecultivationof“pastoralQuechua”throughavarietyofgenresinthe
17thcentury.
GaroneGravier,Marina.Historiadelatipografíacolonialparalenguasindígenas.MexicoCity:CIESASand
UniversidadVeracruzana,2014.
ThisinnovativestudycontextualizesthedevelopmentoftypographyandprintedcharactersforindigenouslanguagesincolonialMexico
withinthehistoryofbookproduction.Itisaninvaluableguidetothedesign,useofvisualimages,andtheinterventionsoftypesettersand
editorsacrossasampleofmorethan100worksprintedinseventeenindigenouslanguages.
Hanks,WilliamF.ConvertingWords:MayaintheAgeoftheCross.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010.
AnexactingandcloselydocumentedanalysisoftheemergenceofawrittenvariantofcolonialYucatecMaya,mayareducido,basedonthe
lexicographyandlinguisticanalysesproducedbyFranciscanmissionaries.Intheend,thisvariantcouldnotcontainthesurfeitofmeanings
thatYucatecauthorsandspeakerscontinuedtointroduceintothiscolonialmodeofcommunication,whichisalsocharacterizedasan
“interlanguage.”
Jansen,Maarten,andGabinaAuroraPérezJiménez.LalenguaseñorialdeÑuuDzaui.Culturaliterariadelosantiguosreinosy
transformacióncolonial.Oaxaca,Mexico:ColegioSuperiorparalaEducaciónIntegralInterculturaldeOaxaca,2009.
AsynopticexplorationofMixtecrhetoricthroughpictographicandalphabeticexpression.EvenifitencompassesmanygenresfromLate
Postclassictimestothe18thcentury,severalsectionsinthisworkfocusonthedeploymentoftraditionalMixtecrhetoricbytheDominican
friarBenitoHernándezandotherstoindoctrinateandprovidemoralexamples.
MacCormack,Sabine.“GrammarandVirtue:TheFormulationofaCulturalandMissionaryProgrambytheJesuitsinEarly
ColonialPeru.”InTheJesuitsII:Cultures,Sciences,andtheArts.EditedbyJohnO’Malley,GauvinAlexanderBailey,StevenJ.
Harris,andT.FrankKennedy,576–601.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2006.
AchapterinaremarkablevolumeontheJesuitsthattrackscloselytheemergenceanddeploymentofJesuitidealsregardinglexicography
andthetranslationoftheChristiandoctrineintoQuechuainthecolonialAndes.
Mannheim,Bruce.TheLanguageoftheInkasincetheEuropeanInvasion.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1991.
AformidableandhighlyinfluentialanalysisofthemanifoldtransformationsinQuechuavariantsasaresultofcontactwithSpanish,
missionarylexicography,andcoloniallanguageecology.
Smith-Stark,Thomas.“LexicographyinNewSpain(1492–1611).”InMissionaryLinguisticsIV.EditedbyOttoZwartjes,Ramón
Arzápalo,andThomasSmithStark,3–82.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins,2009.
Aneruditeandexactingoverviewoftheproductionofgrammars,vocabularies,anddictionariesintheindigenouslanguagesofcolonial
Mexicountiltheearly17thcentury.Itoutlinestheroleofmissionariesaslexicographers,andprovidesilluminatingcomparisonsoftheword
corporatheycompiledandanalyzed.
Tavárez,David.“NamingtheTrinity:FromIdeologiesofTranslationtoDialecticsofReceptioninColonialNahuatlTexts,1547–
1771.”ColonialLatinAmericanReview9.1(June2000):21–47.
AlongitudinalstudyofthetranslationofthenotionoftheHolyTrinityinNahuatl,asurveyoftheconflictsthatarosefromsomeofthese
translations,andanaccountofthesignificanceoftheseeffortsfromthevantagepointofSaulKripke’sworkonnamesandreference.
TheWordTransformed
AstheyweretranslatedintolanguagesoftheAmericas,Christiancatecheticalanddevotionaltextswererebornandtransformedintoworks
thatweregroundedinIndigenouscosmologiesandepistemologies,asunderstoodfromthevantagepointofChristian(orChristianized)
observers.AchapterinTavárez2017andFarriss2018investigatetheemergenceandtransformationofChristiandiscourseinZapotec,
Sparks,etal.2017showcasestheearliestAmerindiantheologicaltreatise,inK’iche’,Christensen2013addressesChristianliteraturein
NahuatlandYucatecMaya,andAlcántaraRojas2005analyzesanimportantcasestudy:adetaileddescriptionofcreaturesthatpopulated
theChristianhell,asmodeledonNahuacosmologicalprinciples.Furthermore,thecreationandmultiplemeaningsofpictorialcatechisms
areanalyzedinBoone,etal.2017andGaillemin2017,whileacomparativeperspectiveisprivilegedinTavárez2017.
AlcántaraRojas,Berenice.“Eldragónylamazácoatl.CriaturasdelinfiernoenunexemplumennáhuatldefrayIoanBaptista.”
EstudiosdeCulturaNáhuatl36(December2005):383–422.
Aninspiringanalysisofa1599confessionalmanualbytheMexicanFranciscanJuanBautistaViseo,whoinamoralexample(exemplum)
astutelyreferredtoaNahuaportentouscreature,themazacoatl(deersnake)inordertocommunicatetoNahuabelieversearlymodern
understandingsoftheDevilasafrightfulsnakeordragon.
Boone,ElizabethH.,LouiseM.Burkhart,andDavidTavárez.PaintedWords:NahuaCatholicism,Politics,andMemoryinthe
AtzaqualcoPictorialCatechism.Washington,DC:DumbartonOaks,2017.
Afacsimile,decipherment,andanalysisofa17th-centurypictographiccatechismfromcolonialMexico.Besidesthiscatechism’sinventive
pictographythisworkfeaturesNahuatltextsaboutdonPedroMoteuczoma,andglossesrepurposedfiguresinthemanuscriptasNahua
nobility.Intheend,thiscatechismarticulatesnovelassertionsofindigenousidentityandnativehistory.
Christensen,MarkZ.NahuaandMayaCatholicisms:TextsandReligioninColonialCentralMexicoandYucatan.Stanford,CA:
StanfordUniversityPress,2013.
AnambitiousstudythatcomparessomesectionsoftheextremelyabundantcatecheticalliteratureinNahuatl,comprisinghundredsof
printedbooksandmanuscripts,withthemorecircumspectbodyofYucatecMayaChristiantexts.Besidesproposingausefuldistinction
amongtextsintermsofauthorsandaudiences,itinvestigatesthesocialworldsofNahuaandYucatecMayanotariesthatdraftedwillsin
thoselanguages.
Chuchiak,John.“WritingasResistance:MayaGraphicPluralismandIndigenousEliteStrategiesforSurvivalinColonialYucatan
1550–1750.”Ethnohistory57.1(2010):87–116.
AcompellingexplorationoftheadoptionofEuropeanliteracybyMayaChristianscribes,andofthestratificationofalphabeticwriting
practicesincolonialYucatán.
Cohen,ThomasM.TheFireofTongues:AntónioVieiraandtheMissionaryChurchinBrazilandPortugal.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1998.
Aremarkableanalysisofthekineticcareer,andtheinquisitorialscrutiny,oftheJesuitpreacherandauthorAntónioVieira.Theworktraces
theemergenceandsignificanceofVieira’scalltouncoverChristianrevelationthroughtheconcertedactionsofindigenouspeoples,
colonizers,Jesuits,andthePortuguesecrowninBrazil.
Farriss,Nancy.TonguesofFire:LanguageandEvangelizationinColonialMexico.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2018.
AbroadinterpretationofsomemethodsemployedbymissionariestocommunicateChristianteachingsandmeaningsincolonialMexico,
withafocusonthetranslationofcrucialterms,andonhowmissionarychroniclersunderstoodandmemorializedtheirownenterprise.
Gaillemin,Bérénice.“AunomdeDieulePère:revendicationsdelanoblesseindigène.”InLeslaïcsdanslamission.Europeet
AmériquesXVIe-XVIIIesiècles.EditedbyA.Maldavsky,97–117.Tours,France:PressesUniversitairesFrançoisRabelais,2017.
ApoisedstudyofsomeofthetextsinFM399,oneofthemostimportantcolonialMexicanpictographiccatechisms(seeBoone,etal.
2017),withanassessmentofpossiblemotivationsforsubmittingthisworktoacolonialcourt.
Rafael,Vicente.ContractingColonialism:TranslationandConversioninTagalogSocietyUnderEarlySpanishRule.Ithaca,NY:
CornellUniversityPress,1988.
Aninfluentialandtheoreticallyagileexaminationofthewritingpracticesandtranslationpoliciesintroducedbycolonialmissionariesinto
TagalogcommunitiesinthePhilippines,withastressoncolonialattemptstoreducetheambiguityofautochthonouswritingsystemsinfavor
oftheRomanalphabet.
Sparks,Garry,FrankSachse,andSergioRomero,eds.andtrans.TheAmericas’FirstTheologies:EarlySourcesofPost-Contact
IndigenousReligion.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2017.
AninspiringanalysisoftheearliesttheologicalmanuscriptproducedintheAmericas:acorpusofwritingsinK’iche’MayabytheDominican
friarDomingodeVico.Thisextraordinarywork,compiledinthemiddleyearsofthe16thcentury,adoptedtermsdrawnfromMaya
cosmologiesandwaspatternedafterThomasAquinas’sSummatheologiae.
Tavárez,David,ed.WordsandWorldsTurnedAround:IndigenousChristianitiesinColonialLatinAmerica.Boulder:Universityof
ColoradoPress,2017.
Recentcollectionofessaysthatinvestigatesadiversityoftranslationmethodsandpolicies,evangelizationpractices,andindigenous
responsestotheproductionanduseofcatechismsinAmerindianlanguages.Itcombinesdepthofanalysiswithbreadth,asthework
addressestextswritteninValleyandNorthernZapotec,Nahuatl,Quechua,K’iche’andQ’eqchi’Maya,YucatecMaya,andTupí.
IndigenousChristians,Confessions,andWills
AlargecorpusofwillsdraftedinindigenouslanguagesorinSpanishonbehalfofindigenoustestatorsprovidesanunparalleledopportunity
tostudyhouseholdandlocaldevotions,supportforparticularsaintsorconfraternities,andtheeconomicsofindigenousfaith,asshownin
RojasRabiela,etal.1999–2004;Ramos2010;Pizzigoni2012;andMelton-Villanueva2016.Gruzinski1989,Barnes1992,andHarrison
2014inquireintothepracticeofconfessioninindigenouslanguages,whichwasintimate,invasive,anddidactic.
Barnes,Monica.“CatechismsandConfessionarios:DistortingMirrorsofAndeanSocieties.”InAndeanCosmologiesthrough
Time.EditedbyRobertV.H.Dover,KatherineE.Seibold,andJohnH.McDowell,67–94.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,
1992.
Acritiqueoftheassumptionthattheoftendetailedandpiercinginterrogationscontainedincatechismsandconfessionalmanualsreflected
commonsocialpracticesincolonialAndeancommunities.
Béligand,Nadine.“Lectureindienneetchrétienté:Labibliothèqued’unalguacildedoctrinaenNouvelle-EspagneauXVIsiècle.”
MélangesdelaCasadeVelázquez31.2(January1995):21–27.
Analyzesthesignificanceofanextraordinarydocument:the1601testamentofanindigenouschurchofficialwhoseprivatelibraryincluded
eightworks.ItemslistedincludeaContemptusmundiinNahuatl(probablyatranslationofKempis’sImitationofChrist),aNahuatlgrammar,
andworksbyGante,Sahagún,BautistaViseo,andElíasdeSanJuanBautista.
Christensen,Mark.TheTeaboManuscript:MayaChristianCopybooks,ChilamBalams,andNativeTextProductioninYucatan.
Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2016.
AcriticaleditionbasedonareassessmentofprevioustranslationsofalatecolonialYucatecMayamanuscriptthatreflectsinsightfullocal
understandingsofChristianbeliefsandpractices.
Gruzinski,Serge.“IndividualizationandAcculturation:ConfessionsAmongtheNahuasofMexicofromtheSixteenthtothe
EighteenthCentury.”InSexualityandMarriageinColonialLatinAmerica.EditedbyAsunciónLavrín,96–117.Lincoln:University
ofNebraskaPress,1989.
Analyzestheconfessiontemplatesthataddressedintimatetransgressionsrelatingtomarriageandsexualityinseveralimportantprinted
confessionalmanualscomposedinNahuatl.
Harrison,Regina.SinandConfessioninColonialPeru:Spanish-QuechuaPenitentialTexts,1560–1650.Austin:Universityof
TexasPress,2014.
Arichanddetailedanalysisoftheproduction,contents,andbroadersignificanceofearlyQuechua-languagecatechismsandconfessional
manuals.ThisworkexaminescrucialdecisionsandchoicesmadeasmissionariesandecclesiasticsattemptedtoteachtheChristian
doctrineinQuechuainsystematicways.
Melton-Villanueva,Miriam.TheAztecsatIndependence:NahuaCultureMakersinCentralMexico,1799–1832.Tucson:University
ofArizonaPress,2016.
AregionalanalysisofthetransitionfromlatecolonialtimestotheearlyrepublicinindigenouscommunitiesincentralMexico.Withan
emphasisonalatecorpusofNahuawills,theworkilluminatestheapprenticeshipofindigenousnotaries,revealstheNahuaauthorial
practicesinSpanish-languagewills,anddocumentsthesocialhistoryofNahuawomenasChristiansubjects.
Pizzigoni,Caterina.TheLifeWithin:LocalIndigenousSocietyinMexico’sTolucaValley,1650–1800.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,2012.
AnastuteanalysisofacorpusofwillscomposedbylocalnotariesfortheNahuainhabitantsofseveralcommunitiesintheTolucaValley.
ThesedocumentsrevealminuteandinsightfuldetailsofthedevotionalpracticesofNahuaChristians.
Ramos,Gabriela.DeathandConversionintheAndes:LimaandCuzco,1532–1670.TerreHaute,IL:UniversityofNotreDame
Press,2010.
AworkthattrackschangesandcomplexnegotiationsregardingancestorcultsandChristianburialpracticesasdeathritualsevolvedduring
theearlycolonialperiodinLimaandCuzco.Itemploysavarietyofsources,includingwillswrittenonbehalfofindigenouspeople,totake
fullstockofamomentoustransformation.
RojasRabiela,Teresa,ElsaLeticiaReaLópez,andConstantinoMedinaLima.Vidasybienesolvidados:Testamentosindígenas
novohispanos.5vols.MexicoCity:CentrodeInvestigacionesyEstudiosSuperioresenAntropologíaSocial,1999–2004.
Animportantcollectionofprimarysources—indigenouswillsfromCentralMexico—whosestudyandanalysisattesttothemyriadchanges
thatChristianizationbroughtintoquotidianpractices,householdorganizationandeconomics,andpopulardevotions.
EverydayChristianPractices
TheembodimentandenforcementofindigenousChristianitiescalledforradicaltransformationsineverydaylifeinnativecolonial
communities.InstitutionalapproachesandindigenousresponsestoquotidianChristianpracticesaremagisteriallyanalyzedinTaylor1996.
PreachingandtheadministrationofsacramentsarecoveredinKlaus1999andPardo2004,whileMelvin2012andTruitt2018address
religiousestablishmentandpracticesinurbansettings.
Díaz,Mónica.IndigenousWritingsfromtheConvent:NegotiatingEthnicAutonomyinColonialMexico.Tucson:Universityof
ArizonaPress,2010.
AconciseworkonelitenativewomenwhotookvowsasnunsincolonialCentralMexico.Thebookinvestigatesthreeofthefourconvents
establishedforindigenousnunsinthecolonialperiod,focusingonrelatedsermonsandletters,interrogatingbiographicalnarratives,and
assessinghagiographicexamplesfordevoutnativewomen.
Graham,Elizabeth.MayaChristiansandTheirChurchesinSixteenth-CenturyBelize.Gainesville:UniversityPressofFlorida,
2011.
Acarefullydocumentedworkthatexaminesfromtheperspectiveofhistoricalarchaeologyandethnohistorytheestablishmentofchurches
andeverydayChristiandevotionsforMayapopulationswholivedinterritorynowclaimedbyBelize.
Klaus,Susanne.UprootedChristianity:ThePreachingoftheChristianDoctrineinMexicoBasedonFranciscanSermonsofthe
16thCenturyWritteninNahuatl.Bonn,Germany:VerlagAntonSaurwein,1999.
Acarefulandcloselydocumentedstudyofthedenseandheterogeneousbodyof16th-centuryNahuatl-languagesermonswrittenby
FranciscansandtheirNahuaassistantsandinformants.
Melvin,Karen.BuildingColonialCitiesofGod:MendicantOrdersandUrbanCultureinNewSpain.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,2012.
Acarefullydocumentedsurveyoftheestablishment,spheresofinfluence,andinstitutionalpracticesofmendicantordersthatsettledin
importanturbannodesforthecolonialstate.
Osowski,EdwardW.IndigenousMiracles:NahuaAuthorityinColonialMexico.Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2010.
FocusesonthesocialandculturalhistoryoflatecolonialindigenousdevotionsinNahuacommunities,withparticularattentionto
indigenouspatronage,localformsofworship,processions,andfinancialcontributionstoNahuacults.
Pardo,Osvaldo.TheOriginsofMexicanCatholicism:NahuaRitualsandChristianSacramentsinSixteenth-CenturyMexico.Ann
Arbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2004.
Asubtleexaminationofpoliciesregardingtheadministrationofsacramentstoindigenouspopulations,thisvolumealsofocusesonthe
waysinwhichmissionariesapproachedandconceptualizedpreconquestsocialpractices,soastobetterleadtheirindigenouschargesto
receivesacramentsfreelyandknowingly.
Peterson,JeanetteFavrot.TheParadiseGardenMuralsofMalinalco:UtopiaandEmpireinSixteenth-CenturyMexico.Austin:
UniversityofTexasPress,1993.
AvividaccountofthecontentsandreligioussignificanceofthegardenfrescoespaintedattheAugustinianmonasteryinMalinalco,painted
inthe16thcenturyonlytobewhitewashedandrediscoveredinfullin1974.
Roulet,Éric.L’évangélisationdesIndiensduMexique.Impactetréalitédelaconquêtespirituelle(xvi siècle),Rennes,France:
PressesUniversitairesdeRennes,2008.
Aninquiryintothemultiple“evangelizations”thattookplaceinNewSpainduringthe16thcentury.Drawingfrommultipleecclesiastic
sources,decrees,courtrecords,andwills,thisbookattemptstogaugetheefficacyofevangelizationmethods,aswellasindigenous
responsestotheseprojects.
Taylor,WilliamB.MagistratesoftheSacred:ParishPriestsandIndianParishionersinEighteenth-CenturyMexico.Stanford,CA:
StanfordUniversityPress,1996.
Themostauthoritativehistoricalanalysistodateoftheactivities,networks,finances,andcareerpathsofparishpriestsincolonialCentral
Mexico.Itilluminateswithmultipleinsightsecclesiasticpolicies,theadministrationofsacraments,quotidiandevotions,andindigenous
participationinpublicChristianobservances.
Truitt,Jonathan.SustainingtheDivineinMexicoTenochtitlan:NahuasandCatholicism,1523–1700.Norman:Universityof
OklahomaPress,2018.
e
Aremarkableinvestigationofthelinksamongindigenousbelievers,churchauthorities,andmissionariesintheurbansettingofMexicoCity,
withdetailedanalysesofreligiouspracticesastheyintersectedwithsocialorganizationandindigenouseverydayactivities.
IndigenousChristianitiesInPerformance
Apopularbromideamongmissionariesandpriestsheldthatvisualrepresentationsandperformance,ratherthantexts,conveyedChristian
messagesmoreeffectivelyfornativeneophytes.Christiantheatricalperformances,whichaddressedabroadindigenouspublicandwere
oftenbasedonEuropeanmodels,areanalyzedinHorcasitas1974,Meneses1983,andtheeditedfour-volumeNahuatltheatersetSelland
Burkhart2004,whileBaker2008andTurrent1993considermusicalperformanceandfaith.Lara2004andWake2010scrutinizechurches
andmonasteriesaselaboratearchitecturalstagesandsitesforvisualindoctrination,whileDean1999andTaylor2016surveyprocessions
andimages.
Baker,Geoffrey.ImposingHarmony:MusicandSocietyinColonialCuzco.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2008.
AnaccountoftherichanddiversemusiccultureandtheorganizationofsacredmusicinCuzco.Itstressesthedecentralizationofthese
efforts,anddepictstheparticipationofindigenousprofessionalmusiciansinavarietyofmusicalmilieuxincolonialAndeansociety.
Burkhart,LouiseM.HolyWednesday:ANahuaDramafromEarlyColonialMexico.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,
1996.
AstudyofoneoftheearliestknownNahuatldevotionalplays,“HolyWednesday.”ItaddressestheSpanishsourceforthistext,andplaces
itsproductionvividlyinthecontextof16th-centuryevangelizationeffortsamongtheNahua.
Dean,CarolynJ.InkaBodiesandtheBodyofChrist:CorpusChristiinColonialCuzco,Peru.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,
1999.
Athoroughexamination,throughimagesanddocumentarydata,ofthepublicperformancesofthefeastofCorpusChristiinCuzco.It
presentstheemergenceofAndeanChristianidentitythroughtheparticipationofindigenouscelebrantsdressedasformerIncarulers.
Horcasitas,Fernando.Elteatronáhuatl:Épocasnovohispanaymoderna:Primeraparte.MexicoCity:UniversidadNacional
AutónomadeMéxico,1974.
AnearlyanalysisofNahuaplays,withanemphasisonthebreadthanddiversityofcolonialdevotionalplaysproducedforNahuaaudiences
andtheemergenceofNahuaunderstandingsaboutChristiandevotionsfeaturedinsacreddramas.
Lara,Jaime.City,Temple,Stage:EschatologicalArchitectureandLiturgicalTheatricsinNewSpain.NotreDame,IN:Universityof
NotreDamePress,2004.
ExploresthecreationanduseofFranciscan“fortressmonasteries”assitesforsacredperformanceswitheschatologicalsignificancefrom
thevantagepointofFranciscanmillennialism.ItalsoproposesparallelsbetweenAzteciconographyandthemedievalChristiansymbols
thatwereintegratedintoarchitecturalspaces.
Meneses,TeodoroL.,ed.andtrans.Teatroquechuacolonial.Antología.Lima,Peru:EdicionesEdubanco,1983.
AusefulanthologythatincludesSpanishtranslationsforsixofthesevenknownplayswritteninQuechuaincolonialtimes.Theseplays
depictIncanobilityandAndeancharacters,andseemtoeschewdirecttranslationsoradaptationsofBiblicalstoriesorEuropeandevotional
plays.
Sell,BarryD.,andLouiseM.Burkhart,eds.andtrans.NahuatlTheater.4vols.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2004.
Alandmarksetofvolumesthatprovideatranscription,translation,andexactinganalysisofthevastmajorityofNahuatl-languageplaysthat
wereproducedinNewSpain,mostofthemfordevotionalpurposes.ThevolumesexploreEuropeanmodelsandprecedentsfortheplays,
theirincorporationofNahuaculturalanddiscursivepractices,expressionsofGuadalupandevotionintheseworks,andthelinksbetween
someoftheseplaysandGoldenAgeSpanishtheater.BarryD.SellandLouiseM.Burkhart,Vol.1,DeathandLifeinColonialNahua
Mexico(2004);BarryD.Sell,LouiseM.Burkhart,andStaffordPoole,eds.andtrans.,Vol.2,OurLadyofGuadalupe(2006);BarryD.Sell,
LouiseM.Burkhart,andElizabethR.Wright,eds.,Vol.3,SpanishGoldenAgeDramainMexicanTranslation(2008);BarryD.Selland
LouiseM.Burkhart,eds.andtrans.,Vol.4,NahuaChristianityinPerformance(2009).
Taylor,WilliamB.TheaterofaThousandWonders:AHistoryofMiraculousImagesandShrinesinNewSpain.Cambridge,UK:
CambridgeUniversityPress,2016.
Accomplished,erudite,andauthoritativesurveyofthedeploymentandworshipofChristianimagesandshrinesinNewSpain.Itaddresses
indetailprocessions,pilgrimages,localdevotionalperformances,andthelinksbetweenthelandscapeandsacredobjects.
Turrent,Lourdes.LaconquistamusicaldeMéxico.MexicoCity:FondodeCulturaEconómica,1993.
AstudyofthemusicaldialoguebetweenmissionariesandtheindigenouspeoplesofcentralMexico,withparticularemphasisonthe
developmentofmusic,songs,andperformativepracticesthatproclaimedChristianteachingswhilemakinguseofindigenousaestheticand
musicalprinciples.
Wake,Eleanor.FramingtheSacred:TheIndianChurchesofEarlyColonialMexico.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2010.
Afascinatingoverviewoftheintegrationoficonographicprinciples,actualiconographyandmaterialculture,andlandscapeorientations,all
ofpre-Columbianorigin,intocolonialMexicanchurches,Italsodocumentsavarietyofnativeritualpracticesthatmayserveascontextfor
readinghybridmeaningsinsacredChristianarchitecture.
Censure,Discipline,andtheInquisition
Indigenouscolonialsubjectswhoengagedinhybriddevotionsorwhocontinuedtoembraceancestralpracticeswereinvestigatedinthe
16thcenturybythe“apostolicinquisition,”orinquisitorialinvestigatorswhosejurisdictionincludednativesuntil1571,wheninquisitorial
tribunalsseparatefromthatofToledowereestablishedinMexicoCityandLima.ThisearlyperiodwasfirstaddressedinGreenleaf1962
andGreenleaf1969,andlaterreassessedinGruzinski1989andGrunberg1998.Alberro1988isamasterfulstudyofinquisitorialpolicies,
andChuchiak2012ahelpfulandexactingdocumentaryhistoryoftheMexicanHolyOffice.Villa-Flores2006,Bristol2007,andvon
Germeten2013addressinquisitorialinvestigationsofpeopleofAfricandescentforheterodoxhealing,worship,sexmagic,andblasphemy.
Alberro,Solange.InquisiciónysociedadenMexico,1571–1700.MexicoCity:FondodeCulturaEconómica,1988.
Anauthoritativequalitative,quantitative,andhistoricalanalysisofthepolicies,patternsofactivity,andmethodsoftheMexicanInquisition
tribunalinthelong17thcentury,withinspiredcoverageofbothlongitudinaltrendsandrevealingdetailsregardinginquisitorialprosecutions.
Bristol,Joan.Christians,Blasphemers,andWitches:Afro-MexicanRitualPracticeintheSeventeenthCentury.Albuquerque:
UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2007.
ScrutinizesritualprotocolsanddevotionalpracticesamongcolonialsubjectsofAfricanorigininNewSpainbymeansofacarefulanalysis
of17th-centuryinquisitorialrecords.
Chuchiak,JohnF.TheInquisitioninNewSpain,1536–1820:ADocumentaryHistory.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,
2012.
AuthoritativeandmasterfuloverviewofthejuridicalproceduresemployedbytheapostolicinquisitionandbytheHolyOfficeTribunalinNew
Spain.Itprovidesavarietyofdocumentsintranslationthatdepicttheinquisitors’actionsagainstsorcery,superstition,theJewishfaith,
solicitation,bigamy,andallothercrimesagainstthefaith,whichtheMexicanInquisitionpursuedexclusivelyamongnon-indigenous
subjectsafter1571.
vonGermeten,Nicole.ViolentDelights,ViolentEnds:Sex,Race,andHonorinColonialCartagenadeIndias.Albuquerque:
UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2013.
Vividandexactinganalysisofthereligious,healing,andpropitiatorypracticesofwomenofAfricandescentwhowereinvestigatedbythe
inquisitorialtribunalofCartagenadeIndias.
Greenleaf,RichardE.ZumárragaandtheMexicanInquisition,1536–1543.Washington,DC:AcademyofAmericanFranciscan
History,1962.
Anearly,erudite,highlyinfluentialanalysisofthetrajectory,rationale,andmethodsoftheFranciscanfriarJuandeZumárraga,firstbishop
ofMexico,astheheadoftheapostolicinquisitioninNewSpain.
Greenleaf,RichardE.TheMexicanInquisitionoftheSixteenthCentury.Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1969.
Acarefulsummaryofthemajortrendsintermsofpolicies,prosecution,andpoliticalandjurisdictionaldebatesthatinvolvedtheMexican
InquisitionanditsofficersinitsearlystagesinNewSpain.
Grunberg,Bernard.L’InquisitionapostoliqueauMexique:histoired’uneinstitutionetdesonimpactdansunesociétécoloniale
(1521–1571).Paris:L’Harmattan,1998.
Athoughtfulinquiryintotheassumptions,methodology,socialimpact,andresultsoftheactivitiesoftheapostolicinquisitioninNewSpain.
ItaddslayersofcomplexitytopreviousanalysesofthisinstitutionbyGreenleafandotherscholars.
Gruzinski,Serge.Man-GodsintheMexicanHighlands:IndianPowerandColonialSociety,1520–1800.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1989.
Inspired,earlyworkthattracedindigenousresponsestotheapostolicinquisitionandlateridolatryextirpationattemptsthroughaseriesof
closelyobservedcasestudies.
Nesvig,Martin.IdeologyandInquisition:TheWorldoftheCensorsinEarlyMexico.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2009.
Eruditeandinsightfulanalysisofinstitutionalpractices,conflicts,anddebatesthatframedtheworkofinquisitorialauthoritiesinNewSpain,
andtheirrelationshipswithothermissionaryandchurchauthorities.
Villa-Flores,Javier.DangerousSpeech:ASocialHistoryofBlasphemyinColonialMexico.Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,
2006.
AninsightfulanalysisofthepracticeandsocialsignificanceofblasphemyasatransgressionpunishedbytheMexicanInquisition,witha
focusonhowpeopleofAfricandescentusedthesejuridicalpracticestoconfrontviolenceandabuseperpetratedagainstthem.
ThePublicPunishmentofIndigenousidolatry
EarlyidolatrycampaignsinYucatán,firststudiedinScholesandRoys1938,werealsoaddressedinClendinnen1989andChuchiak2005,
whileTavárez2011providesalongitudinalcomparisonofidolatryeradicationandnativeresponsesinthediocesesofOaxacaandMexico.
Ontheotherhand,Duviols1971,Griffiths1996,Mills1997,andBrosseder2014inspectandinterpretthewell-documentedidolatry
extirpationcampaignsinLima.
Brosseder,Claudia.ThePowerofHuacas:ChangeandResistanceintheAndeanWorldofColonialPeru.Austin:Universityof
TexasPress,2014.
InnovativestudyofthevariousidolatryextirpationcampaignswagedagainstancientbeliefsinthecolonialAndes.Itprovidesapiercing
analysisofthepersistenceofandtransformationsinthesignificanceofsacredentitiesandobjectscategorized,inbroadterms,ashuacas.
Chuchiak,JohnF.“InServitioDei:FrayDiegodeLanda,theFranciscanOrder,andtheReturnoftheExtirpationofIdolatryinthe
ColonialDioceseofYucatán,1573–1579.”TheAmericas61.4(2005):611–646.
Astuteandexactinganalysisofthedebate,politicalcontext,andresultsofDiegodeLanda’sviolentandinfamous1562idolatryeradication
campaigninYucatán.
Clendinnen,Inga.AmbivalentConquests:MayaandSpaniardinYucatan,1517–1570.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversity
Press,1989.
Aninfluentialanalysis,basedonsecondarysourcesandtranslatedmaterials,ofFranciscanattemptstoevangelizeanddisciplineYucatec
Mayaelitesandtheircommunities,withafocusonDiegodeLanda’sidolatryextirpationcampaignastheculminationofthisprocess.
Don,PatriciaLopes.BonfiresofCulture:Franciscans,IndigenousLeaders,andtheInquisitioninEarlyMexico,1524–1540.
Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2010.
SuccinctandsometimesspeculativeexaminationofimportantidolatrycasestriedbyBishopZumárraga.
Duviols,Pierre.LaluttecontrelesreligionsautochtonesdanslePéroucolonial;l’extirpationdel’idolâtrieentre1532et1660.
Lima,Peru:InstitutFrançaisd’ÉtudesAndines,1971.
Admirablesurveyandanalysisoftheconduct,objectives,andresultsofearlyevangelization,andtheearlyperiodofidolatryextirpation
campaignsinthecolonialAndes.
Griffiths,Nicholas.TheCrossandtheSerpent:ReligiousRepressionandResurgenceinColonialPeru.Norman:Universityof
OklahomaPress,1996.
Dynamicoverviewofthevariousmethodsandlegalmechanismsthatwereemployedtoaddress,curtail,andpunishAndeandevotionsin
Peruincolonialtimes.
Mills,Kenneth.IdolatryandItsEnemies:ColonialAndeanReligionandExtirpation,1640–1750.Princeton,NJ:Princeton
UniversityPress,1997.
InfluentialandexactinganalysisofmiddleandlatecolonialcampaignsagainstAndeandevotions,withasustainedfocusontheactivities
andpartnershipofparishpriests,Jesuits,andbishopsinthisenterprise.
Scholes,FranceV.,andRalphRoys.FrayDiegodeLandaandtheProblemofIdolatryinYucatán.Washington,DC:Carnegie
Institution,1938.
Thefirstcontemporaryanalysisoftheapproach,methods,politicalconflict,andresultsofDiegodeLanda’sattemptstoinvestigateand
punishMayareligionin1562.Itprovidesawealthofinformation,analysisofprimarysources,andtranscriptionsthatwerelaterusedby
otherscholars.
Tavárez,David.TheInvisibleWar:IndigenousDevotions,Discipline,andDissentinColonialMexico.Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,2011.
Acomparativeanalysisoftheinstitutionalefforts,policies,andresultsoftheattemptstoinvestigateanderadicateancientindigenous
devotionsinthediocesesofMexicoandOaxacafrom1521untilthe1780s.Itfocusesonindigenousresponses,andontheemergenceof
“literateidolaters”whoproduced,amongotherworks,thelargestcorpusofindigenouscalendricalmanualsinthecolonialAmericas.
SelectedEditionsofPrimarySources
Thisbrieflistprovidesanindicationofthediversityofexistingsourcesforadiversityofindigenoussocieties:Andean(Tercerocatechismo,
Duviols2003);Guaraní(RuizdeMontoya1993);Nahua(Alva1999,Olmos1990,Sahagún1986,Sahagún1993,Sell2002);andZapotec
(Burgoa1989).
Alva,Bartoloméde.AGuidetoConfessionLargeandSmallintheMexicanLanguage,1634.TranslatedandeditedbyBarryD.
Sell,JohnF.Schwaller,withLuAnnHomza.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1999.
InsightfulconfessionalmanualauthoredbydonBartolomédeAlva,brotherofthemestizochroniclerandcourttranslatordonFernandode
AlvaIxtlilxochitl.ItisbasedinAlva’sownunderstandingofancientNahuadevotions,astheypersistedintheearly17thcentury.Originally
publishedin1634.
Burgoa,FrayFranciscode.Palestrahistorial.MexicoCity:EditorialPorrúa,1989.
Originallypublishedin1670.AlongwithBurgoa’sGeográficadescripción(2vols.,MexicoCity:EditorialPorrúa,1989[originally1674]),
thesearetwodense,hagiographic,andencyclopedicworksthataddresstheevangelizationactivitiesoftheDominicanOrderinOaxaca
fromthelate1520suntilthelate17thcentury.
Duviols,Pierre.Procesoyvisitasdeidolatrías.Cajatambo,sigloXVII.Lima,Peru:PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadelPerú,2003.
Importantandsubstantialcollectionoftranscriptionsandsummariesofidolatrytrialsandthepastoralvisitsofbishopswhosoughtto
eradicateancientbeliefsinthecolonialAndes.
Olmos,Andrésde.Tratadodehechiceríasysortilegios.EditedandtranslatedbyGeorgesBaudot.MexicoCity:Universidad
NacionalAutónomadeMéxico,1990.
TranslationandcommentaryofanimportantearlyworkbytheFranciscanAndrésdeOlmos,whothussoughttoadaptintoNahuatlhis
correligionaryMartíndeCastañega’sinfluentialTratadodelassupersticionesyhechizerías.
RuizdeMontoya,Antonio.TheSpiritualConquestAccomplishedbytheReligiousoftheSocietyofJesusintheProvincesof
Paraguay,Parana,UruguayandTape.TranslatedbyClementJ.McNaspy.St.Louis,MO:InstituteofJesuitSources,1993.
ThefirstEnglish-languagetranslationofavividanddensehagiographicaccountoftheJesuitreduccionesinandnearcolonialParaguay.
Itsauthor,RuizdeMontoya,whoalsopublishedanauthoritativegrammarandvocabularyofandacatechisminGuaraní,helpedleadtens
ofthousandsofChristianIndianssouth,awayfromtheincursionsofcolonialBrazilianslaveraiders.Originallypublishedin1639.
Sahagún,Bernardinode.Coloquiosydoctrinacristiana.EditedandtranslatedbyMiguelLeón-Portilla.MexicoCity:Universidad
NacionalAutónomadeMéxico,1986.
AcarefullycraftedaccountofthefirstencounterbetweenMexicapriestsandthetwelveFranciscanswhotraveledtoMexicoin1524,
composedfourdecadeslater.Althoughincomplete,thestructureofthisshorttext,preservedattheVaticanArchives,resemblesthatofa
formaldisputation.
Sahagún,Bernardinode.BernardinodeSahagún’sPsalmodiaChristiana.EditedandtranslatedbyArthurJ.O.Anderson.Salt
LakeCity:UniversityofUtahPress,1993.
AtranslationandeditionofoneofthemostimportantcatecheticalworksproducedbyFranciscansinthe16thcentury.Itpreserves,among
othercontent,devotionalsongsthatreflectNahua-elevatedrhetoricandaNahuaworldview.Originallypublishedin1583.
Sell,BarryD.,ed.andtrans.NahuaConfraternitiesinEarlyColonialMexico:The1552NahuatlOrdinancesofFrayAlonsode
Molina.Berkeley:AcademyofAmericanFranciscanHistory,2002.
Translationandsummaryofafascinatingdocumentationofearlyevangelizationefforts:asetofordinancesproducedbyaninfluential
FranciscantoguideNahuasastheybegantocreateandorganizeinarelativelyautonomousmannertheirownconfraternities.
“TercerocathecismoyexposicióndelaDoctrinaChristiana,porsermones”.InDoctrinachristianaycatecismoparainstrucción
deindios.333–777.CorpusHispanorumdepace26/2.Madrid:ConsejoSuperiordeInvestigacionesCientíficas,1985.
Facsimileeditionofaworkoriginallypublishedin1585.ContemporaryeditionofasectioninQuechuaofanimportantcatecheticaltext
producedbychurchauthoritiesinearlycolonialPeruinbothQuechuaandAymarainordertoprovideastandardtextandtranslationsfor
priestsandpreacherswhoservedAndeancommunities.
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... Traditional narratives about religious change in the New World during the Spanish conquest have followed the tenets of the 'spiritual conquest', a metaphor used to complement the military conquest of the Americas (Ricard 1966;Restall 2003: 74;Tavárez 2019). Historical and ethnographic data, however, clearly show that this spiritual enterprise did not work out in practice as the Spanish expected. ...
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Colonised societies often continue traditional practices in private contexts whilst adopting new forms of ritual in public. Excavations at the Mam centre of Chiantla Viejo in highland Guatemala, however, reveal a more complex picture. Combining archaeological evidence with early colonial documents, the author identifies a revival of Indigenous Maya religion following the Spanish conquest (AD 1525–1550). Despite appearing in colonial records as Christian converts, the Maya directed a sequence of destruction, reconstruction and remodelling of the monumental core of Chiantla Viejo to evoke the landscape of their ancestral settlement of Zaculeu. The results emphasise the importance of public spaces for the persistence of Indigenous religion in early colonial settings.
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