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Commercial Ornamental Crops
Traditional and Loose Flowers
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ii
e Editors
Dr. R.L. Misra served the cause of oricultural science for more than 16 years in temperate
regions of Himachal Pradesh and about 24 years in sub-tropical conditions of New Delhi. Aer his
joining at IARI, New Delhi in 1984, he was associated with all the 7-8 oricultural courses being
oered to the M.Sc. and Ph.D. students, apart from looking his mandated research programmes.
Out of his whole ocial career, as a chairman, he guided 16 Ph.D. and 6 M.Sc. students apart from
being members of the advisory committees of many more students, and developed 30 gladiolus
varieties which have high demand countrywide. Now all these students are serving various institutions as Professors
and Associate Professors and in other departments holding a very high position. His contributions are acclaimed
worldwide. As a teacher as well as a researcher, his contribution is well known as he has in all some 500 publications
out of which some 170 are research publications, 80 symposium papers, 80 book chapters, a few review articles
including 6 books. He is the founder member of Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture from 1993 to 2004 (12
years continuously) he edited its regular publication Journal of Ornamental Horticulture. He is Fellow of Indian
Society of Genetics and Plant Breeding since 80’s, and Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture since 2010. For his
most signicant contribution in the eld of oriculture, he was honoured with ‘Gold Medal’ of Horticultural Society
of India in 2013. He is life member in 11 professional societies. Once he was Ocer-in-Charge, Indo-Israel Project
of Research and Development on Farms, IARI, New Delhi which connes to the protected cultivation of vegetables
and owers; and joined as a regular Project Coordinator of All India Coordinated Research Project on Floriculture
of ICAR at Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, IARI, New Delhi where he coordinated some 21 centres across
17 states. He served IARI for 40 years and retired as Project Coordinator cum Principal Scientist in May 2008. Only
because of his highly signicant contributions in the eld of teaching and research, aer his retirement he was inducted
as adjunct Faculty of IARI in Floriculture.
Dr. Sanyat Misra is a graduate from UAS, Bangalore; postgraduate from GBP University
of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar; and Ph.D. from Dr. YSP University of Horticulture
and Forestry, Solan (H.P.), and then after completing his Ph.D. degree served for 3 years as
Research Associate at NBPGR, New Delhi and Shimla, and in 2004 joined as regular Scientist
cum Assistant Professor (Floriculture) in the Department of Horticulture, Birsa Agricultural
University, Kanke, Ranchi-834006 (Jharkhand). So far he has guided three M.Sc. students for
their thesis work. He is a very active member of the horticulture faculty looking after research, teaching and
extension. He has to his credit about 20 publications, two bulletins and three books of international repute.
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Commercial Ornamental Crops
Traditional and Loose Flowers
– Editors –
R. L. Misra
Sanyat Misra
2017
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iv
© 2017 Editors
Kruger Brentt Publishers UK. LTD.
Company Number 9728962
Regd. Oce: 68 St Margarets Road, Edgware, Middlesex HA8 9UU
For information on all our publications visit our website at http://krugerbrentt.com/
Disclaimer:
Every possible eort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publisher
and author cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting,
or refraining from action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the author. e Publisher is not
associated with any product or vendor mentioned in the book. e contents of this work are intended to further general scientic research, understanding
and discussion only. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate.
Every eort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this book, if any. e author and the publisher will be grateful for any
omission brought to their notice for acknowledgement in the future editions of the book.
All Rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written consent of the publisher
and the copyright owner.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Commercial ornamental crops : traditional and loose owers / editors, R.L. Misra,
Sanyat Misra.
pages cm
Contributed articles.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-78715-007-2 (Hardbound)
1. Flowers. 2. Floriculture. I. Misra, R. L., 1946- editor. II. Misra, Sanyat,
1974- editor.
SB404.9.C66 2017
DDC 635.9 23
-
Since the times immemorial, the plants and owers have remained an integral part of Indian rituals and source of
ecofriendly pigments, besides being a source of chemicals of industrial and medicinal use. India is bestowed with wide
range of agroclimatic conditions that support rich plant diversity.
In the recent years horticulture in India has fast developed on commercial lines and today we are among the leading
producers of fruits, vegetables, owers and spices. In the present scenario oriculture holds potential for agricultural
diversication and improving farmer’s income in the otherwise predominant cereal based farming. ough India is
among the leading countries in ower cultivation but our share in global ower trade is less than one percent. In India,
oriculture as a subject was introduced at UG and PG level in early 1950s. e establishment of All India Coordinated
Research Project on Floriculture, brought the research eorts under one umbrella. In recognition of increasing
importance of oriculture in India the AICRP later on was upgraded as into Directorate of Floriculture Research at Pune.
e authors, Drs. R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra, have already brought out two books: (i) Commercial Ornamental
Crops: Cut Flowers and (ii) Commonly Used Ornamental Plants, both published from Kruger Brentt, England, and
now current publication Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers is the third book in the series
to be published from the same publisher.
e book “Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers” deals exclusively on production
technology of 29 most commonly cultivated ornamental plants and related aspects of post harvest management for
various commercial ventures.
It is expected that the book will cater to the needs of students, teachers, researchers, horticultural training centres
and development ocers engaged in the eld of horticulture, and over all to the growers to generate more income, and
wish the team all success in their all the future endeavours.
(R. S. Paroda)
Chairman, TAAS
Former Director General, ICAR and
Secretary, DARE, Govt. o India
Foreword
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vii
Since the time immemorial, the owers in Asian system are being used traditionally irrespective of the caste, cree d and
religions. ere are many plants and trees which are therefore attached with our day-to-day life and many a plants have
been associated with gods and goddesses. All over India and elsewhere, people from dierent walks of life, irrespective of
their sex, faith, creed and caste grow some ornamentals near their homes to be used in needs. Also in the villages, mostly
there used to be one patch where local owers were allowed to grow on their own from where villagers used to pluck them
for ceremonial occasions and for oering to gods and goddesses. e trees or shrubs emitting pleasant odours especially
by the sunset used to be planted in villages. en there was no ower market, no ower business or any other thing alike
and the people used to collect them unhesitantly from anywhere, irrespective of the fact that who is growing these. For
making the look of the house and its surrounding beautiful, people were and are using ornamentals by planting around.
Even in the orchard one can see such plantings and there had been no restrictions that who will use them. ese are
Amaranthus, Amaryllis, Barleria, Bougainvillea, Calotropis, Canna, Catharanthus, Celosia, Clerodendron, Codiaeum,
Crossandra, Dahlia, Dendranthema, Eranthemum, Ervatamia, Gaillardia, Helianthus, Heliconia, Hibiscus, Impatiens,
Ixora, Jasminum,Narcissus, Nerium, Pandanus, Polianthes, Rosa, Tagetes, evetia and so on, which people used to grow
and enjoy, and out of which a few were and are being used even for extraction of essential oils. ese owers were
being plucked or harvested to be used for certain arrangements, decorations, for making garlands or for oering at
the religious ceremonies or meant for social celebrations. In ailand no marriage is solemnized without exchange of
oral garlands of Calotropis between brides and bridegrooms. Loose owers are, in fact, not really the loose ones as the
name spells, they may be quite compact but the people pluck them from the parent plant without stalks for net instant
use. Since there was no concept in Asian countries for enjoying them indoors by arranging them in ower vases so such
owers were without a part of the stalk as in the cut owers but now cut owers have also achieved an important place
in the country. However, Asians residing in western countries, for their traditional use on certain occasions, import loose
owers from India. is country has several recognized markets in dierent citiies. e cut ower concept we borrowed
from western cultures. Here in this book, we have put our all eorts to include almost all the important ornamentals
which not only in India are being grown but world over. We have tried to furnish here their ‘A to Z’ proper cultivation
practices in a scientic manner. Moreover, there are various other chapters dealing with all branches of owers to make
this book truely comprehensive.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi has formulated an uniform course programme in Floriculture
for Bachelor, Master’s and Doctoral programmes, therefore, this book has been written to avoid any confusion that what
are important Traditional and Loose Flowers, the second publication towards Commercial Flower Series. It is being
Preface
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viii
followed by the third publication, Ornamental Plants in most Common Use., and fourth Soilless Culture. Mostly,
even the teachers confuse that apart from barleria, crossandra, jasmine, marigold, rose and tuberose, is there any other
ornamental to be used as traditional and loose ower or what is the dierence between loose and cut owers. Yes there
is, hence this book as from those formulated in the course, we have added many other regional owers to substitute a few
as suggested in the course contents. We assure that not only to the students and their professors, this book will be useful
but will also serve an useful guide to the scientic community of oriculture, the landcapers and horticulturists, the
growers and other garden enthusiasts. As All the crops are of universal appeal, hence this will certainly be appreciated
worldwide. e book is rst of its kind exclusively written on Traditional and Loose Flowers.
ough a few of the contributed chapters were found satisfactory, but certain chapters were so casual that we had to
improve to a tune of some 90 per cent, therefore, hence forth the contributors are requested to be more careful.
R. L. Misra
Sanyat Misra
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ix
Foreword v
Preface vii
List of Contributors xiii
Part I: Crops
1. Amaranthus 3
Ramesh Kumar, Sanyat Misra, Ajit Kumar, Pragya Ranjan and R.L. Misra
2. Annual Chrysanthemum 7
K.V. Prasad and R.L. Misra
3. Asclepias & Calotropis 15
R.L. Misra, B.K.Banerji, Sanyat Misra, Atul Batra and A.K.Dwivedi
4. Barleria 23
M. Ganga, K. Padmadevi, V. Jegadeeswari, P. Mekala and Sanyat Misra
5. Celosia argentea 29
S.P.S. Raghava, J.K. Ranjan, Pragya Ranjan, Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
6. Crossandra 35
M. Ganga, Sanyat Misra, R.L. Misra, P. Mekala, V. Jegadeeswari and K. Padmadevi
7. Dahlia 45
Sanyat Misra, R.L. Misra, B.K.Banerji, Atul Batra and A.K.Dwivedi
8. Dianthus 71
R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra
9. Eranthemum 101
B. Sathyanarayana Reddy, S.Y. Chandrashekar and S.K. Nataraj
10. Ervatamia divaricata 105
B.K.Banerji, A.K.Dwivedi, Atul Batra and Sanyat Misra
Contents
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11. Gaillardia 111
Ajit Kumar, Manju Rana, Manish Kapoor, Sanyat Misra, Sanjeev Kumar Sharma and Satish Chand
12. Gomphrena 123
Ajit Kumar, Sanyat Misra, Manish Kapoor, Ranjan Srivastava, Sanjeev Kumar Sharma and Manju Rana
13. Helianthus 131
Ajit Kumar, Jyoti Bajeli, R.L. Misra, Manish Kapoor, Himanshu Trivedi, V.K. Rao and Sanyat Misra
14. Hibiscus 145
Jayoti Majumder, Tarak Nath Saha, Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
15. Hymenocallis 163
Alka Singh and Sanyat Misra
16. Ixora 171
Jayoti Mazumder, Sellam Perinban and R.L. Misra
17. Jasminum 181
Sanyat Misra*, R.L. Misra, M. Ganga, P. Mekala, V. Jegadeeswari and K. Padmadevi
18. Lawsonia inermis 199
Sanyat Misra and R.K. Dubey
19. Nelumbo (Nelumbium) 203
Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
20. Nerium 209
B.K.Banerji, R.L. Misra, Atul Batra and Sanyat Misra
21. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 215
Jayoti Majumder, Pragya Ranjan, Babita Singh, R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra
22. Nymphaea 223
R.L. Misra, M.K. Singh and Sanyat Misra
23. Paeonia 235
Jayoti Majumder, T.N. Saha, P. Sellam, Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
24. Pandanus 251
Sashikala Beura and P.N. Jagadev
25. Polianthes tuberosa 259
Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
26. Rosa 273
R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra
27. Rudbeckia 287
Jayoti Majumder, Sellam Perinban, Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
28. Tag etes 295
Ajit Kumar, Manish Kapoor, Manju Rana, Sanyat Misra, R.L. Misra and V.K. Rao
29. evetia 311
R.L. Misra, Atul Batra, B.K.Banerji, A.K.Dwivedi and Sanyat Misra
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xi
Part II: General Aspects
30. Biotechnological Interventions in Floriculture 319
Pushpalatha G.
31. Genetically-Engineered Ornamentals 341
Tanya akur and H.S. Grewal
32. Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops (Scope, Potential and in vitro Expression) 353
K.V. Prasad, T. Janakiram, M.R. Legha, Surendra Kumar, B.S. Hada and Prativa Lakhotia
33. Bio-colours from Ornamentals 371
Bhavya Bhargava1, Y. C. Gupta and Priyanka Sharma
34. Edible Flowers 399
Sellam Perinban, Jayoti Majumder and Sanyat Misra
35. Nutrition Management in Flower Crops 409
T. Janakiram, Namita, Sapna Panwar and Ritu Jain
36. Flower Seed Production 429
Manish Kapoor, Ajit Kumar, Ranjan Srivastava,Sanyat Misra,Sunder Pal, Jyoti Bajeli and Mamta Bohra
37. Light in Regulating Growth and Flowering 465
Tanya akur, H.S. Grewal, Sanyat Misra and R.L. Misra
38. Diseases of Ornamentals and eir Management 477
Manas Kumar Bag, Anirban Roy*, Pragya Ranjan, R.L. Misra and Sanyat Misra
39. Insect-Pests of Ornamentals and eir Management 505
Sanyat Misra, R.L. Misra, Ajit Kumar, Pragya Ranjan
40. Post Harvest Management of Loose, Cut owers and Cut Foliage 535
Kushal Singh, Pardeep Kaur, R. K. Dubey and Ranjit Singh
41. Flower Drying 561
R.L. Misra
42. Flower Arranging and Designing 569
Alka Singh
43. Mechanization of Microbial Composting Technology for Commercial Production to 581
Address Depleting Soil Health
Indra Mani, Livleen Shukla and Satish Lande
Glossary 591
Index 605
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xiii
Ajit Kumar
(Amaranthus, Flower Seed Production, Gaillardia,
Gomphrena, Helianthus, Insect-Pests of Ornamentals
and their Management, Tag etes)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Alka Singh
(Hymenocallis, Flower Arranging and Designing)
ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari
Agricultural University, Navsari-396450.
Anirban Roy
(Diseases of Ornamentals and their Management)
Advanced Centre for Plant Virology, Division of Plant
Pathology, IARI, New Delhi-110 012.
Atul Batra
(Asclepias & Calotropis, Dahlia, Ervatamia divaricata,
Nerium, evetia)
Floriculture section, National Botanical Research Institute,
Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow-226001.
Babita Singh
(Nyctanthes arbor-tristis)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Banerji, B.K.
(Asclepias & Calotropis, Dahlia, Ervatamia divaricata,
Nerium, evetia)
Floriculture Section, National Botanical Research
Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow-226001. E-mail:
banerjibk@yahoo.co.in
Bhavya Bhargava
(Bio-colours from Ornamentals)
Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, CSIR,
Palampur-176061 (H.P.).
Chandrashekar, S.Y.
(Eranthemum)
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
College of Horticulture, Mudigere-577132, Chikmangalur
dist. (Karnataka).
Dubey, R.K.
(Lawsonia inermis; Post Harvest Management of Loose
Flowers, Cut Flowers and Cut Foliage)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, P.A.U.,
Ludhiana-141004 (Punjab).
Dwivedi, A.K.
(Asclepias & Calotropis, Dahlia, Ervatamia divaricata,
evetia)
Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, CSIR,
Palampur-176061 (H.P.).
List of Contributors
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xiv
Ganga, M.
(Barleria, Crossandra, Jasminum)
Horticultural College and Research Institute, T.N.A.U.,
Coimbatore-641003 (T.N.).
Grewal, H.S.
(Genetically-Engineered Ornamentals, Light in
Regulating Growth and Flowering)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004.
Gupta, Y.C.
(Bio-colours from Ornamentals)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr Y S
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni,
Distt.- Solan (H.P.).
Hada, B.S.
[Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops
(Scope, Potential and In Vitro Expression)]
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012.
Himanshu Trivedi
(Helianthus)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Indra Mani
(Mechanization of Microbial Composting Technology
for Commercial Productin to Address Depleting Soil
Health)
Division Agricultural Engineering, I.A.R.I, New Delhi-
110012
Jagadev, P.N.
(Pandanus)
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, O.U.A.T.,
Bhubaneswar-751003 (Odisha).
Janakiram, T.
[Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops
(Scope, Potential and In Vitro Expression), Nutrient
Management in Floral Crops]
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012.
Jayoti Majumder
(Edible Flowers, Hibiscus, Ixora, Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis, Paeonia,Rudbeckia)
Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Floriculture and
Landscaping, B.C.K.V., Mohanpur-741252, Nadia (W.B.).
Jegadeeswari, V.
(Barleria, Crossandra, Jasminum)
Horticultural College and Research Institute, T.N.A.U.,
Coimbatore-641003 (T.N.).
Jyoti Bajeli
(Flower Seed Production, Helianthus)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Kushal Singh
(Post Harvest Management of Loose Flowers, Cut
Flowers and Cut Foliage)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, P.A.U.,
Ludhiana-141004 (Punjab).
Legha, M.R.
[Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops
(Scope, Potential and In Vitro Expression)]
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012.
Livleen Shukla
(Mechanization of Microbial Composting Technology
for Commercial Productin to Address Depleting Soil
Health)
Division of Microbiology, I.A.R.I, New Delhi- 110012
Mamta Bohra
(Flower Seed Production)
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar-263145, Distt. Udham Singh Nagar
(Uttarakhand).
Manas Kumar Bag
(Diseases of Ornamentals and their Management)
Germplasm Evaluation Division, NBPGR, Pusa Campus,
New Delhi-110 012.
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xv
Manish Kapoor
(Flower Seed Production, Gaillardia, Gomphrena,
Helianthus,Tagetes)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Manju Rana
(Gaillardia, Gomphrena, Tagetes)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt. Udham
Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Mekala, P.
(Barleeria, Crossandra, Jasminum)
Horticultural College and Research Institute, T.N.A.U.,
Coimbatore-641003 (T.N.).
Misra, R.L.
(Amaranthus, Annual Crysanthemum, Asclepias &
Calotropis, Celosia argentea, Crossandra, Dahlia,
Dianthus, Diseases of Ornamentals and their
Management, Flower Drying, Hibiscus, Insect-Pests of
Ornamentals and their Management, Ixora, Jasminum,
Light in Regulating Growth and Flowering, Nelumbo,
Nerium, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Nymphaea, Paeonia,
Polianthes tuberosa, Rosa , Rudbeckia, Tagetes, evetia)
(Ex-Project Coordinator, AICRP on Floriculture, ICAR; &
Former Ocer-in-Charge, Indo-Israel Project on R&D,
IARI, New Delhi-110 012) C-4, Brahma Apartments, Plot 7,
Sector 7, Dwarka, New Delhi-110 075 (Mob.: 9968287841).
Namita
(Nutrient Managemenat in Flower Crops)
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110 012.
Nataraj, S.K.
(Eranthemum)
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
College of Horticulture, Mudigere-577132, Chikmangalur
dist. (Karnataka).
Padmadevi, K.
(Barleria, Crossandra, Jasminum)
Horticultural College and Research Institute, T.N.A.U.,
Coimbatore-641003 (T.N.).
Pardeep Kaur
(Post Harvest Management of Loose Flowers, Cut
Flowers and Cut Foliage)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, P.A.U.,
Ludhiana-141004 (Punjab).
Pragya Ranjan
(Amaranthus, Celosia argentea, Diseases of
Ornamentals and their Management, Insect-Pests of
Ornamentals and their Management)
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, P.O. Jakhani,
Varanasi-221 305.
Prasad, K.V.
[Annual Chrysanthemum, Nutraceutical Pigments
from Ornamental Crops (Scope, Potential and In Vitro
Expression)]
Directorate of Floricultural Research, M.P.K.V. Campus,
Pune (Maharashtra).
Prativa Lakhotia
[Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops
(Scope, Potential and In Vitro Expression)]
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110012.
Priyanka Sharma
(Bio-colours from Ornamentals)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr Y S
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni,
Distt.- Solan (H.P.).
Pushpalatha, G.
(Biotechnological Interventions in Floriculture)
Department of Bioitechnology, Centurion University,
Paralakhemudi, Gajapathi district. Odisha-761211
Raghava, S.P.S.
(Celosia argentea)
(Ex-Project Coordinator, AICRP on Floriculture; and
Former Head , Division of Floriculture and Landscaping,
IARI, New Delhi-110 012) 3/80, Sector 2, Rajinder Nagar
(Sahibabad), Ghaziabad-201 005.
Ramesh Kumar
(Amaranthus)
Directorate of Floricultural Research, M.P.K.V. Campus,
Pune (Maharashtra).
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xvi
Ranjan, J.K.
(Celosia argentea)
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, P.O. Jakhani,
Varanasi-221 305.
Ranjan Srivastava
(Flower Seed Production, Gomphrena)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Ranjit Singh
(Post Harvest Management of Loose Flowers, Cut
Flowers and Cut Foliage)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, P.A.U.,
Ludhiana-141004 (Punjab).
Rao, V.K.
(Tag etes )
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Ritu Jain
(Nutrient Managemenat in Flower Crops)
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110 012.
Saha, T.N.
(Hibiscus, Paeonia)
Directorate of Floricultural Research, M.P.K.V. Campus,
Pune (Maharashtra).
Sanjeev Kumar Sharma
(Gaillardia, Gomphrena)
Department of Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, Distt.
Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand).
Sanyat Misra
(Amaranthus,Asclepias & Calotropis, Barleria, Celosia,
Crossandra, Dahlia, Di anthus, Diseases of Ornamentals
and their Management, Edible Flowers, Ervatamia
divaricata, Flower seed Production, Gaillardia,
Gomphrena, Helianthus, Hibiscus, Hymenocallis,
Insect-Pests of Ornamentals and their Management,
Jasminum, Lawsonia inermis, Light in Regulating
Growth and Flowering, Nelumbo, Nerium, Nyctanthes
arbor-tristis, Nymphaea, Paeonia, Polianthes tuberosa,
Rosa, Rudbeckia, Tagetes, evetia)
Department of Horticulture, Birsa Agricultural University,
Kanke, Ranchi-834 006 (Jharkhand).
Sapna Panwar
(Nutrient Managemenat in Flower Crops)
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110 012.
Sashikala Beura
(Pandanus)
Biotechnology-cum-Tissue Culture Centre, O.U.A.T.,
Bhubaneswar-751003 (Odisha).
Sathyanarayana Reddy, B.
(Eranthemum)
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
College of Horticulture, Mudigere-577132, Chikmangalur
dist. (Karnataka). Dr.reddybs@gmsil.com
Satish Chand
(Gaillardia)
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar-263145, Distt. Udham Singh Nagar
(Uttarakhand).
Satish Lande
(Mechanization of Microbial Composting Technology
for Commercial Production to Address Depleting Soil
Health)
Division of Agriculture Engineering, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110012
Sellam Perinban
(Edible Flowers, Ixora, Paeonia, Rudbeckia)
Division of Agricultural Engineering, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi-110 012.
Singh M.K.
(Polianthes tuberosa)
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, I.A.R.I, New
Delhi-110012
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xvii
Sunder Pal
(Flower Seed Production,)
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar-263145, Distt. Udham Singh Nagar
(Uttarakhand).
Surendra Kumar
[Nutraceutical Pigments from Ornamental Crops
(Scope, Potential and In Vitro Expression)]
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012.
Tanya akur
(Genetically-Engineered Ornamentals, Light in
Regulating Growth and Flowering)
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004.
-
Brief History
Knowledge of the oral arts of earlier cultures and
civilizations is important so that the ower designer
might better understand the derivation of the ower
arrangement styles used today. Floral artists of the various
periods of continental European art history used lavish
quantities of ower types and colours to create a massive
display. ere is evidence for use of the owers for
decorative purpose during early Egyptian Period (2800-
28 B.C.), Roman Period (28 B.C.-A.D.325), the Byzantine
Period (A.D.320-600), throughout the Middle Ages (A.D.
476-1400), the Baroque Period (A.D. 1600-1775) as well
as during the Victorian period (1820-1901) as described
by Berrall (1997) and Hannay Frances (1948). e
Italian artist Michelangelo greatly inuenced the artistic
transition from the classical Renaissance style to the lavish
mood of the Baroque period. ese arrangements were
often created as symmetrical, oval-shaped designs early
in the Baroque period, but asymmetrical curves in the
shape of a ‘S’ or a crescent were later adopted. e period
of French art history during the short reign of Louis XVI
42
Flower Arranging and Designing
Alka Singh
(1774‐1793) showed a continued movement to feminity in
design styles. is was the result of the queen’s direction
in setting court styles. Flower arrangements of the Empire
era were more compact than those of earlier French
periods, with simple lines in a triangular shape and
strong colour contrasts. A typical Empire design would be
arranged in heavy urn containing an abundance of large,
richly coloured owers (Griner, 2011). e oral art of
the American Federal period (1780-1820) took its styles
from the Neoclassic and Empire designs that evolved in
Europe at that time (Hannay, 1948). e American people
wanted to break away from the traditions of England and
desired to create their own national art styles. ese oral
designs were inuenced most by the delicate French style,
with the individual beauty of the owers being stressed. In
these designs, the height of the owers was greater than
the width of the arrangement. e sleek oral designs
gradually gave way to the ornate and stuy designs
characteristic of the Victorian period.
e Oriental style, i.e. Ikebana originated in India,
emphasized and modied in China and further developed
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers570
as an art form in Japan. It came to Japan with Buddhism
from India via China, around 600 A.D. Formal oering of
owers on the Buddhist altar combined with the aristocratic
taste for oral decoration and fused into a rened form,
which evolved into ikebana. It is a disciplined art form,
steeped in the philosophy of developing a closeness
with nature. From the late Kamakura period to the
Muromachi period (late 13th-15th century), large contests
of ower arrangement were held in the court on the day of
Tan a b ata. History says that it was at the tanabata-hana-
awase (a oral competition held at Star Festival) that
owers rst became the theme of an annual event. e
festival dates from the time of Yoshmitsu Ashikaga (1358-
1408), who loved owers and had numerous owers
planted in his garden. People referred to his mansion as
‘the palace of owers’. e art of ikebana developed and
ourished with the adventment of three leading schools
of Ikebana in Japan, the Ikenobo school, the Ohara school
and the Sogetsu school. e oldest Ikebana manuscript,
‘Kao irai no Kadensho’ dates from 1486. e famous
‘Senno Kuden’ manuscript, by the founder of the Ikenobo
School of Ikebana, was written in 1542. Since this time,
many styles have appeared, disappeared and developed
as referred by Komoda and Pointer (1984). Japan’s oldest
school of Ikebana called ikenobo, having a 1400 year
tradition as its heritage was established in the 15th century.
e formal teachings of the complex form of Rikka were
being given at ikenobo. Chabana, the classic ikebana, also
called Nagarie, meaning ‘to throw in’, originated in the 16th
century, which represented the natural beauty of owers
and did not require any complicated rules in arranging, to
that of Rikka. Shoka, another form of ikebana evolved in
the beginning of 18th century wherein Rikka and Chabana
interacted with each other. e Ohara School of Ikebana
dates back to the Meiji Period (1867-1912) that began with
the eorts of Unshin Ohara, who although had studied at
Ikenobo school, brought novel ways in ikebana, making it
less rigid and formal with the introduction of moribana.
After World War II, Ikebana began to be regarded by some
as art, with the result that even works of avant-garde
Ikebana appeared. Wire, metal and stone as well as owers
were used to the extent that it is sometimes dicult to
distinguish these works from sculpture. is movement
inspired the birth of ‘Jiyuka’ (free-style) Ikebana, which
is completely liberated from the ideas and regulations of
traditional Ikebana. Inuence from the artistic movements
of the early 20th century led to the development of jiyuka
(free-style) arrangement. In the 1930’s and then more so
in the post-war period, interest in ikebana became much
more widespread. Led by Teshigahara Sofu, founder in
1927 of the Sogetsu school (Gupta, 2012), zen-eibana or
avant-garde ikebana introduced all kinds of new materials,
such as plastic, plaster and steel. ere are about 3,000
Ikebana schools in Japan and thousands more are
ourishing around the world. e Ikenobo school alone
has some 60,000 teachers worldwide and is practised by
about 15 million people in Japan, mostly young women.
India has a tradition of garlands and oral ornaments,
since time immemorial as depicted in our old scriptures
and manuscripts, Ramayana and Mahabharata believed
to have been compiled in 500 B.C. Beautiful description
of oral ornaments adorned by women is found in
the famous ancient writings, viz. ‘Mrachhkatikam’ by
Sudraka (100 B.C.) and in ‘Abhigyan Shakuntalam’ by
Kalidasa (57 B.C.). e traditional as well as modern day
ower arrangement styles reect the developmental and
creative changes being followed throughout dierent
historical era.
Flowers truely represent freshness, colour, fragrance
and beauty, focusing on aesthetic and positive side of
life. Flowers in the form of garlands or bouquets denote
freshness, acceptance, a positive outlook and a newly
blessed beginning of any important social function.
Flowers have hidden message to cheerful life, the reason
they have been an integral part of all important personal,
religious or social ceremonies and rituals. As civilization
progressed, society changed, so did the art forms and
the use of owers. From being used as oerings to Gods
and Goddesses, to a mark of honour with laurel wreaths,
to a form of adornment, owers have evolved over
time to what we today know as oral design or ower
arrangement. Fresh ower arrangements are careful
designing, augmenting the tender qualities of owers
in a more beautiful manner. us, the fresh ower
arrangements with their beauty, charm and fragrance are
hidden inspiration for a peaceful mind, motivating force
behind creative work performance.
Inuence of Flowers on Human
Psychology
Flowers display strong eect on immediate
emotional behavioral expression and display positive
emotion in human beings. Flowers depict human
emotions beautifully besides enhancing and boosting
creative ability. Oering owers to someone has been
associated with welcome and positive approach. Since
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Flower Arranging and Designing 571
owers enthuse positive emotion in view of happiness
in humans wherein its long-term expression leads to a
prolonged involvement related to the feelings of social
safety and would therefore be associated with social
gathering (Ekman and Davidson, 1994) and family rearing
(Mastekaasa, 1992). Various sensory elements of owers
like colour, fragrance, texture, softness, freshness, etc. in
all, directly inuence human psyche and awaken his/her
senses, making him/her sensitive and aware of the existing
wonderful nature. A recent behavioral study conducted in
USA, at Department of Psychology, Rutgers University,
and at La Salle University, Philadelphia, shows that
persons who received owers demonstrated increased
social interaction and happiness (Havliland Jones et al.,
2005). Sight and fragrance of owers combine to inuence
brain chemistry and stimulate more positive feelings, as
reported by Dr. Jeannette Haviland-Jones, professor of
psychology and director of the ‘Human Emotions Lab’
at Rutgers University, New Jersey. Researchers who have
assessed the impact of nature and plants on human health
have suggested that people-plant/owers interactions
provide physiological stress reduction. Flowers have a
long-term positive eect on the mind frame. Flowers
induce happy emotions that contribute in developing
friendly environment for facilitating better social and
personal connectivity within family, friends, as well
business relations (Singh and Dhaduk, 2012). us, a
view to a beautiful ower arrangement is refreshing and
energizes human force to work with more optimistic
approach (Singh, 2013).
Flower Arrangement
Flower arrangement is the artistic display of owers
in a right manner and proportion so that the same may
provide maximum pleasure and satisfaction, and create
a quite peaceful, pleasant and congenial atmosphere at
the place. It is an art of designing and arranging owers
aesthetically in a vase or bowl retaining their freshness for
a longer time. It is organization of design, form and colours
towards creating an ambience using owers, foliage and
other oral accessories. It is a throbbing and live creative
art, that invokes aesthetic faculties of the mind. Flower
arrangement endows with a magic touch to the cut
owers and grants value addition to more than 50% to the
cut owers (Singh and Dhaduk, 2011). e art of ower
arrangement is a beautiful and creative hobby, vis-a-vis a
lucrative business. Fusion of creativity and science of post
harvest handling is needed for developing the art of ower
arrangement. Flower Arrangement is an important and
integral part of life on almost all the occasions and events
whether it be wedding, birthday, usual parties on various
occasions, religious and other social functions, vis-à-vis
beautifying homes and oces. ere are basically three
styles of arranging owers, viz. Oriental (western style),
Ikebana (eastern style) and contemporary free-style which
are generally composed of cut owers, foliage, twigs,
stems, along with certain accessories (Hiller, 1974; Packer,
1998). Besides, in Indian tradition or to say in whole of Asia,
loose owers are used for designing oral arrangements in
the form of rangoli, garlands, ower ornaments and hair
decoration.
Material for Flower Arranging
1. Containers
In oral design, the container is a foundation or base
of the oral composition. A properly selected container
should be functional and in harmony and unity with the
arrangement (Aaronson Marion, 1983). Properties of
container in ower arranging have been well dened by
Blacklock (2006) and Ascher (1974). e container must be
capable and deep enough for holding an adequate volume
of water and to support the weight of the owers. In case
the container is unable to hold water, another container,
which can hold water can be placed inside. Glass, metal,
plastic, porcelain or glazed pottery container all have
unique eect on ower designs. Metallic nishes require
protection from the tarnishing that accompanies the use
of oral preservatives in the container water. e shape
and size of a container often suggests the type of design
to be created within it. A large, heavy container requires
a taller arrangement to balance the mass of the container.
A beautiful curved style of arrangement calls for a dainty
stemmed compote to provide balance. A horizontal dinner
table arrangement is most attractive when constructed
in a low and at rectangular container. e lines of the
container are repeated or accentuated to provide unity
and harmony within a design. e colour pattern found
in the container appears best when it either repeats those
found in colour scheme of the design or when neutral
colours are present in the container. e most utilitarian
colours used in oral containers are green, white, gray,
brown, tan or black. Green-coloured oral vases are often
selected, since nearly all ower stems and foliage repeat
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers572
this colour. Brown containers appear best when this colour
is duplicated in dried owers, wood or autumn-coloured
leaves. Metallic containers having a nish of silver, brass,
bronze and gold leaf usually suggest a formal design. e
containers with dierent shapes are termed dierently,
viz. (i) ‘Vase’, where height of the container is greater than
its width,(ii) ‘Bowl’, where width of the container is greater
than the height and it is often used for table arrangements,
(iii) ‘Pedestal’, where the container is elevated on a base
that may be short- or long-stemmed and is useful when a
tall arrangement is needed yet the mass of a vase container
is not desired, and ‘S’ curve and triangular types look
perfect in pedestals, (iv) ‘Basket’ (made of metal, wood or
bamboo), which are used for both vertical and horizontal
but usually in informal designs including the ‘round’,
and (v) ‘Novelty’ which are limitless in possibilities. Care
should be taken to assure that they do not overpower the
design. ese are perfect specially for free styles.
2. Support Material
(i) Needlepoint holders (‘pin holders’ or ‘frogs’):
Needlepoint holders are customarily used for creation
of modernistic and stylized designs by an amateur as
well as by an ikebana artist as these are popular stem-
supporting aids. ese are available in various shapes
and sizes (round, oval or square) to suit any particular
arranging requirements and are made of coated iron,
brass or copper. ey may be placed in any location at
the base of the container and anchored for temporary or
permanent use.
(ii) Chicken wire (oral netting): e stem support
aid used for large oral bouquets usually consists of
chicken wire with 2.5-cm mesh and a ller material. e
ller material may be of chipped oral foam, vermiculite
or the wire may be used to cover a solid block of foam.
(iii) Floral foam: Various oral foam products are
popular stem-supporting aids for both orist and home
ower arrangement (Blacklock, 2006; Westland,1992;
Ascher, 1974). ese oral foams are manufactured from
resins in several shapes, colours and for various design
purposes. ey may be purchased in either rectangular
bricks to be cut to t individual containers, or in cylindrical
blocks for uses in specialized containers. ese products
are extremely porous, so they provide water to the inserted
ower stems used in the arrangement.
3. Tools Used
Various tools required in ower arranging include
(a) ‘knife’, a short blade made of quality steel is used to
give sharp cut at the stem ends as well as oral foam,
(b) ‘secateurs’, having short blades with serrated edges
are used for cutting both herbacaeous and woody plant
material, (c) ‘pruning shears’, having two cutting blades
of quality steel, used for cutting woody materials, and
(d) ‘ribbon shears’, being similar to ordinary scissors
in appearance. Besides, dierent wires are also needed
based on the oral design, such as (a) ‘orist wire’, varying
in length and thickness (gauge), the heaviest being No. 18
looking into the weight of the ower and foliage to support
them, (b) ‘chenille stems’, which are like pipe cleaners with
extra ocking, and are used both for decorative purposes
and to provide water to corsage owers, (c) ‘spool wire’,
a heavy gauge wire is needed to wire arrangements such
as wreaths and door swags, (d) ‘twistems’ are short
pieces of wire enclosed in paper for lling a number of
roles where support of repair is needed, (e) ‘wooden
picks’ are generally green wood picks with a length of
thin wire attached, which can be fastened to stems or
other materials and inserted into a holding substance, are
widely used with nonliving arrangements, and (f) ‘oral
tap’ having adhesive material on one side and is available
in assorted colours to blend into arrangements, similar to
a waxed crepe paper it is also used in making corsage or
buttonaire, and as has stretching quality, it is used to wrap
ower stems when wire is needed for their support.
4. Foliage and Flowers Used in
Designing
Line type of design is thin, vertical and tapering and
is made by using various owers such as amaryllis, bells
of Ireland, Dendrobium, gladiolus, golden rod, heliconia,
iris, tuberose, Vanda , etc. and branches of bottle brush,
Murraya, Dieenbachia, etc. and foliage of areca palm,
asparagus, cycas, shtail palm, pandanus, sansevieria,
snapdragon, etc. For mass designing in round shape at
the centre of arrangement the owers and foliage required
are anthurium, China aster, dahlia, Lilium, fruits of apple,
orange, pomegranate, etc. and foliage such as money
plant, philodendron, syngonium, etc. For uncommon
and unusual shape the owers used are anthurium,
bird-of-paradise, heliconia, orchids, etc. and the fruits
of cashew, grapes, banana, etc. Fillers are used in case of
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Flower Arranging and Designing 573
thin, spreading and small arrangements with the help of
candytuft, daisy, larkspur, golden rod, gypsophila, lady’s
lace, larkspur, marguerite daisy, statice, aglaonema,
asparagus, bottle brush, casuarina, eucalyptus, ferns,
silver oak, Murraya, uja, etc.
Classication of Flower
Arrangement
Basically three styles of arranging owers have been
evolved, viz. western style, eastern style (Ikebana) and
contemporary style (free style) which are generally
composed of cut owers, foliage, twigs and stems with
some accessories as described by Singh and Dhaduk
(2006). Besides, loose owers are also used for designing
ower arrangements in form of rangoli, garlands, oral
ornaments and hair decoration. Formal oering of owers
on the Buddhist altar combined with the aristocratic taste
for oral decoration and fused into a rened form, evolved
into ikebana. is art greatly inuenced all aspects of life,
culture and the arts. Ikebana is a disciplined art form in
which the arrangement is a living thing in which nature
and humanity are brought together. Steeped in the
philosophy of developing a closeness with nature, it is
the art of association of ideas and impressions of nature
expressed through owers. Contemporary styles of ower
arrangement neither follow geometrical forms of western
type ower arrangement nor the strict rules of ikebana,
and has a large scope of displaying aesthetic sense and
playing with and widening one’s creative ability. ere
may be more or less number of owers and foliage. e
arranger can use sculpture, statue, candle or small fountain
or even pot plants according to one’s imagination and
creativity. ere are arrangements designed for festivals,
celebrations, inaugural functions and even funerals
depicting cheerfulness, emotions, changing seasons and
melancholy.
1. Western Style
e emphasis is on the use of ‘many owers as a mass’
in the oriental (western) style of ower arrangement.
is style follows geometrical forms and consists of
more number of owers and depicts a complete and full
eect (McDaniel, 1996). Balance, depth and rhythm are
very important to be maintained. It displays mass eect
hence repetition and continuity are very important to
exhibit appealing and aesthetic look. e basic principles
involved in western style of ower designs are as under.
By visualizing the plan about the shape and size of the
arrangement, it is the design that decides the structural
pattern whether it is a line, mass or a combination of
both, depending upon the materials available, location
and occasion. Such arrangements, irrespective of whether
are symmetrical or asymmetrical, should have both
mechanical, i.e. by all means the arrangement being
commensurate to the container and visual balance. A
well-designed arrangement should appear to be stable
and self supporting. Balance is lost when the arrangement
appears to be divided into several parts of areas and that
shows gravitational instability. Dark colours give a visual
eect of weight and so are used low in the arrangement
though lighter colours are more appropriate for outer
and upper portions. e scale or proportion of a design
is dictated by the size of arrangement and its relationship
to its surroundings. Proportion in an arrangement is
accomplished by scaling owers towards the focal point.
e owers are graded in size for placement of increasingly
larger owers in the arrangement until the focal point
is reached. Gradation of line, texture, colour and ower
form in graceful rhythmic form is characteristic of these
designs. Motion is created most easily in a design having
a curved line. Here the viewer is attracted gently from the
top of the arrangement, along the curving elements of line
or texture of colour through to its focal point, the centre of
interest. Rhythm may be achieved in several ways through
opposition, repetition, radiation, or transition. Harmony
in ower arrangement indicates a pleasant composition
of ower shapes, colours, textures and size. ere is little
or no abstraction and the plant materials are used in
a naturalistic way. Unity is best achieved by repeating
related ower types, colours and textures throughout
the design. is principle involves appropriate use of
owers for the occasion and blending of ower colours
in the oral arrangement. e central portion of the
oral arrangement from where the owers and foliage
of the arrangement appear to be emerging is known as
the focal point (emphasis, vista eect or accent) of the
arrangement. e most striking contrast in a design is
created by use of large and brightly coloured owers at
the centre of interest with less vibrant tones or tints on
the outer perimeters of the design. Flowers with unique
shapes also attract attention. e broad types of designs
in western style of ower arrangement include various
traditional designs, corsage, buttonaires and wreaths.
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers574
Symmetrically or asymmetrically ’triangular’, ‘round’
(‘spherical’ or ‘globular’), ‘oval’, ‘Hogarth curve’ (‘S curve’),
‘L shape’ and ‘crescent’ are the standard patterns of
traditional western style (Larmie, 1980; Griner, 2011; Singh
and Kumar, 2007), and their techniques are described
here with. e symmetrical triangular design is more
traditional with line mass eect and this has an added
advantage of displaying it in large sizes on any occasion.
is is arranged in three basic lines of the triangle in the
container, mass owers are arranged in the geometrical
design, the gaps are lled by proper arranging and xing
the llers, and a complete and perfect look is given by
covering the base and sides of arrangement with green
foliage. e round arrangements are designed on dining
or central tables and around the candles or candle stands,
with lower heights, to be viewed from all the directions.
is arrangement looks very attaractive and has traditional
mass eect. e steps involved in this design are
arrangement of llers of required length horizontally as per
specication of the shape, arrangement of mass owers
evenly and the whole arrangement should radiate like the
sun. e typical ‘Hogarth curve’ (‘S curve’) arrangement
is an elegant and exclusive design named after the English
painter William Hogarth (1967-1974), which is perfect for
home display and as a welcome for special guests, and it
has an added elegance when designed in pedestal. e ‘S’
shape basic curved lines are prepared as per requirement
by wiring two twigs of ower or foliage, then mass owers
are arranged within the specied design and then nally
the gaps in the design are properly arranged by xing the
llers. ‘L shape’ arrangement is a form having similarity
with asymmetrical triangle and basically a traditional
line arrangement. Here arrangement in the container is
made in two basic lines forming ‘L’ shape rst, then mass
owers are arranged in geometrical form, and then nally
the gaps are lled by proper arrangement of llers. e
crescent-shaped arrangement looks delicate and perfect
for evening programmes whether at home or elsewhere in
a general get-together, and the beauty is enhanced when
it is designed in pedestal and bows. is arrangement
denotes innocence and romance in life with cooling eects
and for relaxing. Crescent can be prepared by wiring the
owers or foliage twigs. ese are designed in a crescent-
shaped curves by using two oral stems, then mass owers
are tted in between to maintain the crescent shape, and
then nally the gaps are designed by proper arranging and
xing of the llers in between.
Traditional western ower arranging design (style)
typically refers to all oral designs originating worldwide
during middle of 20th century having inuence of primarily
Asian, European and Early Americans. Culmination of two
main trends one from Asia with the Chinese emphasis
on naturalism to the highly stylized linear designs of the
Japanese and the inuence of the massed bouquet art
of Europe, which typically included all styles evolved in
dierent periods (Hannay Frances, 1984; Berrall, 1997).
us the traditional style of ower arrangement combined
attention to both line and mass, creating many variations
of the line, line mass, and mass arrangements (Packer,
1998; Singh, 2013). ese classic designs are based on
geometric shapes including ovals, crescents, spirals,
triangles, the Hogarth curve, zigzags or other geometric
forms, having one natural centre of interest somewhere
near the central axis where all lines converge, with no
evident crossed lines (Larmie, 1980). Traditional designs
were initially arranged in dierent types of containers like
bowl, vase, pedestal or novelty shaped ower pots using
dierent shapes of pinholder for holding owers. Later,
oral foams were being used to make lovely designs in
western style of ower arrangement.
In a traditional line design (arrangement), the line
predominates and is strongly inuenced by Asian design.
Line designs are simple and clean resulting into a sharp
open silhouette. Inspired by the forms in nature, this
design depends upon normal patterns of plant growth
and existing curves. A set pattern is usually required, e.g.
triangle, vertical, horizontal, crescent, zigzag, etc. Various
forms of line designs include inverted ‘T’ arrangement, ‘L’
pattern, vertical, crescent and Hogarth curve (McDanial,
1996) while that of mass designs include round, triangle,
oval or fan shaped. Typical traditional line mass design
is a blending of European and Japanese design wherein
linear qualities of a line design with the additional mass
of plant material provides gradation and transition for
balance and rhythm. us a line mass arrangement is
similar to a line arrangement, but there is more massing of
the material, creating a greater depth, the third dimension
that is practically not much emphasized in line designs.
Further, additional material mainly foliage is used at the
rim of the container to enhance and strengthen the line
and also to emphasize centre of interest. It has an open
silhouette, a pleasing outline and an organized placement
of owers and foliage resulting in a predetermined form.
A traditional mass arrangement is a bold and bountiful
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Flower Arranging and Designing 575
highly symmetrical and well balanced arrangement with a
range of owers in many forms, sizes, colours and textures
typically arranged in a round, oval, triangular or fan‐shaped
design (Aaronson Marian, 1983). It has a closed silhouette,
more solid than being void. It is directly inuenced from
European design. ough the arrangement is typically
compact but owers should never be crowded. Focal point
is emphasised in the centre using bolder ower forms with
brighter hues.
Corsages and buttonaires are small oral decoration
designed to be worn and are very popular in western
countries (Griner, 2011). Corsage is a small oral
arrangement designed beautifully to be attached to the
dress or worn on wrist. Corsages are also sold extensively
during the Christmas, Easter, and Mother’s Day holidays
in western countries. One of the more important uses
for corsages in Europe is for weddings. Florist’s corsage
is so formed so that it resembles the arrangement in
containers. e bow and trim become the integral part of
the design and satin leaves may provide the foliage. e
corsage must be constructed securely enough to retain its
original design with minimum use of wires and oral tape
to avoid large masses of stems at the base. Flowers should
be positioned for best eect and rmness in construction.
Flower colours should be coordinated with the dress, the
complexion and hair colour of the wearer, and the lighting
available (day or evening). Floral wreaths are formed in
a circular garland, usually woven of owers and foliage,
that traditionally indicates honour or celebration. Wreaths
are especially very popular on funerals as a symbol of
honoring the deceased. Besides, they are also mostly used
on occasions such as special celebrations and to welcome
the guests as welcome wreaths when dinners are hosted.
Wreaths are constructed on the wire frames by tying the
greenery with a continuous strands of wire.
2. e Eastern Style ~ the Ikebana
Over the seven centuries of its evolution, Ikebana
has developed many dierent styles of arrangement with
dierent philosophies behind each. e rst teachers and
students were priests and members of the nobility. Ikebana
symbolizes living ower. In Japanese ike means ‘to set in’ or
‘to live’, and bana means ‘ower’. Ikebana is an expression
of liveliness and has spiritual signicance, depicting life
and freshness (Komoda and Pointer, 1984). Ikebana nds
its basis in the beauty and the meaning the humans have
for owers is a perceived beauty, which originates from
the essential bonds of man and nature. Japanese ikebana
is a creative art, which brings indoors the charm and
beauty of landscapes, the seashore or lakeside. It recreates
nature on a reduced scale through the arrangement of all
types of plant materials gathered from nature, i.e. from
gardens, rivers and valleys. ough it is always based on
principles of asymmetry yet the arrangement looks quite
balanced, where only a few owers are used to form basic
lines of ikebana for giving lling eect, the arrangement
depicts spaceous and creative view, it signies life being
associated on the theme of nature, and it appears persisting
and continuous. ere are three basic lines in Ikebana,
viz. shin which forms the most important basic line,
symbolizes ‘heaven’ and expresses ‘truth’, and it equals
the length × width of the container × 1.5-3.0 times; soe
forms the second important line and symbolizes man and
expresses ‘body of the human being’ and its size equals
to 2/3-3/4 of shin; and hikae (tai) is the third important
line symbolizing ‘earth’ which expresses support and
denotes base and environment, and its size equals to 1/3-
1/2 of shin. So the three basic lines of ikebana are ‘earth’,
‘man’ and ‘heaven’. e shape of ikebana container varies
from informal to curved, double or partitioned types,
tall, shallow or broad, rectangular, round or oval and are
available in varied forms of porcelain and lacquer ware
lined with copper and glass. Besides, baskets of metal
and wood, and mostly traditional bamboos are used as
ikebana container. A single, hollow bamboo container is
cut to have double and triple openings for the purpose of
incorporating dierent oral designs to form one complete
composition. ‘Ikonobo’, meaning arranging owers of the
hermitage along a pool, was the rst school of Ikebana
which started in early 621 A.D. by Buddhist monk Semmu.
Rikka (standing owers), Nagiere (Chabana;
meaning thrown owers),Shoka, Moribana (heaped up
owers),Morimono (triangular arrangement of fruits,
vegetables and owers), Jiyuka (Jiyubana; freestyle)
and Zeneibana (avant-garden ower arranging) are the
important styles of ikebana. e rikka style developed
in Ikenobo, the oldest school of ikebana, is the Buddhist
expression of the beauty of nature, with nine branches
representing hills, waterfalls, valleys and so on arranged
in a formalised way. Rikka is the basic and original style
of Ikebana arrangement that uses tall vase and highlights
vertical lines. In rikka, the emphasis is on elaborate
technique, large-scale symbolism and xed style where
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers576
the vases with a narrow opening or tall, jar-shaped
containers are used, with the stems being bundled tightly
together at the mouth. Crosspieces are used to fasten the
stems to the vase. Hidden within the principles of this style
is surprisingly fertile ground for variation and adaptation
to contemporary environments. A rikka arrangement
consists of nine parts (yakueda or dogu) in all and these
are shin, shoshun, soe, uke, mikoshi, hikae, nagashi, do
and maeoki. Sometimes not all of the nine dogu appear
in the arrangement and at other times certain of the dogu
are exaggerated, depending upon the purpose of the work
or the characteristics of the materials. Each of these nine
have a specic role and are arranged at a specic angle.
Chabana is done in a tall vase with a few materials, having
distinct three main lines or sometimes just two lines. e
container is called hanarie meaning ‘to put in owers’.
e distinctive feature of the chabana arrangement, from
a technical viewpoint is that owers in it are not made
to stand erect by articial means, but are allowed to rest
in the vase naturally and so the vase used should be tall
and narrow-mouthed. Shoka is a style that is less formal
than rikka, but at the same time, not as free-owing
as chabana. It combines the dignity of rikka with the
simplicity of chabana. Basic shoka pattern is upright, the
way most plants grow in their natural state. Shoka consists
of ve lines in all with three major and two supporting
ones. e basic lines of shoka are shin (heaven or truth),
soe (man or support), tai or hikae ( reserve or earth), do
(trunk or base) (half of the shin in the centre) and sugat
naoshi (improving line). Moribana, which means ‘piled
up owers’, is entirely dierent from the former ‘standing’
arrangement. Moribana is done in at containers that
allows for spreading out sideways. Changing from the
former Ikebana emphasis on line, where the stems were
kept in one clean vertical line at the water’s edge, the
concept of an arrangement of wider space and depth was
born (Care, 1961). ere are basic three lines in moribana,
viz. shin, soe and tai (hikae). Besides, some jushi (llers) are
further arranged to enhance the overall look of moribana.
ere are dierent types of moribana based on the angle
of the primary (shin) line, viz. basic upright, slanting and
hanging, kenzan (pin holder) with many sharp points
into which owers are inserted and placed as o-centre
in the container and never in the centre. In the moribana
arrangement all the materials used must be xed rmly
in the pin-holder. Under other types in ikebana are
morimono developed later in the 19th and 20th century
with a simpler form. e basic principles remained the
same although fruits and vegetables were also used in this
style. Zeneika (zeneibana) style was also developed later
in the 20th century which allowed the use of sculpture and
statues. Jiyuka (free-style ikebana) is the most recent to
emerge from Ikenobo’s long tradition. As a more personal
expression it is suited to contemporary environments
and tastes. Free style is sometimes broadly divided into
a naturalistic style and a more abstract style. Both styles
use plant materials in new ways, yet respect the beauty
and essential qualities of each material. Flowing from the
arranger’s inventiveness in using materials to convey an
eect or mood, free style’s possibilities are unlimited.
3. Contemporary or Free-Style
Designs
e contemporary (free) style of ower arrangement
neither follows rules of geometrical shape of western style
nor does it follow strict rules of eastern style. e aim of
the free style is the beauty and expression. However, it is
also based on some principles to maintain aesthetic look
(Aaronson Marian, 1984). is style should be practiced
after learning the western style of ower arrangement. is
style is highly creative and expresses the aesthetic sense
of the arranger. e basic principles include balance, i.e.
where the shape of the free style may not be geometrical
yet a perfect balance between the owers arranged,
container and the base or placement of the ower
arrangement should be clearly visible. It emphasizes on
the use of materials in a oral arrangement which gives
stability to the arrangement. e overall arrangement
should look in scale and proportion but free owing with
boundation of particular shape. All the oral material
used in the arrangement should be in rhythm and should
complement each other, vis-a-vis container. Whole of the
arrangement should be in harmony and unity to please
the viewer’s eye. Inspite of various ower materials being
used, the arrangement should express unity and oneness.
ere are no standard patterns of free style. ere is wide
scope for the use of ower material for the arrangement.
Besides, other material like drift- wood, stones, rock, a live
plant in pot, statues, candle, candle stand, etc. can also be
incorporated. Also, there is no xed rules for the container
type, form and plant material and stem supporting
material. e free style can imitate natural landscapes
with modern outlook in a stylish way. Few contemporary
styles have been described by Miller (1981), Healey (1986)
and Curtis (2004) as mentioned here with.
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Flower Arranging and Designing 577
Abstract designs are bold in colour and form,
innovative and creative in which unusual or reformed
plant material is arranged in a non‐naturalistic way to
create new and exciting shape. Plant material is utilized
as pure line, form and texture to create new images.
Assemblage design is inuenced by artists Picasso
and Braque’s early prototypical assemblages which is
a 3‐dimensional creative, abstract design combining
‘disparate found objects’ and plant material into a unied
whole. e arranger creatively relates the items through
his/her unique elements of line, form, colour and texture.
Biedermeier is a design in which pavé techniques are
used to create concentric rings of owers arranged in a
compact rounded or slightly conical shape. e contrast
of colour, form and texture creates interest in the design.
Beside owers, berries, leaves, nuts, small vegetables
or fruits may be used in the concentric rings. Inspired
from the oral cascades of the Art Nouveau period, the
design is characterized by a downward, loose‐trailing
ow of materials, often heavy with foliage representing a
cascading waterfall, hence it is named cascade (waterfall)
design. Plant material ows from the centre of the design
out and over the container edges. Long and pliable owers
and foliage such as orchid sprays, Clematis, Asparagus
plumosus, A. sprengeri, grasses, vines, ivies, string smilax,
yarn, conifers, twigs, metallic thread, small fragments
of mirror, feathers, etc. can be incorporated to give the
appearance of reected sunlight o the cascading water.
is design combines the geometric form or forms to
create a single unit and has a foundation similar to a
strong and dominating architectural structure. Developed
in the middle of 20th century, creative oral design refers
to designs in which creativity, imagination, and originality
are basic. e arranger creates new concepts and forms
by combining features from dierent styles and periods.
Bold in form, size and use of colour, having more than one
focal point but strong clarity of design with clear space
being reected are the main characteristic features of
creative designs. It is a design in two or more containers
of the same shape, but dierent in size or colour, reecting
an echo of the bold one. Floor designs are typically very
tall, bold, dominant and staged directly on the oor.
Proportion is the most important element of design.
Framed spatial is a smallest design organised as a single
unit suspended within a frame. It is a light airy design
with an unconventional use of plant material combined
into a single, unied design, which is then staged within
a volume of space dened by a frame. Free form design
is a closed silhouette in which outline is free and owing
as an outer periphery of an amoeba and not a geometric
shape, with no intersecting or straight lines. Plant material
is manipulated by bending or twisting. Negative space
is very important, with good asymmetrical balance. e
arrangements which do not exceed 12.5 cm in any direction
is called the miniature arrangements. ey can follow
any design or style but should be artistic with proper scale
and proportion. Mille eurs in French means ‘a thousand
owers’, and the design is rounded or fan-shaped using
dierent kinds of owers and colours, arranged in a light,
airy fashion in a contemporary vase. New millennium or
modern European arrangements are distinguished by
roundish shape and compactness with an emphasis on
texture. Colours may be monochromatic or contrasting.
Flowers arranged in natural, casual style, projects that the
owers are casually stued in a vase and this is modern
French arrangement. Naturalistic designs are based
on nature and capture the essence of a natural landscape
scene. e plant material should be of high quality and the
entire life cycle of a single ower (often a bulb ower) is
represented. e design includes the stem, foliage, buds,
blooms and roots in varying stages of development and
emphasizes the beauty of the ower. Panel is a creative
design which includes a panel or panels, plant material
and other components. e panels can either be self‐
supporting or be supported by the other components
in the design. Parallel designs comprise of three or
more units of strong, parallel lines with open (negative)
spaces between each unit. ese may be horizontal,
vertical, oblique or a combination of these having varying
heights but in dominating form. Pavé design is placing of
individual materials closely together to create a at and
jewel‐like pattern. is tight clustering style emphasizes
contrast, colour and texture. Based on mythology, rebirth
and a round symmetrical form are the basis of phoenix
design. Base is composed of plant material giving
traditional and compact look. Overall, it is a radial design
with a very little space between the materials. Form, scale
and proportion are important elements of this design. A
creative design featuring the dominance of the cylindrical
(tubular, columnar or pillar) form where plant material
may be densely packed within the tube and soaring
upward, but still echoing the cylinder shape. It is a creative
design containing material which reects an image or light
back to the viewer, hence it is called as reective design.
ese reective components are integral to the design
and must appear throughout the design. Synergistic
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers578
is the creative design consisting of three or more units,
which have a greater impact when viewed together than
they would on their own. Although, all the units share
the same colours, textures and forms, creating balance,
rhythm and harmony, but each unit should not appear
as a complete design in itself and therefore there should
be some connection among all the units. An underwater
design must have some or all of its components, including
plant material visible under water. All materials in and out
of water should appear as a unied design. A clear glass
circular container provides the best eect. A properly
designed all-foliage arrangement can be as attractive
and artistic even without using any ower. A drift-wood
laden with lichen will make an arrangement very natural.
An all-foliage arrangement looks elegant when properly
selected foliage of varied colours, shape and forms are
used. Tall leaves such as palms, cycas, sansevieria, lilies,
pandanus can be combined with dwarf colourful foliage
such as alternanthera, chlorophytum, coleus, dracaena,
anthurium, calathea, maranta, rex begonia, etc. Colourful
leaves of crotons and Magnolia grandiora are also quite
suitable for such arrangements. For a cascade arrangement
the foliage such as Pilea muscosa (P. microphylla), Zebrina
pendula and Hedera helix are very useful. A gure or statue
of a bird or animal or a natural-looking rock placed at the
base of an arrangement can add artistic and natural look
to an all foliage arrangement.
Loose Flower Arrangements
e loose ower-arrangements in the form of
garlands and ornaments have been the tradition of India
since the time immemorial. Basically the loose owers
were used as ower oerings for gods and goddesses
and for decoration in temples. e classic poet Kalidasa,
in his famous compilation Meghaduta, written during
the rule of Chandraupta II (A.D.500), mentions that the
women of Alakapuri in monsoon decorated their hairs
with kadamba owers, wore sirisha owers (Albizzia
lebbek) in the ears and carried pink lotuses in their hands.
Possibly oral garland is one of the oldest and traditional
method of using ower for decoration. e use of ower
garlands have been mentioned in our oldest manuscripts
like Ramayana, Mahabharata and Vedas. Even today,
ower garlanding is an important custom in marriages
and as a welcome gesture to dignitaries and special
guests in Indian culture among all religions and castes.
e devotees oer garlands of red Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
to goddess Kali and the same is worn by the sage who
worship this particular Goddess. Sweet scented owers
are more preferred than others for making garland. e
most sought after owers are Jaminum auriculatum, J.
grandiorum, J. ocinale, J. pubescens, J. sambac and
scented Rosa damascena and other roses. Other owers
such as Asclepias, Barleria, Callistephus chinensis,
chrysanthemum (annual and perennial both), Centaurea
moschata, Crossandra, Dahlia, Dianthus, Eranthemum,
Ervatamia, Gaillardia, Gardenia lucida, Gomphrena,
Helianthus, Hymenocallis, Ixora, Michelia champaca,
Mimusops hexandra, Nelumbo, Nerium, Nyctanthes,
Nymphaea, Paeonia, Pandanus, Polianthes, Rudbeckia,
Scabiosa, Tagetes erecta, T. patula, evetia, etc are widely
used as loose owers and for making garland. Often a
ower of lotus or a bunch of lotus is used as the locket of
the garland or in between the garland of other owers.
Garlands are either made of only one type of ower or a
combination of dierent owers. e owers are held
together with the help of a cotton, nylon or a silk thread,
inserted in the owers with the help of a needle. For heavy
garlands ne wire stings are used. To make the garlands
more gorgeous, in between the owers threads of jari or
silk ribbons are also inserted. Decorative foliage of some
ornamental plants such as ferns are used in the garland
to improve its look. e central focal point of garland is
generally of bright coloured owers to emphasize its look.
Important oral ornaments like bangles and oral
crowns were worn by women since old time. Even today,
in certain Indian dances, the dancer, especially the female
dancers, also wear oral bangles along with garlands. In
Maharashtra, the expecting mothers, in a ceremony called
‘Shrimanth’ are honoured like ower queen with oral
ornaments like crown, bangles, necklace, earrings, etc.
In West Bengal, a oral crown is also made to be used in
ceremonies by the central character, especially during
Annaprasana, a ceremony when the newborn takes its rst
cereal food, generally cooked rice, at the age of 6-9 months
wearing a oral princess in a drama. e ower most used
for this purpose is tuberose. At rst a crown shaped strings
may be used to make the structure and the owers may
be sewn inside the wires. In the countryside, generally, the
frame is made of large leathery leaves, such as jackfruit or
kadamba, on which the owers are sewn with the help of
cotton thread and needle. Ear-rings and bajubandhs made
of owers are also used in ceremonial dances. Heroes and
heroines in the drama of various gures such as Rama and
Sita wear various oral ornaments. e tribal women even
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Flower Arranging and Designing 579
today, decorate their ears with owers as earrings and also
put on ower ornaments during festivals and celebrations.
e temptation of women to adorn hairs with owers
is an age-old custom. is is the tradition followed from
ancient times till today with modern styles. Here again,
the fragrant owers get preference over others. However,
in certain cities of other countries such as Hawaii and
islands of Tahiti, many large owering perennials such as
chrysanthemum, Cattleya orchids, carnation, etc. are used
for hair decoration. ough it is not very common in North
India, the tribal women still adorn their hairs with owers.
In whole of South India, especially Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the women adorn their
hairs with jasmine owers. In our country, Veni, gajra and
broach are the variations available in ower arrangements
for hair styles specially for specic occasions (Singh and
Dhaduk, 2006). ese are very well accepted in todays
modern age and preferred by the women. ese special
kind of ower arrangements are widely used by the Bharat
Natyam and Kuchipudi dance recitals for hair ornaments
(Manivannan, 2012). e veni is single or multiple rows
or chain of owers bunched into one unit or as loose
multiple ower strings, which is applied on long open
hairs or plaits (choti). ese ower chains are nothing but
mini- garlands prepared by piercing owers with needle
and thread. Generally, fragrant white owers like jasmine
and tuberose are used. In South India, Barleria and
Crossandra veni is very popular. Gajra is wider, circular
and rm form of veni. Gajra making requires proper skill
of ower weaving with needle and thread. It needs proper
arrangement and combination of other owers to give
a decorative form. e gajras are made out of a single
fragrant species of owers such as jasmine, Michelia
champaca and tuberose, however, now crossandra and
barleria or mixture of owers and decorative foliage have
got place in this venture. Mostly white coloured fragrant
owers are prefered and to add design and appearance
rose owers or petals are also woven along. Several
decorative materials such as jari or silk strings or threads
may be used to make the gajra more gorgeous. Broach is
a hair decoration ower arrangement similar to veni. It
is rather a combination of veni and gajra. It is prepared
using thin wire by spirally and tightly turning around the
ower bud pedicel. e merit of broach over veni and
gajra is that it can be made into any shape as desired and
after preparing also it can be turned to give any shape.
It is sold at a very high price, ranging from Rs. 100 to Rs.
2,000, depending upon size and design. Broach provides
most stylish and modern look to the ower decoration.
ese have good demand during marriage ceremonies.
For broach making buds of Ervatamia, J. arborescencens,
J. auriculatum, J. grandiorum, J. ocinale, J. sambac and
single Polianthes tuberosa are used. Petals of rose are also
woven to provide excellent designer look.
e custom of rangoli has a religious connotation and
is done during puja (prayer oerings) in front of temples or
in some social functions such as marriage, and at various
festivals in front of the gate of the house. A colourful
2-dimensional display in an attractive design, geometrical
or otherwise, is referred to as rangoli. Rangoli drawing
with the help of dry colour or a coloured paste on the oor,
is a common practice especially among the Hindus in
India. Rangoli when done with owers add life and grace
to the beautiful display. For making rangoli, a selected
design is drawn on the ground, followed by arranging of
whole owers or petals and foliage with proper colour
combination according to the design (Singh, 2013). As
per the designer’s choice and creativity, a wide range
of owers and petals can be used for rangoli making.
Flowers of varied colours such as bougainvillea bracts,
jasmine, gaillardia, marigold, amaranthus, cock’scomb,
rose, chrysanthemum, aster, plumeria, etc. give wonderful
eect to the oral rangoli. Beside owers, fruits like jamun,
ber, g, sapota, grapes also look wonderful when used in
proper design. Even vegetables like cauliower, okra, peas,
beans etc can be used in proper way. Various patterns are
used for making rangolis, in design that may be traditional
and geometrical, oral, sceneries depicting nature or
rural life, thematic designs for specic occasions or festive
seasons. Specic fragrant rangoli and oating water
rangoli can also be created. Fragrant rangoli also has air-
freshening eects. It is created by using fragrant owers
such as jasmine, roses, frangipani, champa, gardenia, etc.
Even few drops of citronella oil can be added, this will keep
away the mosquitoes. Water rangoli looks very graceful,
elegant and soothing to the eyes and at the same time is
very simple and less time consuming. Flowers are made
to oat on the water surface in a desired pattern. Floating
candles and diyas when combined, add more charm to the
oating oral rangoli especially during Deepawali. Small
coloured stones and shells can be placed at the bottom of
the large sized urn or bowl that is selected as the container
for holding water. Rose, asters and chrysanthemums give
a wonderful eect to the water oral rangoli. Jasmine,
gerbera, rose, frangipani, gaillardia, etc. can also be used.
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Commercial Ornamental Crops: Traditional and Loose Flowers580
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