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American Journal of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery
Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019, pp. 21-30
http://www.aiscience.org/journal/ajcnn
ISSN: 2471-7231 (Print); ISSN: 2471-724X (Online)
* Corresponding author
E-mail address:
Effective Mechanisms to Control Mosquito Borne
Diseases: A Review
Muhammad Abdullah Shaukat
*
, Sajjad Ali, Bushra Saddiq,
Muhammad Waqar Hassan, Ammad Ahmad, Muhammad Kamran
Department of Entomology, University College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan
Abstract
Mosquitoes are considered as the most fatal and lethal organisms in the world causing millions of deaths annually around
the world. Deaths caused by malaria alone was reached to 4,38,000 deaths in 2015. A variety of diseases are caused by
mosquitoes as vectors. The important ones are Dengue Fever, Malaria, Yellow Fever, West Nile Virus, Rift Valley Fever,
Chikungunya, Japanese Encephalitis and some others. In this review we comprise and acknowledge the role of WHO in
relation to efforts against the alarming situations of mosquito borne diseases. The major roles of WHO to eradicate disease
risks are (1) giving evidence-based direction for monitoring vectors. (2) provide technical support to countries. (3) support
countries to advance their reporting systems. (4) provide training on clinical management, diagnosis and vector control. (5)
support the growth and evaluation of new tools, technologies and tactics for vector borne diseases. Here, various tactics are
discussed which could be helpful in the management methods against mosquito borne diseases in a very feasible,
inexpensive and eco-friendly fashion. Therefore, it was evaluated that the mosquito eating fish (Gambusia affinis and
Poecilia reticulata) Copepods (Macrocyclops albidus Jurine), larvae of Odonata species and aquatic insects, including
backswimmers (Buenoa pallipes Fabricius) were the most-often detected predators and it was a very simplest method to
limit the mosquito populations. Source reduction is a very crucial factor. Source reduction mainly concerns with prevention
of development of mosquito’s larvae by eliminating their breeding sites mostly including tactics such as drainage, filling,
drains and drainage of irrigation courses. After recognizing primary breeding sites accountable for disease transmission, it
is quick to start a selective larval control action, which has been called species sanitation. A great variety of plants species
found in the World that exerts a great impact on repelling mosquitoes. Some DEET based compounds proved an average
protection from mosquitoes ranges from 22.9-94.6 minutes with different active ingredients. Some plant essential oils such
as thyme oil, catnip oil, amyris oil, eucalyptus oil, and cinnamon oil were checked contrary to three mosquito species:
Aedes albopictus, Ae. aegypti, and Culex pipiens Pallens and give significant results and repellent efficacy. Hence, there is a
need of compatibility and integration of all above discussed mechanisms to acquire good results in context to prevention
and eradication of arboborne/mosquito borne diseases.
Keywords
Mosquito Borne Diseases, Mosquito Predators, Habitat Elimination, Mosquito Repellents
Received: March 18, 2019 / Accepted: May 7, 2019 / Published online: May 16, 2019
@ 2019 The Authors. Published by American Institute of Science. This Open Access article is under the CC BY license.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
1. Introduction
Mosquitoes are known as one of the fatal living organisms in
the world acting as vectors (living organisms that can
transmit infectious diseases between humans or from animals
to humans) for different diseases. Their ability to transmit
and disseminate disease to humans causes millions of deaths
22 Muhammad Abdullah Shaukat et al.: Effective Mechanisms to Control Mosquito Borne Diseases: A Review
every year. Malaria alone caused 4,38,000 deaths in 2015.
The global occurrence of dengue has risen 30-times in the
past 30 years, and more countries are reporting their first
outbreaks of the disease [37].
Apart from all the strategies and controlling measures,
mosquito borne diseases are dispersing world-widely
responsible for high toll of children and adolescent’s
mortality and morbidity globally [36]. Malaria, Yellow
Fever, Dengue Fever, West Nile virus, Rift Valley Fever,
Chikungunya, Japanese Encephalitis, Venezuelan Equine
Encephalitis, Murray Valley Encephalitis are common
names of some important diseases caused by mosquitoes
[24]. Mosquito species corresponding to diseases can be
described as Aedes Chikungunya Dengue fever Lymphatic
filariasis Rift Valley fever. A surveillance conducted by [12]
concluded that the only mosquito species seemed to be
consistently infecting in the field with West Nile Virus was
Culex pipiens species. It was also demonstrated that the key
to success for survival and reproduction of Aedes albopictus
was its behaviour and biology. Its compensating breeding
habits all its dispersant through travel and international
trade.
Malaria is one of the deadliest mosquitos borne disease 350
to 500 million cases annually [20]. Malaria is an infectious
disease that causes fever, trigger chills and a flu-like sickness.
Within an incubation period of seven days or more after
acquisition of pathogen from a mosquito bite, symptoms of
disease usually start to appear [35].
Among the most common diseases transmitted by
mosquitoes in the U.S, the West Nile Virus is at the top and
the most common symptoms described are Body/Muscle
aches, Fever, Headache, Fatigue, Joint pain, Rash, Stiff neck
and Paralysis [6]. It was calculated that there were 6,030
cases of West Nile virus have been observed in California
from 2003 to 2016 [9].
Chikungunya fever is a sickness caused by virus and spread
by infected mosquitos bite; these mosquitoes active often in
the daytime. The disease is similar to dengue fever, and is
characterized by severe, sometimes persistent, joint pain
(arthritis), together with fever and rash [34].
Dengue fever is the deadliest disease after malaria caused by
bite of infected mosquitoes. It is a viral disease caused by
dengue virus with four different serotypes. Each of the
above-mentioned serotypes have the ability to cause and
spread dengue fever and severe dengue fever (also known as
dengue haemorrhagic fever) [7].
Yellow fever is the most lethal viral infection (haemorrhagic
fever) and before the discovery of any effective vaccine it
was the fearer to humans. There are round about 200 000
cases of illness reported with yellow fever and approximately
30 000 deaths occurred by yellow fever over the World. From
past two decades, the number of cases of yellow has
increased due to decreasing population immunity to infection,
deforestation, urbanization, population movements and
climate change [34].
Results concluded from a surveillance study that 86% of his
study subjects told that breeding site of mosquitoes is only
polluted and stranded water, percentage of people who
thought that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes is 89.5%,
84.5% public told that rigor and fever are the most often
symptoms of malarial infection and 65% of them used
mosquito coil for prevention from mosquitoes [27].
In this study we will collect, manipulate and analyse all the
obtained information related to mosquito borne diseases and
make a precise and achievable conclusion to stop and
prevent the life threating and fast dispersion of these lethal
diseases and to save the humans of under developed
countries which are suffering and combating poorly against
these diseases.
2. Important Mosquito Borne
Diseases
i. Aedes
a. Chikungunya
b. Dengue fever
c. Lymphatic filariasis
d. Rift Valley fever
e. Yellow fever
f. Zika
ii. Anopheles
a. Malaria
b. Lymphatic filariasis
iii. Culex
a. Japanese encephalitis
b. Lymphatic filariasis
c. West Nile fever
American Journal of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019, pp. 21-30 23
Figure 1. Number of cases around the Globe due to mosquito infection.
3. WHO Response in Context to
Diseases
The Global vector control response (GVCR) 2017–2030
permitted by the World Health Assembly (2017) provides
planned direction to countries and progressing associates for
urgent establishment of vector control as an essential
approach to prevent disease and actioning to epidemics. To
achieve this, a re-building of vector control programmes is
compulsory, supported by amplified technical dimensions,
improved organizations, reinforced monitoring and
surveillance systems, and greater community mobilization.
Ultimately, this will support employment of an inclusive
style to control vector that will enable the accomplishment of
disease-specific national and global goals and contribute to
achievement of the supportable growth goals and universal
health coverage.
WHO secretariat provides premeditated, normative and
technical supervision to countries and development partners
for consolidation of vector control as a vital approach based
on GVCR to prevent disease and actioning to outbreaks.
Definitely, W.H.O. responds to vector-borne diseases by:
1. Giving evidence-based direction for monitoring vectors
and defending people against infection;
2. Providing technical support to countries so that they can
efficiently manage cases and outbreaks;
3. Supporting countries to advance their reporting systems
and capture the true burden of the disease;
4. Providing training on clinical management, diagnosis and
vector control with some of its co-operating centres
throughout the world;
5. Supporting the growth and evaluation of new tools,
technologies and tactics for vector borne diseases, include
vector control and disease management technologies.
A critical component in vector-borne diseases is interactive
change. W.H.O. works with partners to deliver education and
expand awareness so that people know how to protect
themselves and their groups from mosquitoes, ticks, bugs,
flies and other vectors.
For many diseases such as Chagas disease, malaria,
schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis, W.H.O. has started control
programmes using funded or sponsored medicines.
Availability to water and hygiene is a very vital factor in
disease control and eradication. W.H.O works organized with
many different government divisions to control these
diseases.
24 Muhammad Abdullah Shaukat et al.: Effective Mechanisms to Control Mosquito Borne Diseases: A Review
Figure 2. Risk Zones of Dengue (a), Malaria (b), Chikungunya (c), Yellow fever (d), Japanese encephalitis (e) and Zika virus (f) over the World. Photos
adopted from Dept. of Health, Govt. of West. Australia with Permission.
4. Mosquitos Management
Practices
4.1. Introduction of Mosquito Predators
Predation of mosquitoes by different living organisms is an
important mechanism on which a great sort of literature is
available. A survey is conducted on predators of immature
mosquitoes on the island of Kauai, Hawaii, in taro fields,
main larval mosquito habitat of Culex quinquefasciatus [15].
According to his observations, mosquito eating fish
(Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata) Copepods
(Macrocyclops albidus Jurine), larvae of Odonata species and
aquatic insects, including backswimmers (Buenoa pallipes
Fabricius) were the most-often detected predators. However,
mosquito fish and backswimmers were found with variability
from different locations while copepod were observed from
all locations.
Figure 3. Gambusia fish swimming among mosquito larvae.
Present situation of insecticides resistance in mosquitoes and
impact of pesticides on non-target organisms have raised
many questions across societies and compel scientists to
evaluate the alternative mechanisms to control malarial and
other mosquito borne disease vectors. Predation has been
proposed as one of the vital regulation methods for malaria
vectors in long-lasting aquatic habitats [19]. He also found
Anopheles gambiae DNA in at least three out of ten midguts
of all predator species examined under his experiments. A
predatory fish Gambusia affins seemed to be an efficient
predator and is three times more effective than tadpole
species in selected water bodies.
A study reported that different living organisms were known
to be active and efficient predators of mosquitoes. Mosquito
eating fish got a very crucial status among the predators of
mosquitos and other invertebrates like hydras, from insects
Muscidus scatophahgoides and Lispa ulginosa, several
unknown species of aquatic hemipterans, and the predaceous
diving beetle Eretes dytiscus. The mosquito genus
Megarhinus is a very vital predator complex and worldwide
often discussed as a most important biological agent
(currently known as Toxorhynchites) and includes M.
inornatus and M. splendens species. Previous literature
includes bats even for control of adult mosquitoes [23].
The field and semi field tests were conducted to check the
efficacy and capacity of predatory fish on mosquito larvae
and to test the influence of various types of chemical cues on
the oviposition behaviour of female mosquitoes. Data
obtained from field trails, it was observed that there were less
possibilities to find out culicine larvae, where the most
common floodplain fish Tilapia guineensis often found.
American Journal of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019, pp. 21-30 25
Though, the presence of any fish species was not concerned
with the presence of anopheline larvae. In semi field
conditions both anopheline and culicine larvae are consumed
by both T. guineensis and Epiplatys spilargyreius fish within
1d. Also, it was seemed that ovipositing culicine females
avoided the water areas where there were chances of
presence of fish. In contrast, there is not impact on
oviposition behaviour of anopheline females with the
presence of fish [21].
Figure 4. A mosquitofish snacks on a mosquito larva.
Employing or announcing an auto-generating predator into
the environment may offer sustained bio-control of pest
populaces. Several predators of larvae of mosquito include
amphibian tadpoles, dragonfly larvae, fish, mites, aquatic
bugs, anostracans, malacostracans, copepods, cyclopoid and
helminths. The most extensively used biological control
agents of mosquito populaces are the western mosquito fish,
Gambusia affinis, and the eastern mosquito fish, G. holbrooki.
The impact of these fishes on faunal structure and their
incapability to live in small containers, tree holes etc. which
are perfect reproduction sites of important vectored
mosquitoes, make them unfeasible and inefficient in
regulating mosquito populations [18].
Another study concluded that predator impact on mosquito
populaces sometimes rely on habitat structure and on
developing effects of many predators, predominantly
interference amongst predators. Predators nonfatal effects on
mosquito oviposition, searching, and life history are common,
and their values for populations and for mosquito-borne
disease are weakly understood [16].
The best-known method to control the mosquitos and
stopping of lethal diseases is the use of mosquito predators as
a way to eliminate the risk of human mortality. A predator of
mosquitoes likely to be unknown in research is dragon fly.
Dragon fly immatures were seen to be present only in semi-
permanent and alternating ponds. The results of tests
recognised that dragonfly larvae were capable to eat large
quantities of mosquito larvae in very short time, but
development rate of mosquitoes did not look like to be
significantly influenced by dragonfly larvae. Oviposition
behaviour of mosquitoes was not affected significantly by the
presence or absence of dragon fly larvae. These results
recommend that the presence of dragon fly larvae can play a
vital role in the elimination of mosquito populations [11].
Figure 5. A dragonfly waits for prey.
Another important predator Diplonychus indicus (Hemiptera:
Belostomatidae) of dengue causing mosquito, Aedes aegypti
(Diptera: Culicidae) attained a great attention from a study by
[31]. His experiments described that when D. indicus was
announced into the tyres placed in the experimental garden,
an extreme reduction of 95% and 98% respectively of late
instars and pupae of Ae. aegypti was detected. But the tyres
placed in the control garden was not influenced. In different
months of the year, early instar larvae density of Ae. aegypti
varied in the tyres placed in both the gardens.
It was investigated that the baseline predation of young
mosquitoes by large invertebrate predators along with Mara
river to observe predator’s diversity, habitats of mosquito
larvae and ratio of their adaptive capability to physio-
chemical parameters of water. The impact of
macroinvertebrate predator presence was corelated with
water quality parameters and larval densities of mosquitoes
using Generalised Linear Model (GLM). Predators (n=297)
from three orders of Hemiptera (54.2%), Odonata (22.9%),
Coleoptera (22.9%) as mosquito larvae (n=4001) from 10
different species including An. gambiae s.l. (44.9%), Culex
species (34.8%), An. coustani complex (13.8%), An.
maculipalpis (3.6%), An. phaorensis (1.2%), An. funestus
group (0.5%), An. azaniae (0.4%), An. hamoni (0.3%), An.
christyi (0.3%), An. ardensis (0.08%), An. faini (0.07%), An.
sergentii (0.05%) and 0.05% of mosquitos from Aedes Spp.
which could not be recognized to specie level due to lack of a
particular key. These were captured from various habitats
26 Muhammad Abdullah Shaukat et al.: Effective Mechanisms to Control Mosquito Borne Diseases: A Review
along Mara river. It was also concluded that attack on
habitats by large invertebrate predators were carried out by
the stimulation of the presence of mosquito larvae (p<0.001)
and the predominant physio-chemical constraints
(Temperature, DO, Turbidity, p<0.001) [8].
Toxorhynchites, a type of mosquito with intraspecies
predating larvae, has paying much attention as bio-control
agents. Specific types of Toxorhynchites mosquitoes are very
helpful for the control of Ae. aegypti because they reproduce
in the same types of containers. Though, it demonstrated to
be ineffective in the field. Repetitive release of
Toxorhynchites first instar larvae in drenched places among
bamboo trees had no outcome on mosquito populaces in
Indonesia [2-3].
4.2. Habitat Elimination
Mosquitoes elimination and management practices mostly
focused on chemical involvements like residual sprayings
and insecticide treated nets, and these methods are still
existed in several countries. However, all these options are
not considered good for living organism’s health as well as
for environment. A very suitable and applicable non-chemical
mosquito control program using source management has
been evaluated and tested in many experimental projects.
Source reduction mainly concerns with prevention of
development of mosquito’s larvae by eliminating their
breeding sites mostly including tactics such as drainage,
filling, drains and drainage of irrigation courses. After
recognizing primary breeding sites accountable for disease
transmission, it is quick to start a selective larval control
action, which has been called species sanitation. Housing
circumstances might be enhanced, and water supply and
sanitation services can also be taken as a main step to launch
source management. Many breeding sites can be recognized
along nearby banks of river, sea, or other water containing
bodies for alteration and vegetation removal. Environmental
management approaches might prove to be workable over the
long-term allowing development of state by successfully
superessing diseases. Inclusive and integrated mosquito
management scheme with the use of adulticides or larvicides,
source management, zoo prophylaxis, aerial space spraying
and using coils, screens and repellents are mandatory. During
epidemics, indoor and outdoor residual sprayings are
normally applied, usually using insecticides against adults
and larvae. This recommends, stimulates and announces to
citizens to decrease mosquito-borne diseases through
environmentally helpful approaches that demand no cost
expenditure. Pest borne diseases control relies upon source
management may be non-toxic, achievable and cost-effective,
and determines the viability of sustainable bioenvironmental
vector control [29].
The U. S. federal government had made a plan named as the
federal Clean Water Act, after being amended in 1987
requested the states to imply a permanent source
contamination management plan. This strict program ordered
the states to construct adequate ways to get rid of polluted
urban and rainwater runoffs and stormwater runoffs to avoid
any misshaping and epidemics of mosquitoes. A term Best
Management Practices was adopted in 1970s in the
implementation of this program [26].
An explained report was presented stressing upon the
community outreach program and to get familiar of public
from arboborne diseases. It describes that education process
must start before the onset of community health threat. It also
encourages national organizations to begin and sustain
credibility and community trust by giving timely, exact, and
actionable data about what is known and what is not known.
Increased accessibility and information of accurate data
about arboviral diseases among populaces and public onset of
risk and to deliver suitable action messages for each audience
is very essential. Advanced information of and backing for
vector control actions should be provided in communities.
Increase the volume of health care stations and to share exact
health info about arboviral disease prevention should be
conveyed to at-risk populations (e.g., pregnant women and
women of reproductive age and populations affected by Zika
virus). Inspiring actions by community leaders and
organizations should be done to guard at-risk populations
from arboviral diseases [5].
In the Era of 19
th
century, it was investigated that mosquitoes
were the responsible of disseminating diseases like malaria
and dengue and their populations were linked with dirty
water sewerage standing water. To the recent time,
inadequate management plans moved the U.S citizens to
destroy habitat places alongside of rivers and streams and
kept struck both the animals and humans to indoors to abstain
themselves from blood feeding mosquitoes. Methodologies
like source reduction, predatory species and use of chemicals
are very ancient. However, some advancement is added but
still these are followed by old procedure introduced by
Floore, 2006 [13].
It was detected from a study that mosquito put a risk to
livestock and pets. Animals distressed by mosquitoes did not
feed and forage well. After being bitten by mosquitoes, cows
reduced the milk yield and other cattle loss their weight. So,
it was very important to get rid of mosquitos and maintain
the health of livestock at farm level. The basic principles
found very efficient to minimise the increasing populations at
farm level are to discard and avoid stagnant wastewater
remains for longer than four days. Weeds should be removed
around ditches, ponds and other shallow wetlands. Biological
and chemical control of mosquitoes can enhance these
American Journal of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019, pp. 21-30 27
important preventive procedures [22].
A study conducted for three years to evaluate the mosquito
populations in San Diego and Los Angeles Counties by
Californian Department of Transportation. The study
investigated various species of mosquitoes such as Anopheles
franciscanus, Aedes squamiger, An. hermsi, Cx. tarsalis,
Culex quinquefasciatus, Cs. inornata. Cx, stigmatosoma and
Culiseta incidens. Different sources like stagnant water in
sumps, basins and vaults were observed as the permanent
sources of larval population of all species. Efforts were
designed to rapid drainage mechanisms; rapid runoff flows of
non-stormwater and destruction of supporting larval habitats
[25].
4.3. Mosquito Repellents and Chemical
Control
Mosquito repellents are mostly examined, discussed and
recommended in the management programs of mosquitos
instead of synthetic insecticides. There are many reasons that
determines the dependency on repellents. One of the most
important is the health risks of public. We know that synthetic
chemicals have a strong mode of action and could cause a
serious health hazards to humans and different types of
abnormalities. Another problem that is highlighted from past
years is the environmental degradation by synthetic pesticides
which is now becoming an alarming situation for the whole
Earth. So, it is very important to highlight the eco-friendlier
and safer preventive measure against mosquitoes. Botanicals
or plant extracts used as an insect repellent are the most
appropriate options in regard to mosquito bite. Here we discuss
some experimental results that describes how efficient was
some plant extracts in the repulsion of mosquitoes.
According to a study it was observed that DEET-based
products gave very strong protection for the lengthy period.
Maximum doses of DEET provided protection lasting from
minutes to hours. A formulation comprising 23.8 percent
DEET provided an average complete-protection time of 301.5
minutes. An average of 94.6 minutes protection from mosquito
bites was observed from a soybean oil-based repellent. An
average of 22.9 minutes protection was recorded from IR3535-
based repellents against mosquitos’ bite. All other plant
deterrents were examined provided protection for an average
period of less than 20 minutes. Repellent-containing
wristbands presented no protection [14].
A study demonstrated that the polymethacrylate (PMA)-
stabilized silver nanoparticles were manufactured by UV
irradiation, categorized by Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR),
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Zeta Potential
Measurement and assessed for their larvicidal activity to Aedes
aegypti larvae. Over the processes of depiction and larvicidal
assay, silver nanoparticles were found to be spherical and in
nanoscale size (10 nm). The larvicidal action of silver
nanoparticles was dependent on the concentration of
nanoparticle used and seemed to rise from the infiltration of
the nanoparticles into the larval body membrane. At a
concentration of 5 ppm, the PMA-capped silver nanoparticles
showed less than 10% survival of larvae within 3-h exposure
time with targeted areas. The study recommends that the silver
nanoparticles produced by UV-irradiation can be applicable in
biocontrol of pests and mosquito larvae [28].
Figure 6. Different plant extracts and their application methods to repel the mosquitoes.
28 Muhammad Abdullah Shaukat et al.: Effective Mechanisms to Control Mosquito Borne Diseases: A Review
It was examined that the larvicidal action and repellency of five
essential plant oils like as thyme oil, catnip oil, amyris oil,
eucalyptus oil, and cinnamon oil were checked contrary to three
mosquito species: Aedes albopictus, Ae. aegypti, and Culex
pipiens Pallens. Larvicidal action of these essentials oils was
assessed in the laboratory in contrast to 4th instars of each of the
three-mosquito species. Amyris oil proved the greatest reduced
development effect with LC50 values in 24 h of 58 µg/ml (LC90
= 72 µg/ml) for Ae. aegypti, LC50=78 µg/ml (LC90 = 130 µg/ml)
for Ae. albopictus, and LC50=77 µg/ml (LC90 = 123 µg/ml) for
Cx. pipiens Pallens. Catnip oil appeared to be the most efficient
and brought 6-h protection at duel concentrations tested (23 and
468 µg/cm2). Thyme oil had the maximum efficiency in
deterring this species, but the repellency period was only 2 h.
The usage of these natural essential oils and their products in
mosquito control are discussed widely and frequently [38].
The bio-efficiency of Aloe vera plant leaf extract and
insecticide characterized by bacterial activity, Bacillus
sphaericus larvicidal action was evaluated against the 1st to
4th instar larvae of Aedes aegypti, under the laboratory
conditions. The LC
50
of A. vera contrary to the 1st to 4th
instar larvae were 162.74, 201.43, 253.30 and 300.05 ppm
respectively and the LC
90
442.98, 518.86, 563.18 and 612.96
ppm, respectively. B. sphaericus against the 1st to 4th instar
larvae the LC
50
values were 68.21, 79.13, 93.48, and 107.05
ppm and the LC
90
values 149.15, 164.67, 183.84, and 201.09
ppm, respectively. Though, the collective treatment of A.
vera + B. sphaericus (1:2) material presented maximum
larvicidal activity of the LC
50
values 54.80, 63.11, 74.66 and
95.10 ppm. The LC
90
values of 145.29, 160.14, 179.74 and
209.98 ppm, against A. aegypti from combined experimented
concentrations had clearly defined that there is a considerable
amount of synergetic effect. The current examination clearly
displays that both A. vera and B. sphaericus materials could
represents as a probable larvicidal agent [32].
A study was conducted to examine the preparation of water
dispersible Nano permethrin was explored for its larvicidal
activity. The mean particle size of Nano dispersion in water
was 151727 nm. The LC50 of Nano permethrin to Culex
quinquefasciatus was 0.117 mg/L. The LC50 of bulk
permethrin to Cx. quinquefasciatus was 0.715 mg/L.
Nanopermethrin may be a good choice as a potent and
selective larvicide for Cx. Quinquefasciatus [1].
A research was designed to explore larvicidal efficacy of
three natural plant extracts such as Aloe vera and onion,
alcohol and cloves, marigold and garlic counter to the dengue
vector, Aedes aegypti. Onset the application of 15% of the
natural extract of cloves and alcohol, all the larvae showed
100% mortality. For the onion and Aloe vera extract, 90%
mortality was observed after 24h of bioassays when the
larvae were tested with 15% extract, while 60% mortality
was examined after the 24h later of the application with 15%
of marigold and garlic extracts, respectively. The maximum
mortality recorded after applying 15ml alcohol-clove extract
was detected to be 100% [33].
Neem seeds comprise above 200 bioactive chemicals, even if
consideration has been particularly fixated on limonoids
(chemically known as nor triterpenes, e.g. nimbin,
azadirachtins, nimbidin and nimbolides). Formulations
originating from neem seeds exhibited fecundity suppression,
antifeedancy, larvicidal activity and ovicidal, growth
regulation and repellence against a variety of arthropods, and
it is active also at very small doses [4].
Table 1. Different types of chemicals/Repellents used for certain species of mosquitoes and their result.
Chemical/Repellent Results Mosquito species References
Soybean oil-based repellent +
IR3535-based repellents
Mean 94.6 minutes bite protection +
Mean 22.9 minutes bite protection All biting species Fradin, et al. (2002)
PMA-capped silver
nanoparticles 10% survival of larvae within 3-h exposure time Aedes aegypti (Sap-Iam et al.
2010).
Thyme oil, Catnip oil, Amyris
oil, Eucalyptus oil, and
Cinnamon oil
Amyris oil (LC90 = 72 µg/ml) for Ae. aegypti, (LC90 = 130 µg/ml) for Ae.
albopictus, and (LC90 = 123 µg/ml) for Cx. pipiens Pallens in 24h.
Thyme oil repellency period was only 2 h
Aedes albopictus,
Ae. aegypti, Culex
pipiens Pallens.
Zhu and Zeng (2006)
Aloe vera plant leaf extract
Bacterial insecticide (Bacillus
sphaericus)
The LC
90
of Aloe vera was 42.98, 518.86, 563.18 and 612.96 ppm.
LC
90
of Bacillus sphaericus was 149.15, 164.67, 183.84, and 201.09 ppm.
LC
90
of combined treatment was 145.29, 160.14, 179.74 and 209.98 ppm.
1
st
to 4
th
instar
larvae of Aedes
aegypti
(Subramaniam, 2012)
Water dispersible Nano
Permethrin
LC50 of Nano permethrin to Cx. quinquefasciatus was 0.117 mg/L. LC50
of bulk permethrin to Cx. quinquefasciatus was 0.715 mg/L.
Culex
quinquefasciatus (Anjali et al. 2010)
Aloe vera and Onion
Alcohol and Cloves
Marigold and Garlic
15% extract showed 90% mortality.
15% extract showed 100% mortality.
15% extract showed 60% mortality.
Aedes aegypti (Susheela, et al.
2016)
5. Conclusions
Utilization of all control measures to protect mosquito
infections and their synergetic effect can cause a huge impact
on socio-economic health of human beings living particularly
in Africa and some other poor and developing countries.
Source reduction and elimination of habitat is the best option/
strategy to retard the mosquitoes as the only possible way for
American Journal of Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery Vol. 4, No. 1, 2019, pp. 21-30 29
mosquitoes to breed and propagate is the stagnant water.
Removing of water either it is fresh or sewage is the surety of
absence of mosquitoes at these places. The areas with heavy
rainfall could bear some difficulties in this regard but due to
efficient management, the problem can be solved.
Introduction of predator species is an important step to
minimize the populations of mosquitoes. Although the
compatibility and predator-prey relationships are very crucial
element but mosquito populations can be limited to a certain
extent on following this parameter. Usage of plant extracts to
repel the mosquitos is a very ancient and cheap way from a
long time ago and are still be used in African and old-World
countries. Various types of chemicals present in plants
exhibits a special response to keep away mosquitos from the
surface on which they have applied. An integration fashion of
all these management tactics will elicit a great response in
context to a feasible solution of mosquito infections. Besides
this, some modern technologies like invention of UV traps is
a superb outcome of science and is a cheap, feasible, eco-
friendly and permanent answer to the arisen questions about
devastating effects of mosquitos. In future, there is a great
possibility to explore the simplest and environmentally safe
methods to escape from the danger of mosquito borne
diseases.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge here to WHO for the leading role counter to
mosquitoes and diseases. We also pay thanks to Department
of Entomology for special guidance and encouragement to
complete this study. There are no funding sources regards to
this study.
Conflict of Interest
All the authors do not have any possible conflicts of interest.
Figure 7. Integrated manner management tactics in context to overcome the exploding risk of mosquito borne diseases cases around the Globe.
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