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International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019
308
International Journal of Energy Economics and
Policy
ISSN: 2146-4553
available at http: www.econjournals.com
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 2019, 9(5), 308-315.
Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural
Applications
Olubayo M. Babatunde1, Iheanacho H. Denwigwe2, Oluwaseye S. Adedoja3, Damilola E. Babatunde4*,
Saheed L. Gbadamosi5
1,2Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria, 3Centre for Atmospheric
Research, National Space Research and Development Agency, Kogi State Unive rsity Campus, Anyigba, Nigeria, 4Department
of Chemical Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria, 5Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Science, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. *Email: damilola.babatunde@covenantuniversity.edu.ng
Received: 01 March 2019 Accepted: 01 July 2019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.7775
ABSTRACT
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development suggests that all countries both developed and developing strive to attain the seventeen sustainable
development goals (SDGs). Some items on the SDGs like implementation of renewable energy technologies to electrify regions disconnected from
power grids are targeted to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger while ensuring environmental sustainability. Hence, the role of integrated renewable
energy in improving the productivity and environmental sustainability of the agricultural sector cannot be overemphasized. This paper presents a brief
survey of the application of renewable energy resources technologies in the agricultural sector.
Keywords: Sustainable Agriculture, Water-food-energy Nexus, Renewable Energy, Techno-economic
JEL Classications: Q2, Q4
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is vital to human existence as it is required to meet various
basic human needs ranging from food production to economic
development (Oyedepo, 2012a; 2012b). Important activities that
require energy inputs include: agricultural activities (irrigation,
land preparation and fertilization, livestock rearing operations);
household activities (lighting, food processing and conservation;
cooking); commercial activities (lighting, processing); community
and social services (water pumping, refrigeration in health
centres, lighting of communal buildings) (Babatunde et al.,
2018). Agriculture, however, requires intensive energy due to the
following agricultural activities; water pumping for irrigation,
refrigeration, drying agricultural products, livestock and many
others in order to produce food for mankind (Oyedepo, 2013). These
crucial agricultural operations are, however, of serious concern to
stakeholders because a balance needs to be struck technically and
economically to maintain a sustainable environment.
Hence, collective and integrated efforts must be explored
in solving what has been regarded as a set of complex and
interrelated multidisciplinary problems identied as threats to
human civilization and existence. Majority of these challenges are
associated with energy, water, and food production, particularly
in developing countries. These aforementioned areas with
challenges make up the foundation on which global security,
prosperity, and equity stand. Based on this submission, energy,
water, and food security have been identied as some of the key
elements for achieving the United Nation’s aspirational sustainable
development goals (SDGs). The water–energy–food nexus is
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Babatunde, et al.: Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural Applications
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019 309
therefore proposed as a conceptual tool for the attainment of
sustainable development. Many developing countries are faced
with a difcult challenge of meeting the rising demands for food,
clean water, and green energy, which is further compounded
by climate change. According to (Rasul and Sharma, 2016),
“effective adaptation to change requires the efcient use of land,
water, energy, and other vital resources, and coordinated efforts
to minimize trade-offs and maximize synergies.” Deviation from
this may result in the shortage of food production.
Water, energy, and food are critical to human existence, poverty
eradication as well as sustainable development (Oyedepo, 2014). It
is expected that the demand for clean water, energy and food will
signicantly rise over the next decades. This is due to the pressure
that is exerted by population growth, urbanization, diet change,
technological advancement, and change in social status, culture,
mobility, economic development, and climate change (Hoff,
2011). Water is a very essential input resource in many agricultural
productions (shery, irrigation, forestry) and used to produce or
transport energy in various state (FAO, 2011b). Consequently,
70% of the globally available freshwater extraction is credited to
the agricultural sector. This makes the sector the highest consumer
of freshwater globally. Furthermore, the production and supply
of food account for 30% of the globally consumed energy (FAO,
2011a). Energy is essential for virtually every day agricultural
activities such as irrigation, extraction, collection, lift, pump,
and water treatment. With the development of new cities, there is
an increasing demand for water energy and land resources with
varying environmental consequences and resource scarcity in
many cases. This challenge is expected to increase because, by
2050, the food expected to feed the population is predicted to
increase by 60% (FAO, 2011b). Furthermore, by 2035, the global
energy demand is expected to increase by approximately 50%
(IEA, 2010). According to a report by FAO, “the total global water
withdrawals for irrigation are projected to increase by 10 percent
by 2050” (FAO, 2011b). The inter-relationship that exists among
energy, water, and food security may experience a major challenge
in the future. For example, between 1985 and 2008, South Africa
was a major food exporter, but due to the population growth and
decreased agricultural activities in recent years has become a
major importer (Bazilian et al., 2011). Furthermore, between 2009
and 2010, the government of South Africa and Eskom announced
electricity tariffs hike by 31% while also anticipating a rise of 25%
for another three consecutive years (South African Government,
2008; ESKOM, 2008). Consequently, a major sector that could
feel the effect of the electricity price hike in years to come is the
agricultural sector due to its energy demand for irrigation and other
farming related activities. Migrating from irrigation based-farming
to rain-fed agriculture may ease the burden of tariff hikes but may
as well pose a threat to the national food security especially during
droughts. This is because 25% of the country’s primary food is
grown on irrigated farmlands (Bazilian et al., 2011). Elsewhere,
farmland irrigation is responsible for about 15-20% of India’s
total electricity use (Bazilian et al., 2011). In India, irrigation
loads are connected to the grid because electricity is subsidized
(partially due to inadequate price signals). Due to this and lack
of robust energy management of irrigation system, farmers pump
underground water faster than can be replenished. As water levels
drop, the energy required to irrigate increases and also the burden
on the already weak and overtaxed grid (Hussain et al., 2010;
Sallem et al., 2009) One alternative way to address these issues
is the adoption of standalone renewable energy powered water
pumps with adequate management technique that can introduce
better pricing signals.
Adoption of renewable energy technologies in agricultural
activities offers promising prospects in addressing trade-offs
and leverage on interactions between improving water, energy,
food security and climate change for sustainable agriculture. The
uctuating patterns of energy demand together with the desire for
safe, reliable and environmentally sustainable supply alternatives
require that the energy sector undergoes a transformation
through the rapid adoption of renewables. The United Nations’
“Sustainable Energy for All” agenda spells out an interesting goal
of doubling the global renewable energy mix by 2030 (Griggs
et al., 2013). This transformation presents both challenges and
various opportunities for the energy, water and food sectors.
Yet, research into the role of renewable energy within the water,
energy and food nexus as well as the quantitative and qualitative
knowledge on the impact of expanding renewables on these
sectors remains discrete and narrow (Bazilian et al., 2011). One
of such opportunities is the adoption of renewables for farmland
and grassland irrigation. However, agricultural irrigation exerts
pressure related to water and energy security. This is because food
and energy demand is dependent on both population growth and
climate change. The principal technical bottlenecks to irrigation
of farmlands are access to clean and cheap electricity as well
as energy and water management in such systems. The use of
renewable energy technology with appropriate management
techniques can relieve the burden on the grid, reduce energy
and water requirements in the agricultural sector and the cost
expended on irrigation.
2. ENERGY DEMANDS IN THE
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
In recent decades, energy demand has dramatically increased
particularly in the agricultural sector. Not until the advent of fossil
energy supplies, many of the world’s agricultural activities have
always been implemented by hand. The industrial revolution has
increased human reliance on the use of fossil fuel (Giampietro
and Ulgiati, 2005). Thereafter, the Green Revolution in the 1960s
has inspired the use of energy in the agricultural sector. Present
agricultural activities and mechanism which aim to optimize yield
are extremely dependent on the use of fossil energy (Johansson
et al., 2012). Subsequently, knowledge about the production
system is crucial in order to properly evaluate the amount of
energy required in the agricultural industry (Jordan, 2013). The
energy demands in the agricultural sector are multifarious and
include inputs, such as and fertilizers; water pumping; irrigation;
machinery; and labor essential to the production processes
(Wiedmann, 2009). The steady global growth of energy demand
has increased cost in almost every sector. The agricultural sector
is a basic rural economy and one of the key economic resources
of many nations. A larger portion of the food production is from
Babatunde, et al.: Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural Applications
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019
310
the rural settlers. They are involved in the subsistence production,
processing, and storage of agricultural produce which require the
use of energy. It has already been established that water supply and
irrigation system are crucial to agricultural production (Shinde and
Wandre, 2015). The pumping of water from the ground or surface
is a key energy demand. Water pumping is an important factor in
many agricultural activities such as irrigation, livestock support
and other on-site operations including cleaning. It constitutes
a substantial if not the largest energy demand in a particular
agricultural sector. Thus, water pumping is a key energy demand,
which incurs a signicant cost in the agricultural sector.
Generally, the three major factors that drive the cost related to
the irrigation are; availability of water, energy, and pattern of
use. Conversely, this cost can be reduced by water-energy-saving
irrigation system (Chandel et al., 2015). Pumping of water has
traditionally been implemented with the use of conventional
energy sources such as diesel or grid electricity. The depletion of
fossil fuel and an unreliable power supply have made researchers
to seek alternative means. Besides, the associated cost and
environmental degradation are challenges that must be addressed.
Interestingly, renewable energy sources have been found reliable
for such applications. Furthermore, evidence has shown that
the ever-increasing population growth will directly affect food
consumption. Therefore, there is a need to improve on the
agricultural production for food security. However, minimizing the
waste of food is a viable alternative. Food wastage occurs mainly
in three different phases; harvest, post-harvest, and marketing. A
case study in India has shown that major waste of food occurs at
the post-harvest phase and this leads to a signicant economic
loss (Prakash et al., 2016). For instance, perishable commodities
can easily get damaged. Thus, one possible way to keep it fresh
is to use a low-temperature storage technology. Unfortunately,
this technique is found to be expensive and need a reliable energy
source. Consequently, the drying process has been established
as one of the preservation methods in order to reduce the loss
of food (Sharma et al., 2009). The dried product can be stored
for a lengthy period of time. However, drying is a heat and mass
transfer process where energy is crucial (Kumar and Tiwari, 2007).
Drying of agricultural product is extremely energy demanding. In
the developed nations, about 10% of energy is devoted to drying
operations (Kudra, 2004). Not until sometimes in the 1970s,
these operations were basically powered with the use of fossil
fuel. However, the oil crises in the 1970s prompted the adoption
of alternative energy supply for drying of agricultural products.
Fortunately, renewable energy sources are feasible possibilities
which are environmentally friendly and economically viable
(Akinbulire et al., 2014; Babatunde et al., 2018).
Nowadays, farming is more practiced in a mechanized way. The
operations of these machines require a direct or indirect energy.
Machines are employed for eld preparation, planting of crops,
chemical spraying and even harvesting of crops. Furthermore,
the production of fertilizers or chemicals produced off the farm
is energy demanding which also belong to the agricultural sector.
Generally, the energy demand in the agricultural sector can be
broadly categorized into direct and indirect demand (Table 1).
3. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
WATER-ENERGY-FOOD NEXUS AND
CLIMATE CHANGE
The concept of the water-energy-food nexus was introduced at the
Bonn Nexus Conference, 2011 by the German Government. The
concept was developed in reaction to climate change and social
changes such as population growth, globalization, economic
growth, and urbanization (Hoff, 2011). Water, energy, and food
are the ultimate resources for human beings and society. In spite
of the reduction of losses, there is a possibility that the demand
for these resources will increase due to the population growth,
climate change and other aspects of global change. Recently, the
water-energy-food nexus has become a standalone technical term
due to its increasing popularity.
Even though such a concept may have its shortcoming, the benet of
drawing a systematic concern of sustaining human future existence
cannot be overemphasized. Particularly, the theoretical, practical,
policy and management approaches to address Nexus (which is still
at an infant stage) must be considered. The literature reported that the
optimal policy spawned for water, energy, and food, was described in
three general phases. The rst is the incorporation of water resources
to other various water sectors such as agriculture, industry, and others.
Subsequently the integration of various types of energy sources
such as gas, oil, coal, nuclear and renewable energy follows. The
second stage centers on the protection of the nation, human health,
and other livelihood services. Issues surrounding water, energy and
food security were treated separately before the birth of Nexus. The
third stage established the optimal policy for the interconnected
relationship of water, energy and food system. The water-food nexus
aims to minimize the rate of water consumption for the production
of food and to improve the productivity of water resources for food
preparation. A study conducted in 2007 described the environmental
activities of the water-food nexus which includes the analysis of
food imports (Qadir et al., 2007). Also, an improvement of the
application of green water and preclusion of depleted residual soil
moisture after harvest with low water consumption was explored by
(Karimi et al., 2012). Meanwhile, a study conducted by (Akangbe et
al., 2011) focused on the environmental activities, social, economic
and governance approaches which center on the climate protection
models for agriculture.
The activities of water-energy nexus have been known for many
years. For instance, water is an active resource in the production
of energy such as hydropower generation and biofuel; pumping of
water for food production and treating of wastewater also consume
energy. The study of Hardy (Hardy et al., 2012) revealed that
agricultural irrigation in the Spanish water industry requires a large
quota of energy consumption. However, the synergy of the water-
energy-food nexus was encouraged through an integrated water
Table 1: Energy demand in the agricultural sector
S/N Direct energy demand Indirect energy demand
1Pumping of water/irrigation Farm machinery and buildings
2Drying Pesticides production
3Other farm activities Fertilizer production
Babatunde, et al.: Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural Applications
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019 311
resource management. Furthermore, a study conducted by (Karimi
et al., 2012) established that the higher the application of irrigation,
the higher the energy consumption, the lower the carbon emission
of groundwater. An investigation of the land and water requirements
for the production of bioethanol by using maize was discussed by
(Yang et al., 2009). Multiple perceptions on the regional integration
of hydropower investment, irrigation reform and power market
development were reported by (Granit et al., 2012).
Nowadays, the concern of climate change is increasing and
frequently debated around climate variability sectors. The
increasing climate change results from the activities of notable
sectors such as agriculture and other industrial activities (Pardoe
et al., 2018). Rainfall is a major source of water and important in
the food preparation and agricultural sector. Still, both agriculture
and hydropower are reliant on the rainfall. Nevertheless, it is
possible that the quantity of rainfall, timing, and its intensity be
varied due to climate change. Some climate-related nexus actions
have steered towards curtailing the susceptibility of climate-
induced tragedy and environmental poverty in the long term.
Figure 1 depicts one of the inseparable relationships these ultimate
resources have in common with climate change.
4. SUSTAINABILITY IN AGRICULTURE
Climate change is one of the greatest threats to mankind in the
21st century. The rise in global temperature is the main cause of
the changes in the earth’s natural systems. The increase in global
temperature is responsible for the sudden change in the regular
cycle of the ecosystem to cause natural disasters such as droughts,
ooding, and early frosts. Consequently, the extreme climate is
aggressively threatening the future sustainability of the agricultural
sector and food supply. It is reported by UN that if the global
temperature rises by 3°C, the effect could be negatively drastic on
water and food supply, biodiversity, pests, disease proliferation and
outbreak, during planting and harvesting times. Consequently, this
may negatively impact crop yield and livestock thereby resulting
in a failure to meet food demand.
Researchers have found out that it is essential for global
agriculture and food security to achieve the long-term goal of
limiting the increasing global temperature to <2°C compared
to the temperature experienced in the pre-industrial era, in
order to avoid catastrophic consequences. Climate change will
result in negative consequences for small-scale farmers in rural
communities thus impeding the certainty of food security. As a
result, building exibility to the effects of climate change and
limiting agro-based emissions of greenhouse gases is important. It
has been reported that the agricultural sector accounts for almost
24% of the total greenhouse gas emissions globally (Lenka et al.,
2015). Based on this, the agricultural sector can play a signicant
role in addressing climate change by implementing smart and
green agriculture techniques to guarantee farm level resilience
against climatic uctuations.
The use of renewable-powered technologies in the agricultural
sector has a tendency to mitigate climate change. Renewable
energy is power generated by the use of natural resources
that are perpetually replenished. The utilization of RETs does
not contribute to natural resource depletion and emissions.
Renewable energy is potentially able to provide solutions
(which are effective and sustainable) to the various problems
of conservation in agriculture. Examples include solar, wind,
biomass, hydropower, and geothermal. RETs represent a
viable alternative to fossil fuels and can be used to generate
heating and/or electricity. This will contribute to sustainable
agriculture.
The sustainability of agriculture is based on the concept of
increasing the productivity of crops and ensuring a stable
economy while ensuring a massive reduction in the use of natural
resources and the negative effects of climate change (Yunlong
and Smit, 1994). The sustainability of agriculture should be a
shared societal responsibility which should be guided by widely
accepted regulations and principles (McPherson, 2011). The
principles and practices involved in sustainable agriculture are
discussed in Table 2.
Figure 1: A schematic representation of interactions of water, energy, food and climate change (adapted from [Zhang and Vesselinov, 2017])
Babatunde, et al.: Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural Applications
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019
312
4.1. Applications of Renewable Energy in Agriculture
Renewable technologies are now being used to meet various energy
requirements ranging from pumping of water to space heating
within the agriculture sector. Renewable energy use in agriculture
has the ability to solve various challenges related to the use of
fossil fuel as it involves little or no production of environmental
emissions and non-reliance on imported fuels. The application
of renewable energy in agriculture therefore yields huge prots.
Renewable energy sources can be harvested for life, providing a
long-term source of revenue for agriculturists. Presently, there are
various cases of farmers and ranchers involved in the production
sale of excess energy. This contributes significantly to the
continuous development in energy security within the agriculture
sector. This further result from the independent supply of energy
reduced environmental pollution and the application of diverse
energy sources. Renewable energy sources like solar, wind,
geothermal and biomass have various applications in agriculture
as discussed in the next sub-section.
4.2. Solar Energy
Solar energy is useful in agriculture in various ways which include
maximizing self-reliance, saving funds, and reduction of pollution.
Solar energy reduces electricity consumption thereby saving cost.
Solar energy is advantageous in agricultural applications by
ensuring (Chel and Kaushik, 2011):
• Low cost of farm operations through the elimination of fuel/
diesel use.
• Low rate and level of maintenance through the absence of
moving parts in solar panels.
• System reliability thereby ensuring the efciency of farm
operations.
• Clean form of energy thereby preventing gas emissions and
ensuring environmental conservation.
With photovoltaic (PV) systems, there is a cheap provision of
electricity for agricultural operations in ranches, farms, and
orchards. The use of Photovoltaic systems is cheaper than the use
of transformers and power lines for applications in farm operations
like the lighting of agricultural lands, pumping of water for crop
irrigation or watering of livestock, and electric fencing (Carbone et
al., 2011). One of the simplest applications of photovoltaic in the
agricultural sector is pumping of water. The use of pumping systems
powered by photovoltaic can be used for a wide variety of watering
purposes ranging from watering of stocks to irrigation of crops and
use in domestic activities (Schwarz, 2006). The PV system has water
storage abilities during the absence of sunshine which removes the
need for the use of battery thereby increasing system simplicity and
reducing the overall cost of operating the system. PV systems can
also be applied in orchards, farms, and ranches through (Xue, 2017):
• Refrigeration of agricultural product.
• Cheap provision of power for grinding agricultural products.
• Photovoltaic systems for egg collection and egg handling.
• Photovoltaic powered pumps and compressors for use in
shery.
• Photovoltaic powered livestock feeding equipment.
• Photovoltaic powered fencing for protecting livestock.
Furthermore, the use of solar energy for the production of heat has
a wide variety of applications in agricultural operations (Chikaire
et al., 2010). These applications include;
• Solar water heaters (used for cleaning domestic animals) in
the production of livestock.
• Drying of grains and crops via exposure to the sun.
• The use of solar-powered driers for effective and hygienic
drying of crops.
Solar energy also has agricultural applications in greenhouse heating.
While solar energy can only be used for purposes of lighting by
conventional greenhouses (Carbone et al., 2011), solar greenhouses
are capable of using solar energy for both purposes of lighting and
heating (Bellows and Adam, 2008). Greenhouses depend on heaters
powered by oil or gas for proper maintenance of temperatures needed
for the growth of plants in the months having cold weather (von
Zabeltitz, 1986). A solar greenhouse has a thermal mass for collection
and storage of solar heat energy and also has an insulation chamber
to prevent the loss of heat which is required for use during cloudy
days and night. In the northern hemisphere, a solar greenhouse is
oriented to maximize southern glazing exposure (Taki et al., 2017).
Solar greenhouses minimize the need for fossil fuels for heating
purposes. Sonneveld et al. gave an in-depth analysis of the design
and development of a greenhouse having an integrated lter which
works as a delivery system and reects near infrared radiation (NIR)
(Sonneveld et al., 2009). The lter uses a cover which is spectral
Table 2: Sustainability in agriculture
Principles of sustainable agriculture (McPherson, 2011) Sustainable practices of agriculture (Tilman et al., 2002)
A sustainable agricultural system ensures the continuous protection of
the natural environment through the conservation of natural resources.
A sustainable system of agriculture is dependent on the efcient
management and utilization of renewable energy resources.
A sustainable system of agriculture is based on environmental ethics
which ensures the protection of all water, soil, biotic and air species.
Sustainable practices possess techniques which are non-toxic and
harmless.
A sustainable system of agriculture provides prots for agricultural
users and investments. This is because sustainable agricultural practices
are based on efciency and effectiveness which leads to protability.
A sustainable system of agriculture ensures an improvement in the
quality of life of members of a community and society through the
creation of opportunities in terms of employment, social services,
education, and healthcare.
The use of rotational grazing which reduces the costs of animal feeds
while providing high-quality animal feed.
The use of methods of soil conservation to prevent the loss of soil via
erosion.
The use of information technology for efcient management of crops.
The use of water conservation practices for the protection of wetlands.
The use of pest management tools for the reduction of risks related to
environment and health.
The use of management practices for nutrients used for the
nourishment of crops such as fertilizer and manure. This ensures a
cheap and cost-effective use of nutrients.
The use of agroforestry practices for conservation of the natural
environment.
Renewable energy can also be used to implement sustainable practices
of agriculture.
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International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019 313
selective to ensure that about 35% of the solar energy found outside
the region of the greenhouse is blocked, this will, therefore, ensure
a reduction in the capacity which is needed for cooling. The NIR
coating can be integrated with a solar energy system since the
reection of solar energy present in a Photovoltaic cell ensures the
delivery of electricity. They made a computer program which traces
ray(s) of light thereby creating an optimal geometry of the reector
using the collecting efciency as a reference. Sonneveld et al.
established that the issue of Cooled greenhouses is very important
to solve the challenge of high global radiation and high outdoor
temperatures combination (Sonneveld et al., 2009).
4.3. Wind Power
The wind power source is different from solar power as it lasts
for 24 h on a daily basis. Both mechanical and electrical energy is
generated by wind energy technologies for agricultural use. Wind
power technology is identied as the fastest growing renewable
energy technology overtaking bio-power. In the United States,
there are already plans in motion by the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) to make wind energy become the producer of
ve percent of the electricity used in the nation by 2020 (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2010). The improvements in technology
through the development of hybrid energy systems will continue
to increase the economic efciency involved in the use of wind
energy. This will encourage agricultural producers to maximize
their engagement in wind power infrastructure for reductions in
costs of energy thereby leading to self-sufciency. The use of
wind energy is very reliable and cost-effective for solving various
needs of power on ranches and farms. Wind turbines can be used
for the construction of water pumps for the purpose of irrigation
and can also be used for generating electricity thereby eliminating
the cost of installing transformers, electric poles and power lines
which are used for conventional power generation (Clark, 1991).
Windmills powered by wind energy are used to grind legumes and
grains used in farms (Halliday and Lipman, 1982). Wind energy is
environmental-friendly as it does not need diesel/ fuel for operation.
This ensures a reduction in noise and air pollution. Among others,
it prevents the formation of toxic and radioactive waste, it prevents
the emission of greenhouse gases, and it prevents acid rain by
minimizing the concentration of oxide compound (Kondili and
Kaldellis, 2012). The use of wind-powered farms is very feasible
economically through a strong reduction of maintenance and
operation costs, non-necessity for use of fuel, and the need for fuel
importation is minimized (Leung and Yang, 2012). According to Ali
et al., the use of small wind generators can provide electricity within
the range of 400 watts to 40 kilowatts or more, which can cater for
all operations taking place in the farm (Ali et al., 2012). Farmers
and ranchers can, therefore, become wind energy producers as it
requires only a small space of land for its development. The use of
net metering will allow farmers and ranchers to gain huge benets
from the use of wind turbines in their farms and ranches respectively
(Poullikkas et al., 2013). When power produced by a turbine is more
than the instantaneous power required on the farm, the excess power
ows back to the source of electricity for other farm operations and
needs, causing a backward movement by the electric meter. When
power produced by a turbine is less than the power required at that
moment by the farm, there is a forward spin by the meter.
4.4. Biomass Energy
The renewable energy source of biomass can be obtained from
organic wastes (generated from agricultural activities) and plants
which include trees, crops, manure, and crop residues. There can
be a large production of crops and biomass wastes which will be
used for the purpose of energy production through conversion. The
converted energy can be used by energy companies dealing in the
production of fuel for vehicles, and power for use in homes and
businesses. The U.S. Department of Energy states that the use of
biomass energy could bring about reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions and could also realize over $20 billion in revenue for
rural communities and agriculturists (U.S. Department of Energy,
2003). Although most residues or wastes from crops and animals
are used for the reduction of erosion, recycling of soil nutrients
and reduction of disposal costs, some of the waste could also be
used benecially for the production of energy without causing any
type of destruction to the soil (Jovanovski et al., 2005). Biomass
energy can be used in small-scale farming without any form of
articial processing. Biomass is used majorly in agriculture for
bringing improved sustainability to farming systems.
Biomass is also used for the development of bioreneries which
have numerous applications in agriculture. A biorenery is an
industrial facility or technology that converts biomass resources
to energy and other valuable products such as electricity, ethanol,
steam, biodiesel and high-value chemicals (Elmekawy et al.,
2013). These products are an efcient replacement for petroleum
in use as a chemical feedstock and vehicular fuel which brings
about a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and an increase in
energy security. With a biorenery, corn can be converted to animal
feed, corn syrup, and ethanol while trees can be transformed into
a number of wood products, heat, and electricity.
4.5. Geothermal Energy
The use of geothermal energy which is the combination of heat and
water is very common in agriculture. Three types of power plants
powered by geothermal energy are presently in operation which
includes: Binary-cycle plants, dry steam plants, and ash steam
plants. Geothermal energy can be used indirectly for electricity
generation and directly for the production of hot uids which can be
used in farming and sheries operations. Such operations include
dehydration of alliums, heating buildings, milk pasteurization,
and growing plants in greenhouses (Lund, 2010). Geothermal
resources with a high temperature of over 149°C can be used to
generate electricity in agriculture. Geothermal technologies can
improve agriculture and ensures economic efciency through the
use of cascade where the same source is simultaneously used for
different purposes, thereby making geothermal energy a reliable
resource for agriculture (Lund, 2010).
5. CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The opportunities involved in the use of renewable energy
for agriculture include energy efciency and self-sufciency/
independence while the challenges involved include difculty in
obtaining accurate data in undeveloped and developing nations,
Babatunde, et al.: Harnessing Renewable Energy for Sustainable Agricultural Applications
International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy | Vol 9 • Issue 5 • 2019
314
high costs of initial investments on renewable energy startups,
lack of technical skills on installation and maintenance, lack of
societal awareness on the benets of renewable energy, and lack
of incentives to encourage agriculturists, and stakeholders in the
agricultural sector to participate in the use of renewable energy.
These challenges can be solved effectively through partnerships
between governments and the private sector and through
international collaboration between nations.
In summary, renewable energy guarantees clean energy farming by
carrying out agricultural practices whilst ensuring the protection
of the environment and improving the efciency of energy thereby
saving energy and nances. Following recommendations are
suggested:
1. The use of renewable energy sources for powering
agricultural related activities can reduce the expenditure on
energy and consequently increase the overall prot of the
business. Flexible and cost-effective methods by which these
technologies can be adopted are important.
2. With the use of renewable energy sources to power agricultural
activities, emissions to the atmosphere can be curtailed thereby
reducing the contributions of agricultural related activities to
global warming. Investigations on the type of environmental
related incentives that will encourage the use of renewable
energy are of importance.
3. Business-friendly state legislation that encourages adoption
of renewable electricity generation in the agricultural sector
should be passed. Creation of an innovative public benets
fund to leverage private investment in renewable energy
projects beneting the agricultural sector is also essential.
4. The installation of small-scale energy capacity within the
agricultural business should be encouraged. It will help in
combating climate change and improvement of business
viability.
6. FUNDING
The authors appreciate Covenant University for sponsoring the
article processing charges.
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