Do “Manly” Men Believe Other Men Are Happier? Social Comparison, Masculine Norms, and Positive Work–Family Spillover

Abstract

Guided by both the social–cognitive model of career management and social comparison theory, this study compared men’s own well-being and their perceptions of other men’s well-being in the context of male gender norms and work–family management. Working men (N = 693) who adhere to traditional male gender norms reported lower levels of well-being. The same group of working men assessed other men who adhere to traditional male gender norms as having lower levels of well-being. Notably, men who adhered to traditional masculine norms were more likely to perceive that other men are “happier.” Further, “less happy” men (men in the low own well-being class) tended to rate other men “happier,” whereas “happier” men (men in the medium own well-being class) did not share that tendency. Lastly, men who reported higher levels of multiple role self-efficacy and positive work–family spillover reported that their own well-being was higher and reported that other men would have higher levels of well-being when they also have higher levels of multiple role self-efficacy and positive work–family spillover. These findings are discussed within the context of the social comparison and work–family interface literature. Implications for future research and practice also are addressed.

Full text

Do “Manly” Men Believe Other Men Are Happier? Social Comparison,
Masculine Norms, and Positive Work–Family Spillover
Shin Ye Kim and Jaehoon Lee
Texas Tech University
Stephen R. Wester and Nadya Fouad
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Guided by both the social– cognitive model of career management and social comparison theory, this
study compared men’s own well-being and their perceptions of other men’s well-being in the context of
male gender norms and work–family management. Working men (N⫽693) who adhere to traditional
male gender norms reported lower levels of well-being. The same group of working men assessed other
men who adhere to traditional male gender norms as having lower levels of well-being. Notably, men
who adhered to traditional masculine norms were more likely to perceive that other men are “happier.”
Further, “less happy” men (men in the low own well-being class) tended to rate other men “happier,”
whereas “happier” men (men in the medium own well-being class) did not share that tendency. Lastly,
men who reported higher levels of multiple role self-efficacy and positive work–family spillover reported
that their own well-being was higher and reported that other men would have higher levels of well-being
when they also have higher levels of multiple role self-efficacy and positive work–family spillover. These
findings are discussed within the context of the social comparison and work–family interface literature.
Implications for future research and practice also are addressed.
Public Significance Statement
This study found that there are distinct subgroups of working men based on how they respond to their
own well-being as well as other men’s well-being in the context of work–family management and
conformity to masculine norms. These findings indicate working men may benefit from tailored
intervention that addresses the impact of social comparison on their well-being.
Keywords: conformity to masculine norms, social comparison, social– cognitive model of career man-
agement, positive work–family spillover, well-being
Approximately 50% of employed men reported that they expe-
rienced work–family conflicts in 2008, up significantly from 34%
in 1977 (Aumann, Galinsky, & Matos, 2011). Work–family con-
flicts, defined as “a form of interrole conflict in which the role
pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incom-
patible in some respect” (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, p. 77), have
been especially striking among fathers in dual-earner couples.
Work–family conflicts among these men increased from 35% in
1977% to 60% in 2008, whereas that of mothers in dual-earner
couples remained relatively stable (41% in 1977 and 47% in 2008;
Aumann et al., 2011). This change in men’s work–family interac-
tions likely reflects a significant departure from the breadwinner–
homemaker framework of work–family interface. Accordingly, a
sizable amount of the extant literature has examined the implica-
tions of such changes on people’s work–family experience (Eby,
Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005;Frone, 2003). Yet,
most discussions in this area continue to focus on women’s expe-
riences and challenges in balancing work and family needs (Budig,
Misra, & Boeckmann, 2016;Kulik & Liberman, 2013). This is
problematic because work–family issues are a concern shared both
by men and women, and the majority of studies has suggested that
both report similar levels of work–family conflicts (Frone, 2000;
Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). Framing this as primarily a women’s
issue burdens women and creates social expectations and messages
that work–family concerns are a woman’s responsibility. Further,
it neglects men’s voices in their experience of work–family man-
agement crucially.
Masculine Norms and Work–Family Management
In the context of people’s management of their work and family
conflicts, spillover is defined as the transmission of attributes—
affect, values, skills, and behaviors (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000)—
from one life domain to another, in that attributes acquired by
involvement in a work role may “spillover” on the family role, or
the converse, which, in turn, could lead to changes in psycholog-
This article was published Online First July 25, 2019.
Shin Ye Kim, Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech Uni-
versity; Jaehoon Lee, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas Tech
University; Stephen R. Wester and Nadya Fouad, Department of Educa-
tional Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
This research was supported by American Psychological Association
Dissertation Award (Recipient: Shin Ye Kim).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shin Ye
Kim, Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Box
42051, Lubbock, TX 79409-2051. E-mail: shinye.kim@ttu.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology of Men & Masculinities © 2019 American Psychological Association
2020, Vol. 21, No. 2, 251–265 1524-9220/20/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/men0000226
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