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Chapter 11
Solid Waste Management in Tourist
Destinations in Developing Nations: Case
Studies in Hoi An, Vietnam, and Puncak,
Indonesia
Jane Singer, Kinh Thi Kieu and Andrea Emma Pravitasari
Abstract Waste management presents special challenges for tourism destinations
in the developing world. Although large tourist inflows and accompanying develop-
ment can greatly increase the volume of municipal waste, affluent travelers expect
high aesthetic and sanitary standards to be met. Local governments often lack suffi-
cient capacity to handle waste sustainably and local awareness of the need for waste
segregation, recycling, or other practices may be low. In this chapter, the authors
discuss two projects—in urban Hoi An, Vietnam, and rural Puncak, Indonesia—that
are attempting to raise awareness and community capacity for waste management by
involving local university students, researchers, government, and community groups
in innovative waste education initiatives. The issues involved in solid waste manage-
ment in rural and urban destinations may vary, as urban sites may find it easier to
attract ODA or other external funding and expertise for implementing waste collec-
tion and treatment. In both case studies, however, students and researchers accrue
diverse benefits from participation in collaborative projects, while residents and local
governments benefit from large reserves of volunteer labor, expertise, and exchanges.
The challenges for both sites include funding, overcommitted university faculty, con-
flicts between project and academic schedules, and the difficulty of changing long-
ingrained household waste practices. The chapter concludes with recommendations
for improved university and community engagement for CBSWM initiatives.
Keywords Waste education ·Solid waste management ·Ecotourism ·
Community resilience ·Stakeholder collaboration
J. Singer (B)
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
e-mail: singer.jane.6e@kyoto-u.ac.jp
K. T. Kieu
The University of Science and Education, The University of Danang, Da Nang, Vietnam
A. E. Pravitasari
Bogor Agricultural University (IPB University), Bogor, Indonesia
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019
W. W. M. So et al. (eds.), Environmental Sustainability
and Education for Waste Management, Education for Sustainability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9173- 6_11
189
190 J. Singer et al.
11.1 Introduction
International tourism is among the greatest source of export earnings in many emerg-
ing economies, with tourist arrivals in developing countries accounting for 46% of
total international arrivals in 2011 (United Nations World Tourism Organization,
n.d.). Tourism can serve as a catalyst for infrastructure development, rapid and
dynamic economic growth and burgeoning employment throughout the develop-
ing world (Glasson, Godfrey, & Goodey, 1995), but overly rapid tourism growth
may eventually trigger its own decline (Wong, 1998), imperiling long-term sustain-
ability as it threatens the natural resources—wildlife, coastal reefs, forests, water
bodies—and aesthetic beauty that initially attracted tourists. In this context, it is
clear that sustainable tourism is contingent upon managing growth-induced stressors
such as the increasing generation of solid waste (SW). However, for tourism sites in
many developing nations, low institutional capacity, scarce funds, and low levels of
local awareness may complicate the challenge of managing increased solid waste.
Localities in developing countries often suffer from low rates of waste collection,
irregular collection, open dumping and burning, weak legislation and waste regula-
tions, a lack of leaching and other pollution controls, and infestation by vermin and
insects (Manaf, Samah, & Zukki, 2009).
A hotel guest can produce an average of 1 kg of solid waste per day, according to
Zorpas, Voukkali, and Loizia (2015). International travelers, with greater consump-
tion and larger per capita hotel floor space, account for greater waste than domestic
visitors, as suggested by a survey of beach resorts in the Maldives that found that
visitors at larger resort hotels accounted for 1.5 times more waste than those at small
hotels (Brown, Turner, Hameed, & Bateman, 1997). In many municipalities and
resort areas in emerging nations, solid waste continues to be burned in open fires or
buried nearby, producing dioxins and leaching into groundwater. Local governments
in tourist sites must also deal with what has been labeled the “tourism effect,” namely
differences in waste composition from that of other areas, with higher than locally
prevailing ratios of nonbiodegradable waste such as PET bottles, plastic packaging,
aluminum cans, increased roadside litter and marked seasonal variation in waste
volume (Gidarakos, Havas, & Ntzamilis, 2006).
For tourism to contribute to sustainable development, it must be “economically
viable, ecologically sensitive and culturally appropriate” (Mbaiwa, 2003). Resources
must be managed to benefit those not directly employed in tourism, and solutions
to problems such as increased waste must be inclusive and participatory, based
on increased awareness of the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) and predicated on
replacement of informal sector livelihoods like waste scavenging for the econom-
ically marginalized with other sources of income such as recycling or composting
(Mbaiwa, 2003). Raising public awareness of the need for reducing litter, source seg-
regation of waste and the benefits of recycling and composting is critical to achieve
effective solid waste management (Moghadam, Mokhtarani, & Mokhtarani, 2009;
Babayemi & Dauda, 2009), but public awareness is generally low in developing
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 191
countries, directly impacting waste volume and collection efficiency as well as envi-
ronmental health.
Community participation in waste separation has been found to be the key
to success in efforts to recycle organic waste (Boonrod, Towprayoon, Bonnet, &
Tripetchkul, 2015). According to a study of waste separation in Hanoi (Nguyen,
Zhu, & Le, 2015), positive behavior change is promoted when the desired activ-
ity is not overly demanding or inconvenient, when residents express trust in the
effectiveness of local rules and regulations and information exchange, and when
residents are assured of reciprocity, that is, that others are also cooperating with
waste separation initiatives. Awareness can be raised through formal, school-based
education as part of Education for Sustainable Development curricula and through
nonformal approaches targeting the public via mass media, public awareness cam-
paigns, and utilization of social networks. School-based education can combine
both formal curriculum and nonformal place-based activities such as roadside and
river litter campaigns or composting for school gardens. Complementary formal
and informal education often occurs, as when children share learning about waste
management with their parents, influencing household practices (Maddox, Doran,
Williams, & Kus, 2011; Grodzinska-Jurczak, Bartosiewicz, Twardowska, & Ballan-
tyne, 2003). This chapter will explore efforts implemented in two popular tourist
destinations—Hoi An in central Vietnam and Puncak adjoining Bogor, Indonesi-
a—to educate students and local residents and promote improved community-based
solid waste management. The two sites were selected since both are burdened by
increasing demand and limited capacity for managing waste resulting from domes-
tic and international tourist inflows, yet since Hoi An is urban and Puncak is in a
remote upland area the approaches adopted in the two sites for improving community
awareness and institutional responses have greatly varied.
11.2 Community-Based Waste Management and Education
in Hoi An, Vietnam
Hoi An is a provincial city in Quang Nam province, central Vietnam, located on the
northern bank of the Thu Bon River on the south-central coast. The city consists of
nine urban wards and four communes, including the Cham Islands (Fig. 11.1), with
a total population of 92,000 and a total area of 61.71 km2(Quang Nam People’s
Committee, 2014) (Fig. 11.2).
Hoi An was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999, due to its
ancient Chinese and Japanese architecture, temples, and other historical monuments
and its cultural and artistic heritage. A well-preserved port city active in trade and
shipping throughout Southeast Asia, 2,000-year-old Hoi An is known for its tangi-
ble and intangible heritage, including streetscapes, festivals, cuisine, and perform-
ing arts (Marks, 2008). Local economic stagnation during most of the twentieth
century helped account for preservation of the city’s ancient architecture, but the
192 J. Singer et al.
Fig. 11.1 Administrative map of Hoi An. Source Based on GIS data from the Hoi An People’s Committee
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 193
Fig. 11.2 Hoi An’s historic district. Photo with permission from Tran Dinh Dung
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Total visitors
Fig. 11.3 Total visitors to Hoi An by year. Source Hoi An Department of Commerce and Tourism
(2016)
1980s brought the onset of local tourism (Di Giovine, 2009). Tourism dramatically
expanded during the 1990s, increasing by a magnitude of nearly 50 times, from
3,400 tourists in 1991 to 160,314 tourists in 1999 (UNESCO, 2000,2008). The trend
continued, as shown in Fig. 11.3. Hoi An received its millionth visitor in 2007, the
eighth million visitor in 2015 and the tenth million in May 2017 (Hoi An Department
of Commerce and Tourism, 2016).
194 J. Singer et al.
Hoi An is considered one of the most sustainable tourist destinations in Vietnam,
with broad collaborative efforts to conserve both the local heritage and the environ-
ment undertaken by governmental organizations, enterprises, and local residents. The
Lantern Festival, for instance, is held on the 15th day of every lunar month by Hoi
An residents to allow tourists to experience pre-modern life in Hoi An. Tourism has
benefited Hoi An by promoting economic development, job opportunities, and rapid
urbanization. Tourism and related commerce is now the biggest economic sector in
Hoi An, accounting for 68% of total municipal revenues (Hoi An Department of
Commerce and Tourism, 2016). However, it has also brought adverse environmental
impacts. The growing number of visitors results in increased traffic, noise and air
pollution, as well as a growing volume of waste requiring collection and disposal
(Marks, 2008).
11.3 Solid Waste Management in Hoi An
Municipal solid waste collection commenced in Hoi An in 2003 and has been
upgraded in recent years due to international development assistance from Japan
and multilateral funds like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) that have enabled
the hiring of staff, and the introduction of modern sanitation trucks and waste treat-
ment. The city’s total volume of solid waste (SW) keeps increasing along with the
number of tourists and rising living standards, and it is expected that the main munic-
ipal landfill located in Cam Ha will exceed its capacity in the near future. The total
volume of solid waste (SW) in Hoi An is presented in Fig. 11.4.
Solid waste in Hoi An (see Fig. 11.4) is managed by Hoi An Public Works Joint
Stock Company (Hoi An PWJSC), a private company with a monopoly on waste
23000
23500
24000
24500
25000
25500
26000
26500
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
tons
year
Fig. 11.4 Solid waste in Hoi An by year. Source Hoi An Department of Natural Resources and
Environment (Hoi An DoNRE) (2017)
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 195
Landfill:
50% compostable
waste
Recycling
companies: 50 –
500 kg/day
Households
Hotels &
restaurants
Markets
and schools
Streets and
public
areas
Waste
generation
Stage Collection Treatment
Hoi An
PWJSC
(75-80%)
Recycled
waste
scavengers
Commune
collection
team
Composta-
ble waste
Non-
compostable
Recyclable
waste
Composting plant:
50% compostable
waste
Fig. 11.5 Solid waste management system in Hoi An. Source Adapted from Chu (2014), with
permission from Chu Manh Trinh
collection. The total amount of SW collected in Hoi An is approximately 75 tons
per day, of which 60% is organic waste (accounting for 400–500 kg/m) (Hoi An
DoNRE, 2017). The collection rate is 85%, commensurate with the average rate
for urban areas in Vietnam (Hoi An DoNRE, 2017). The collection rate in urban
areas is relatively high (95–100%) and lower in suburban and rural areas (60%) (Hoi
An DoNRE, 2017). The solid waste management (SWM) system is presented in
Fig. 11.5.
Solid waste is segregated at the source before collection, primarily by Hoi An
PWJSC. In some rural areas, a commune collection team helps to collect waste from
households and transfer it to landfill. Most recyclable waste is collected by scavengers
and sold to recycling companies. In September 2012, a composting plant was installed
in Hoi An. Currently, the plant composts around 55 tons of SW daily, producing 1,600
tons of composted fertilizer per day of which 1,230 tons are locally utilized (Hoi An
DoNRE, 2017). Subsequently, in 2016, a garbage incineration plant was installed to
reduce landfill overload. Solid waste management (SWM) in Hoi An has developed
with the assistance of various funding organizations including the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNESCO, and particularly JICA
(Japan International Cooperation Agency), Japan’s overseas development agency, a
very active donor that provides Hoi An not only with funds but also consultation to
achieve eco-city status. JICA has conducted a project on solid waste management
196 J. Singer et al.
in Hoi An city in cooperation with Naha city, Okinawa prefecture, with a grant of
US$11.2 million.
It is worth noting that Hoi An is one of the first cities in Vietnam to success-
fully segregate solid waste for composting. The segregation rate of 75% is quite
high (Hoi An DoNRE, 2016). This rate has been attributed to the city’s establish-
ment of an incineration plant and composting plant, pro-sustainability civic leaders
who have actively solicited ODA and other funding for improving waste manage-
ment, and enactment of local fines for littering and environmental pollution (Decree
155/2014/ND-CT). However, without doubt a principal reason for this success is
the pairing of community-based solid waste management (CBSWM) activities with
diverse SWM awareness campaigns run by international organizations, local author-
ities, schools, researchers, civil society, and local residents, including programs enti-
tled “Say No to Plastic,” “Home Composting,” “Women and Solid Waste Segre-
gation,” “Schools with Environmental Education,” “Farmers Manage Agricultural
Wastes”, and “Business Sectors with Environmental Protection.”
JICA has sent at least four volunteers who could communicate in Vietnamese to
Hoi An’s Department of Natural Resources (DoNRE) to train the staff in conducting
environmental education (EE) activities such as games, school activities, mobile
EE classes, solid waste segregation, 3R education, and a campaign entitled “Clean
Home, Clean Town, Clean City.” Instruction by the JICA volunteers helped to build
the capacity of the local DoNRE staff for EE, enabling them to conduct EE and
solid waste education via training workshops at wards and communes. The local
heads of important mass organizations, especially the Women’s Union and Farmers’
Union, two nationwide government-linked groups with a membership of over 10
million each, have actively encouraged their communities to carry out solid waste
segregation from an early stage.
11.4 History and Description of Waste Education Activities
Environmental education plays an important role in promoting SWM in Hoi An.
As a World Heritage city, Hoi An has received various types of project grants for
improving environmental quality, including many focusing on education. A 2010
project by JICA, for example, sought to embed EE across the education system in
Hoi An. After the project term ended, JICA continued to sponsor Japanese volunteers
who have led environmental education initiatives in Hoi An schools with such themes
as refusing to use plastic, litter campaigns, solid waste segregation, and the 3Rs.
Hoi An has been selected to host many sustainability-related training courses
because of its vision of environmentally friendly development. The course “Sus-
tainability Field School”, for example, has been sponsored annually since 2014 by
Action Center for City Development (ACCD), a local NGO, teaching Vietnamese
students to compost waste for organic farms, among other topics. In August 2017,
Vietnamese Youth and Sustainable Development Summit (VYS), a forum for young
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 197
Vietnamese interested in sustainability, decided to hold their training activities in
Hoi An.
The tertiary education sector has also benefited from EE initiatives. The Uni-
versity of Education-The University of Danang (DUEd) established a partnership
with the Management Board of the Cham Islands Marine Protected Area (MPA), a
governmental organization founded by UNESCO and the Hoi An government when
the Cham Islands became a World Biosphere Reserve in 2009. To improve student
understanding of SWM and CBSWM, since 2014 DUEd has collaborated on a train-
ing course with an MPA expert who successfully mainstreamed the 3Rs in Cam Ha
Ward and Cam Pho Commune and initiated a complete ban on plastic in the Cham
Islands.
Solid waste education at many universities in Vietnam concentrates on technology
and theory but offers few hands-on activities for students, even though in many
rural or suburban areas of Vietnam application of such technologies remains limited.
Information about more feasible 3R and small-scale applications for managing SW is
rarely provided. For the training course, a DUEd lecturer worked with the MPA expert
to revise the syllabus with hands-on activities and practical knowledge that would
improve student competencies and awareness. For instance, student volunteers joined
MPA-hosted group discussions with local communities to learn about the challenges
of solid waste segregation. Subsequently, the DUEd lecturer and the MPA expert co-
taught classes and led students on field visits to Cham Islands and Hoi An’s ancient
town.
11.5 Achievements and Challenges of the Projects
Three students who were involved in the training course were interviewed to eval-
uate the course effectiveness as a model for collaborative waste education between
universities and local organizations. The students identified the following outcomes
of the course:
•Connected classroom learning with real-life examples.
•Learned more practical knowledge.
•Strengthened their relationship with local communities in Hoi An and Cham
Islands as volunteers.
•Inspired thesis research.
•Enhanced personal skills.
•Assisted with job recruiting.
This co-teaching model also promoted the university’s community outreach, which
enables university professors to establish long-term partnerships with local organiza-
tions and communities for further research. The local communities and organizations,
in turn, can benefit from the human resources of the university. In fact, according to
the MPA expert, although the 3R project in Cam Ha Ward and Cam Pho Commune
ended in 2014, the involvement of students and university lecturers has encouraged
198 J. Singer et al.
local residents to continue segregating SW and practicing home composting. Today,
with the assistance of DUEd and MPA staff, the 3R model is scaling up in other
districts of Quang Nam province like Dien Ban and Nui Thanh.
The success of this co-teaching model can be attributed to the strong support of the
current dean, a positive relationship between DUEd and MPA, and the enthusiasm
of several faculty lecturers and MPA staff who helped to guide students during their
fieldwork. Yet the program has some challenges. Much time and energy are required
to not only revise the syllabus but also to lead students to work with communities,
adding to the administrative burden. In addition, continuity and the transfer of the
model to other staff at both DUEd and MPA after core members leave may be difficult.
11.6 Waste Management and Environmental Education
in Rural Puncak—Bogor, Indonesia
Puncak is the most popular tourist destination for residents of Jakarta—the capital
city of Indonesia—and its satellite cities. It is located on the upstream Ciliwung river
watershed in the southern part of Bogor Regency in West Java. The region has an area
of 14,587.06 ha covering 27 villages (Desa) in the four districts of Megamendung,
Cisarua, Sukaraja, and Ciawi (see Fig. 11.6). Puncak plays multifunctional roles in
both conservation and tourism (Rustiadi, Iman, Pravitasari, & Mulya, 2014) due to
its location in the most populated urban cluster in Indonesia and upstream of the
Ciliwung watershed, the main river flowing through Jakarta. The management of the
upstream watershed ecosystem affects the sustainability of watershed ecosystems
downstream. Flooding occurs virtually every year in downstream urban areas, espe-
cially during the rainy season in January and February; an estimated 80 people died
during the worst recorded flooding in 2007. The severity of the floods has increased
in recent years, exacerbated by the volume of solid waste carried downstream by the
Ciliwung River. The significance of the Puncak area was recognized by a Presiden-
tial Decree (54/2008) directing the area to maintain an ecological balance as a water
catchment area and for flood control (Pravitasari, Rustiadi, Mulya, Iman, & Fuadina,
2017).
Puncak is known for its natural beauty, cool air, and wealth of biological resources,
offering visitors a mountainous landscape of tea plantations located at an altitude of
1,000 m above sea level. The increasing number of villas and tourism resorts in this
area has spurred local economic development, as the population and built-up areas
have expanded rapidly. According to Alihar (2002), the total population of Puncak
increased from 5.7 million in 1980 to 11.7 million in 2000. Rapid development has
transformed forests, agricultural areas, and water catchment areas into residential,
industrial, and commercial areas, resulting in various adverse environmental impacts,
including floods, erosion, and landslides in Puncak and surrounding areas. It has also
been accompanied by the increasing accrual of unmanaged inorganic waste. Refuse
piles are increasingly prevalent along the banks of the Ciliwung River. The most
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 199
Fig. 11.6 Location of Puncak Area. Source Map prepared by Andrea Emma Pravitasari
abundant SW is on roadsides, produced by small stalls along the road and littering
by tourists. Waste collection trucks transport both wet and dry waste, while some of
what remains is burned by local residents.
High demand for land in the Puncak area has resulted in an investment boom, and
expanded transportation networks linking Jakarta to outlying areas like Bogor and
Bandung have spurred virtually uncontrollable growth. Large amounts of prime agri-
cultural land have been converted into housing developments (Firman & Dharmap-
atani, 1994), resulting in reduced water absorption capacity in the upstream Ciliwung
watershed that contributes to floods in the downstream area. Steep slopes, high annual
rainfall, and intensive land cultivation have substantially intensified soil erosion and
surface run-off and exacerbated the risk of landslides. Water and air pollution and fre-
quent traffic jams are also causing concern. The continuing development of tourism
in Puncak is threatening further environmental degradation so countermeasures are
greatly needed.
200 J. Singer et al.
Table 11.1 Waste in Tugu Utara Village, Puncak
Land use Weight (kg/ha/year) Area of buildings (ha) Total weight (kg/year)
Settlements 262.46 74.36 19,515.82
Villas/hotels 217.94 20.73 451.72
Other structures 3.87 5.05 19.55
Tot a l 484.27 100.14 24,054.09
Source Dewanti (2017)
11.7 Statistics on Tourism and Waste
Bogor Regency Regulation No. 35 (2014) identified three districts in Puncak as
tourism-affected: Cisarua, Megamendung, and part of Ciawi. Based on research
conducted by Dwikorawati (2012), the total number of tourists in the Puncak area
increased by 21.11% in five years, from 1,102,680 tourists in 2004 to 1,335,443
in 2009. The number includes up to 100,000 travelers per year from Saudi Arabia
and other Middle Eastern nations (Suhada & Florentin, 2017). Tourist visits to Pun-
cak especially increase during weekends. Traffic density is highest at such popular
destinations in Puncak as the Gunung Mas tea plantation, Taman Wisata Matahari
amusement park, and the Curug Cilember forest area.
Increasing tourism is driving continuing growth of solid waste, especially from
roadside stalls and settlements. Bogor Regency produces 1.2 million tons of waste in
one year, but the regency government, which bears responsibility for waste manage-
ment, only collects and disposes of 25% of the waste due to an insufficient number
of sanitation trucks. Research conducted by a local university student in Tugu Utara
Village, Cisarua District, showed that the highest volume of waste was produced
by local settlements (see Table 11.1). The district government has encouraged com-
munities to create their own waste management systems and to foster a sustainable
natural environment by cleaning up garbage on the road and transporting waste to
landfill sites.
11.8 History and Description of Waste Education Activities
According to Damanhari (2008), some of the factors contributing to poor SWM in
Indonesia include inadequate funding, low prioritization by local governments for
waste management, and limited human resources, but the problems are compounded
by poorly implemented waste education. In Indonesia, waste management education
is taught in primary schools as part of mandated environmental education. Such learn-
ing mainly consists of knowledge of the difference between organic and inorganic
waste for the elementary school student. With the aim of improving environmental
awareness and conserving the environment, environmental education and population
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 201
Fig. 11.7 Waste separation instruction for elementary school students (with permission from Aya
Hanzawa)
studies have been incorporated into formal education in primary school since 1986
under the rubric of studies in population and environment (PKLH). National Law No.
32/2009 on Environmental Protection and Management, which included compulsory
provision of environmental education, was enacted in 2009, but the nation continues
to lag in ESD implementation and public awareness (Parker, 2017) and at least in
Puncak, students’ waste education curriculum often cannot be applied in daily life
due to the lack of waste sorting, transport and disposal facilities.
In the Puncak area, activities have been conducted by Bogor-area university stu-
dents and other volunteers to increase awareness of the 3Rs and the need to sort waste
(Fig. 11.7). Students have also carried out action research in local villages to raise
community awareness of the need to improve Puncak’s physical environment by
implementing participatory environmental planning. This includes technical studies
on local land use, spatial inconsistencies, and land use/land cover changes as well as
participatory studies on socioeconomic aspects, including local culture, demolition
of vacation homes, and community development in Puncak.
The Konsorsium Penyelamatan Puncak (Save Puncak Consortium) was estab-
lished in 2014 as an open consortium that invites government institutions, com-
munities, business entities, academia, media, and other parties to jointly improve
the environmental quality of the Puncak water catchment area. The consortium was
initiated by a research institute, The Center for Regional Systems, Analysis, Plan-
ning and Development (CRESTPENT/P4W), Bogor Agricultural University, some
202 J. Singer et al.
Fig. 11.8 Activity of PRA (with permission from Lutfia Nursetya Fuadina)
NGOs (Forest Watch Indonesia, Ciliwung Care Community), and some local com-
munity representatives in recognition of the need for a multi-stakeholder approach
to tackle the complex issues faced by Puncak. The consortium implements tested
participatory development approaches like PRA (participatory rural appraisal) and
RRA (rapid rural appraisal) to promote village-level discussion of the importance
of environmental preservation for reducing the impact of disaster risk (Fig. 11.8).
The consortium began collaborative environmental activities with residents in Tugu
Utara and Tugu Selatan villages in 2014. They first identified 44 unsightly solid
waste dumps in both villages, most located inside a tea plantation and on a river-
bank. After the sites were identified, the community agreed to eradicate the garbage
piles, and clean-up campaigns have been conducted on a monthly basis since that
time, in collaboration with villagers of all ages and volunteers from outside the area
(Fig. 11.9). After the waste is collected, it is moved to more accessible locations for
transporting to disposal sites by truck.
11.9 Achievements and Challenges
Campaign and consortium activities in Puncak Area are generating greater grassroots
participation by local communities, NGOs, academicians, and local government offi-
cers, and this has led to the emergence of local advocates for changes in policies,
relationships, and resource allocation to promote sustainable SWM. The consor-
tium has striven to establish strong ties with village leaders to promote participation.
However, many challenges remain in reducing waste. Communities have found it
difficult to dispose of already accumulated waste in overwhelmed, often inacces-
sible local landfill sites. In addition, municipal sanitation trucks come only once a
week and do not reach all areas. Outside of irregular volunteer activities, there is
11 Solid Waste Management in Tourist Destinations … 203
Fig. 11.9 Consortium-sponsored litter campaign in Puncak Area. Source http://savepuncak.org/
gallery/, with permission from Save Puncak Consortium
little attempt to educate residents about waste management; many regard waste as
solely the responsibility of the government.
Funding for management of final disposal sites has become a major constraint for
municipalities (MacMillan, 2007). However, the overall costs of SWM educational
activities are low if considering the benefits of a cleaner and better environment (Zur-
brugg, 2002), including mitigation of disaster hazards such as landslides at garbage
piles.
There has been some conflict with communities living near dumpsites or with
other cities that refuse the disposal of waste from outside. It is clear that local gov-
ernment is not yet cognizant of the need to commit time and resources for solid waste
management. In addition, there is a need to investigate new pathways for managing
solid waste through the innovative collection, separation, and disposal mechanisms.
11.10 Summary and Recommendations
Although increased tourism brings increases in SW generation at all travel desti-
nations, the challenges and capacity for waste management in developing nations
can greatly vary. For urban sites, especially those with UNESCO World Heritage
Site designation, tourist inflows can serve as a double-edged sword for effective
waste management. Tourists from developed nations generate more waste than local
residents yet often have high expectations for sanitation and public cleanliness. Nev-
204 J. Singer et al.
ertheless, their presence may spur greater municipal and household prioritization of
waste management, leading to improved waste segregation, composting and recy-
cling behavior. Local actors may be able to solicit increased ODA and other funding
for waste education and awareness campaigns, development assistance and technol-
ogy transfer to improve waste management. Since many of the tourists originate in
developed countries there may be greater recognition of an ethical burden for these
countries to contribute to improving the environment at these key tourism sites.
For urban areas like Hoi An, a collaboration between local universities, NGOs,
local government, and other actors can bring long-term benefits, but sustaining short-
term courses, programs, and funding as students and other stakeholders cycle in
and out can pose a challenge. Funding should be secured for teaching collaborative
courses, and research grant proposals should be a priority. Regular discussions or
meetings can help faculty members transfer knowledge of course administration, and
active partnerships with local organizations can be strengthened with joint research
and by sponsoring student internships and/or volunteering.
Rural areas may face greater challenges, as poor funding and capacity result
in poor or nonexistent SW collection, and levels of education and awareness of
waste management are low. This is especially true for areas not directly impacted by
tourism. Some recommendations for supporting the implementation of successful
waste management in rural areas like Puncak include: (1) Educate and encourage
people to carry out 3R practices; (2) Foster an SW approach that can generate jobs
for informal economy scavengers and other local residents in composting, recycling
and similar practices; (3) Encourage local involvement in SWM by residents, senior
citizens, NGOs, neighborhood associations, volunteers, students, researchers, and
local government staff; (4) Build local government capacity and promote technol-
ogy transfer for waste management and (5) Implement community-based nonformal
environmental education. Since the schools are among the best venues for promoting
SWM education, the following activities are advised: (a) work with local teachers
in setting up educational programs/activities; (b) establish a pilot project in a few
schools, then expand to the entire school system; and (c) reward students who par-
ticipate in SWM projects to increase involvement.
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Jane Singer is Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies
(GSGES), Kyoto University, Japan. She has a Master’s degree from Columbia University and a
Ph.D. from Kyoto University. Her principal research focus is displacement due to development
and climate change in Asia Pacific. She also researches tertiary ESD and community resilience
issues. Recent co-edited monographs include Global Implications of Development, Disasters and
Climate Change (with Susanna Price, 2016); Education for Sustainability in Japan (with Tracey
Gannon, Fumiko Noguchi and Yoko Mochizuki, 2017); and Country Frameworks for Develop-
ment Displacement and Resettlement (with Susanna Price, 2019), all from Routledge.
Kinh Thi Kieu obtained her Bachelor and Master’s Degrees in Environmental Engineering at The
University of Technology, The University of Danang in Vietnam and her Ph.D. in Environmen-
tal Management at the Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University. Cur-
rently, she is a lecturer and head of the Department of Environment and Biological Resources, The
University of Science and Education, The University of Danang.
Andrea Emma Pravitasari obtained a Bachelor’s Degree in the Soil Science Study Program at
the Department of Soil Science and Land Resources at Bogor Agricultural University (IPB Uni-
versity) and a Master’s Degree in Regional Planning Study Program at the Graduate School of
Bogor Agricultural University (IPB University). She received a Ph.D. in Environmental Manage-
ment from the Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University.
Currently, she is a Lecturer at Division of Regional Planning, Department of Soil Science and
Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB University) and she also a researcher at Cen-
ter for Regional Systems Analysis, Planning and Development (CRESTPENT/P4W), IPB.