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Boredom begets boredom: An experience sampling study on the impact of teacher boredom on student boredom and motivation

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Background: Boredom is a common complaint among students. Boredom was previously found to be negatively associated with academic outcomes, such as academic motivation, strategies, and achievement. It is of interest to understand students' in-class boredom, especially factors that might exacerbate it. Aims: The current study examines the influence of teacher's boredom on students' in-class boredom and learning experience. It aims to understand the relationship between teacher boredom, students' perceived teacher boredom, student boredom, and student learning motivation. Sample: A total of 437 students (54.8% female, MAge = 14.5 years, SD = 1.6) and 17 of their teachers (29.4% female, 76.5% 40 years old or below) participated in the study. Methods: We conducted an experience sampling study, in which participants completed a 2-week diary. Data were analysed using multilevel modelling. Results and conclusions: Results from multilevel modelling of 2,675 post-class evaluations indicated that teacher boredom was negatively associated with students' motivation. However, the relationship between teacher boredom and students' perceived teacher boredom was not significant, suggesting that students did not accurately perceive whether their teacher was bored. Results from indirect effect analysis further revealed that students' perception of teacher boredom predicted student learning motivation through student boredom. In other words, perceiving teachers being bored promoted students' own feeling of boredom, which in turn reduced their learning motivation. Together, these results indicate that when a teacher is bored in class, or when students perceive that their teacher is bored, students would have lower learning motivation.

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... The concept of boredom as a damaging experience has long been the focus of research in educational psychology, psychotherapy, and general education (Daniels et al., 2015;Daschmann, 2013;Malkovsky et al., 2012). It has been found that boredom hurts both students' and teachers' academic success, performance, and well-being (Tam et al., 2020). However, most existing studies on boredom have either focused on the causes of and solutions to student boredom or the role of teachers as a cause of students' boredom (Tam et al., 2020). ...
... It has been found that boredom hurts both students' and teachers' academic success, performance, and well-being (Tam et al., 2020). However, most existing studies on boredom have either focused on the causes of and solutions to student boredom or the role of teachers as a cause of students' boredom (Tam et al., 2020). The same trend is observable in the context of L2 education research highlighting the nature and dynamics of student boredom, though using different research designs and instruments (e.g., Chapman 2013; Derakhshan et al., 2021b;Kruk, 2016b;Kruk & Zawodniak, 2018Pawlak et al., 2021;Yazdanmehr et al., 2021;Zawodniak et al., 2017, among others). ...
... He also suggested that by expressing and reflecting on their emotions, teachers can better understand and regulate them. In Hong Tam et al. (2020) conducted a study to examine the association between teacher boredom, student boredom, and student learning motivation and found that groups of purposefully chosen individuals, which adds credibility to the results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). ...
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Although researching emotions in language education has dramatically increased during the past decades, little is written about the effects of aversive feelings like teacher boredom in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context, especially in the context of online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic. Against this shortcoming, this study examined the causes of and solutions to teacher boredom experienced by 216 Chinese EFL teachers, including both genders with their ages ranging from 19 to 58. In so doing, the researcher used maximum variation sampling to gather the data via an open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The gleaned data were then thematically analyzed by MAXQDA (Version 2020) whose results indicated that most participants consider the online mode of delivery more boring than the face-to-face mode. Additionally, the findings demonstrated that both the antecedents of and the solutions to teacher boredom come under the macro-categories of student-related, task-related, IT-related, and teacher-related factors and solutions. Out of these, IT-related factors and teacher-related solutions were the most frequently raised themes extracted from the data. The study presents some practical implications and directions for future research.
... The explanations for the relationship between teachers' psychological functioning and student well-being are rather scattered in the literature. Some scholars discussed the role of emotional crossover mechanisms between teachers and students (Tam et al., 2019;Tikkanen et al., 2021). Such mechanisms imply that one person can experience the emotions of another, following the unconscious processing of the facial expressions and non-verbal cues manifested in their interaction (Hatfield et al., 1994). ...
... Such mechanisms imply that one person can experience the emotions of another, following the unconscious processing of the facial expressions and non-verbal cues manifested in their interaction (Hatfield et al., 1994). From this perspective, students could unconsciously emulate the facial expressions and non-verbal cues of their teachers, which makes them experience the same emotion through physiological feedback loops (Tam et al., 2019). Moreover, since emotional contagion goes both ways, teachers can also experience negative states when they are exposed to students that are struggling with poor well-being and are anxious, confused or disinterested during classroom interactions. ...
... Hence, it might be easier for students to observe and accurately identify aspects of their teachers' selfrealization, and more difficult to pick up on aspects of psychological functioning. For example, teacher reports of boredom did not correlate with student reports of their teachers' boredom in a study conducted in high schools, indicating that students have a difficulty in accurately identifying their teachers' undesirable emotions (Tam et al., 2019). Such findings raise important research questions for the future of this literature regarding the role of students' developmental levels in emotional awareness as possible moderators of the association between teachers' psychological functioning and student outcomes (Tam et al., 2019). ...
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The present contribution reports a systematic review of the literature that analyzed the relationships between teachers’ subjective well-being (SWB) and student school experience (i.e., academic performance, academic engagement, student well-being, and student reports of teacher-student interactions). We categorized teachers’ well-being into hedonic SWB (e.g., experiencing positive emotions, life satisfaction, job satisfaction) and eudaimonic SWB (e.g., experiencing high psychological functioning or high sense of self-realization). An online search yielded 1872 abstracts that were analyzed for eligibility, yielding a number of 26 studies that were included in the meta-analysis. These 26 contributions i) reported an empirical research study; ii) collected data from teachers and students; and iii) reported zero-order standardized correlation coefficients between teacher data and student data. We found that most studies focused on assessing teachers’ psychological functioning (20 studies). Overall results suggested that teachers’ eudaimonic SWB had moderate associations with the quality of student-teacher interactions (r = .243, 95% CI [.045; .422], k = 9), with students’ well-being (r = .280, 95% CI [.117; .428], k = 8), and with student engagement (r = .250, 95% CI [.115; .375], k = 8). We found weaker correlations between teachers’ eudaimonic SWB and student achievement (r = .065, 95% CI [.016; .112], k = 8). Our results suggested that teachers’ eudaimonic SWB is significantly associated with student-related variables, but the directionality of this relationship needs further investigations.
... Nonetheless, within the self-determination theory, whereas the link between autonomy supportive practices and academic boredom is clear, not the same happens with negative emotions and autonomous kinds of motivation (Sutter-Brandenberger et al., 2018). In this way, very few studies have examined emotions as predictors of motivation (Isen & Reeve, 2005;Tam et al., 2020;Vandercammen et al., 2014) and even fewer have done so in the higher education context. This fact just highlights the need to explicitly address such links to understand the interplay of emotions, motivation, and teaching practices. ...
... Finally, results also support H3. Students' academic boredom negatively predicted students' experiences of agentic engagement and motivation. This lines up with Tam et al. (2020) results which found, in a sample of secondary students, that their feelings of boredom reduced their learning motivation. Similarly, Sutter-Brandenberger et al. (2018), also, in a sample of secondary students, found negative relations between boredom and motivation. ...
... Boredom is recognised in educational settings as an achievement emotion that can negatively impact student engagement and academic performance. Studies have shown that boredom is associated with lower levels of academic motivation and engagement, which can lead to adverse academic outcomes [51,52]. Moreover, boredom can indicate low student engagement, characterised by passivity and lack of interest in learning activities [53]. ...
... Interestingly, the Focus score began to recover as the lecture became more fluent, but it did not intermittently shift again when the information was too elaborated. Additionally, students may not accurately perceive their teachers' boredom, yet the perception of teacher boredom can still reduce students' learning motivation through increased student boredom [52]. This suggests that not only the actual boredom of teachers but also students' perceptions of it are relevant to student engagement. ...
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Eye-tracking technology has emerged as a valuable tool for evaluating cognitive load in online learning environments. This study investigates the potential of AI-driven consumer behaviour prediction eye-tracking technology to improve the learning experience by monitoring students’ attention and delivering real-time feedback. In our study, we analysed two online lecture videos used in higher education from two institutions: Oxford Business College and Utrecht University. We conducted this analysis to assess cognitive demands in PowerPoint presentations, as this directly affects the effectiveness of knowledge dissemination and the learning process. We utilised a neuromarketing-research consumer behaviour eye-tracking AI prediction software called ‘Predict’, which employs an algorithm constructed on the largest neuroscience database (comprising previous studies conducted on live participants n = 180,000 with EEG and eye-tracking data). The analysis for this study was carried out using the programming language R, followed by a series of t-tests for each video and Pearson’s correlation tests to examine the relationship between ocus and cognitive demand. The findings suggest that AI-powered eye-tracking systems have the potential to transform online learning by providing educators with valuable insights into students’ cognitive processes and enabling them to optimise instructional materials for improved learning outcomes. Keywords: AI eye tracking; neuromarketing; higher education; cognitive loads; online learning
... It is important to note that, to our knowledge, this model has not yet been tested in studies of academic boredom, although it could be quite useful in this context (e.g., relatively high rates of ADHD in high school and university students). However, quite a few of studies on academic boredom refer to the definition of boredom as presented in Eastwood et al.'s (2012) work (e.g., Tam et al., 2020). boredom. ...
... Consistent with the aforementioned mediating mechanisms, learning-related boredom has been found to correlate positively with learning-related attention problems (Pekrun et al., 2010, in press) and cognitive errors (Wallace et al., 2003), and negatively with memory performance (i.e., recall; Trevors et al. 2017). Boredom also relates negatively to students' intrinsic motivation (e.g., and motivation to learn (for an experience sampling study see Tam et al., 2020). Students' boredom has also been shown to correlate negatively with their use of deep learning strategies (e.g., Pekrun et al., 2011, in press;Tze et al., 2016) and with self-regulated learning skills, such as goal-setting, perseverance, and Academic Boredom 16 decision making (de la Fuente et al., 2020;Pekrun et al., 2010;Pekrun et al., 2011;Tze et al., 2016). ...
... Boredom is an "aversive state of wanting but being unable to engage in satisfying activity" (Eastwood et al., 2012, p. 483). It is an unpleasant experience (Merrifield & Danckert, 2014;Vogel-Walcutt et al., 2012) that comes with a wide range of adverse consequences in educational settings, such as lower dedication to learning (Tze et al., 2014), lower effort (Pekrun et al., 2002(Pekrun et al., , 2010, lower learning motivation (Pekrun et al., 2010;Tam et al., 2020), poorer time management (Ranellucci et al., 2015), more attention problems (Pekrun et al., 2010), and lower class attendance (Mann & Robinson, 2009;Sharp et al., 2017). Extensive evidence has demonstrated a negative impact of boredom on academic performance (e.g., Pekrun et al., 2010Pekrun et al., , 2014Putwain et al., 2018;Sharp et al., 2017; for a meta-analysis, see Tze et al., 2016). ...
... According to the control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006;Pekrun et al., 2010), boredom arises when an activity is perceived as low in value with its demand being too high or too low. Perceived autonomy (Tze et al., 2014), goal orientation (Ranellucci et al., 2015), teachers' presentation styles (Goetz et al., 2013), instruction characteristics, personality (Daschmann et al., 2014), perceived level of boredom (Tam et al., 2020), and their relationships with students (Goetz et al., 2021) are other predictors of students' boredom. It appears that students are at least partly aware of these triggers, as they would skip lectures that they think are boring (Mann & Robinson, 2009). ...
Article
Background: Academic boredom is ubiquitous, and it leads to a range of adverse learning outcomes. Given that students often make estimates of how boring lectures are, does anticipating a lecture to be boring shape their actual experience of boredom? Aims: The current research investigated whether anticipated boredom intensifies subsequent boredom felt in lectures. Samples: We recruited undergraduate students to participate in three studies. Methods: Study 1 (N = 121) and study 2 (N = 130) were conducted in natural university lecture environments. We found that students who anticipated a lecture to bore them more subsequently felt more bored by it. In study 3 (N = 92), we experimentally manipulated anticipated boredom before participants watched a lecture video. We found that those who were led to anticipate higher levels of boredom felt more bored by the video. Results and conclusions: Results converged to indicate that the mere expectation that a lecture will be boring may be sufficient to exacerbate its subsequent occurrence. We discuss these findings in the contexts of affective forecasting and education.
... Much of the current literature (e.g. Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2019;Tam, 2020) showcases teachers playing a crucial role in shaping the emotional environment in the classroom. Teacher emotions are a key factor in in luencing the emotions students are likely to experience during class (Becker et al., 2014;Frenzel et al., 2009;Keller & Becker, 2021). ...
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Teachers experience different emotions during their practices, and these emotions not only impact the teachers themselves but also their students. Despite the increasing emphasis on investigating teacher emotions, the emotional experiences of pre-service teachers have been neglected in the existing literature. This study, therefore, aims to explore the emotions of pre-service English language teachers (PELTs) during micro-teaching sessions, utilizing a mixed-methods research design. Quantitative data were collected through a questionnaire, while qualitative data were obtained through focus group interviews. Findings indicate that participants experience both positive (enjoyment) and negative (anxiety and boredom) emotions across different phases of micro-teaching. These emotions were found to stem from distinct factors encountered during micro-teaching sessions.
... It is associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety, stress, apathy, anhedonia, and lower life satisfaction 3,39,41,43,44 . Academic boredom results in lower motivations to learn, poorer grades, and reduced academic effort and interest [45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52] . Behaviourally, momentary experiences of boredom can trigger sadistic aggression 5,53 , unhealthy snacking 54,55 , risk-taking 42 , ingroup favouritism, outgroup devaluation 56 , political polarization 32 , selfadministering electric shocks 54,57,58 , as well as self-administering aversive sounds despite the presence of a positive alternative 59 . ...
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In an era where entertainment is effortlessly at our fingertips, one would assume that people are less bored than ever. Yet, reports of boredom are higher now than compared to the past. This rising trend is concerning because chronic boredom can undermine well-being, learning, and behaviour. Understanding why this is happening is crucial to prevent further negative impacts. In this Perspective, we explore one possible reason—digital media use makes people more bored. We propose that digital media increases boredom through dividing attention, elevating desired level of engagement, reducing sense of meaning, heightening opportunity costs, and serving as an ineffective boredom coping strategy.
... No obstante, el uso exclusivo de métodos repetitivos podría reducir la motivación de los estudiantes a largo plazo (Domínguez et al., 2013;Lee & Choi, 2011;Vuyk et al., 2024). La monotonía en el enfoque pedagógico puede contribuir a una disminución en el interés y el compromiso, tal como sugieren estudios sobre la motivación en contextos educativos (Schukajlow & Rakoczy, 2016;Tam et al., 2020). ...
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La correcta enseñanza de los signos de puntuación es fundamental para el desarrollo de las competencias escritas en la educación básica, ya que su uso adecuado influye en la coherencia y claridad del texto. Sin embargo, estudios previos han demostrado que los estudiantes enfrentan dificultades recurrentes en la aplicación de algunos de estos signos, lo que afecta negativamente su desempeño en la escritura. En este contexto, el presente estudio se orientó a analizar la enseñanza de los signos de puntuación en la escritura de los estudiantes de la Escuela Cacique Tumbalá de Zumbahua, durante el periodo lectivo 2024-2025. La metodología es de enfoque mixto y diseño no experimental, incluyó a 25 estudiantes de quinto año y utilizó cuestionarios y pruebas escritas para recopilar datos, los cuales fueron analizados mediante técnicas estadísticas. El coeficiente alfa de Cronbach (α=0.960) confirmó la fiabilidad del instrumento empleado. Los resultados revelaron que los docentes utilizaron principalmente metodologías tradicionales, con una limitada diversidad de recursos, lo que restringió el aprendizaje integral. Los estudiantes mostraron dominio en el uso de la coma y el punto, pero dificultades en la aplicación de la tilde y los signos de exclamación. Se concluye que, aunque la enseñanza regular de los signos de puntuación es efectiva, se requiere una mayor diversificación en las estrategias pedagógicas para abordar de manera integral las áreas que presentan mayor dificultad.
... Instead of sticking to a single learning method, it should be adaptable based on the material being taught. This approach helps prevent students from becoming bored with the teacher's chosen learning model (Ekatushabe et al., 2021;Hidajat et al., 2020;Tam et al., 2020). Continuous efforts to enhance the quality of education are necessary, employing both conventional methods and innovative approaches utilizing digital technology (Febianti, 2020;Lubis, 2023;Sari et al., 2020). ...
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This research was conducted with the aim of finding out how to increase student motivation in learning history by using a sociodrama model on the main material of events surrounding the proclamation in Class XI A of SMA Negeri 1 Bunyu for the 2023/2024 academic year. The research method used in this research is the experimental method, which explains students' learning motivation in the History subject with the subject matter of Events Surrounding the Proclamation in Class XI A at SMA Negeri 1 Bunyu for the 2023/2024 academic year. The design used in this research is One Group Pretest – Posttest Design. The subjects of this research were 25 students in Class XI A, Academic Year 2023/2024, consisting of 17 female students and 8 male students. Data collection techniques were carried out using tests before treatment (pretest) and after treatment (posttest). The sampling approach used in this research is a saturated sample. The results of this research prove that there is a significant difference in student motivation before and after applying the sociodrama method for class XI A students at SMA Negeri 1 Bunyu for the 2023/2024 academic year. The results of the paired t-test show a significant value of 0.000 < 0.05, which means the influence given is significant. The pretest data obtained a mean of 59.48 and the posttest data obtained a mean of 79.24, where there was an increase in the average of 19.76 points.
... Conversely, instructors commonly report experiencing negative affect like anger, frustration, and annoyance when goals are not attained in the classroom (Sutton, 2007;Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Other commonly reported negative affective states are anxiety, burnout or emotional exhaustion, boredom, as well as guilt and sadness when students face personal difficulties (Chang, 2009;� Sari� c, 2015;Tam et al., 2020). ...
... A diary study showed an association between how bored students perceive their teacher to be. Students who rated their teacher's boredom higher (i.e., they perceived their teacher was more bored in class) had higher boredom and lower motivation (Tam et al., 2020). Interestingly, the student-perceived teacher boredom was not significantly associated with teacher's own reports of boredom. ...
Article
Boredom is a negative emotion that most people experience on occasion. However, boredom is also present on a trait level. People high in trait boredom experience boredom more frequently or have difficulty tolerating it. Individuals high in trait boredom are more likely to experience depression or anxiety or engage in risk behaviors. Little is known about the development of trait boredom. We propose a bioecological model of the development of trait boredom in which it originates from early individual differences in temperament and executive control. Trait boredom is shaped over time through interactions between the child and their developmental context, such as parents, teachers, and neighborhoods. Boredom can also spur creativity. Capitalizing on the creative side of boredom may help promote low levels of trait boredom and healthy coping. We provide a roadmap to study the development of trait boredom to advance our understanding of how it emerges and develops.
... In another study by Strati et al. (2017), authors found that the emotional support teachers provided during challenging lessons positively predicted students' engagement during these lessons, while teachers' negative emotional expressions ("emotional obstruction") decreased engagement. In examining the more specific influence of teacher emotions on student engagement and related learning behaviors, studies have shown that teachers' enjoyment, anger, anxiety, and boredom have all been found to relate to the corresponding emotion in their students (Becker et al., 2014;Frenzel et al., 2009;Tam et al., 2020). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
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We explored associations among teachers’ self-reported enjoyment for teaching mathematics, science, and English language arts and their students’ self-reported behavioral engagement in each content area, and how these associations varied depending on student sex and socioeconomic status. Participants included 33 fourth-grade teachers and 443 students from 14 schools in the Southwestern United States. Multiple regression models with cluster robust standard errors was used. Models regressed students’ content-area engagement on teachers’ content-area enjoyment, controlling for students’ initial engagement in that content area and other relevant covariates. Teachers’ English language arts and mathematics enjoyment were each positively associated with students’ engagement in each content area, and an interaction effect was detected in mathematics whereby lower socioeconomic status students with low-mathematics-enjoyment teachers reported lower mathematics engagement. Findings extend recent research highlighting teachers’ emotions, and more specifically positive emotions, as factors that can be leveraged to support student learning, as well as provide more nuanced information about the contexts and student groups for whom these processes may be most relevant.
... Research on the emotions of in-service teachers has repeatedly shown that teacher emotions are of the utmost importance for Extended author information available on the last page of the article the quality of teaching and teacher well-being (for overviews, see Frenzel, 2014;Frenzel et al., 2021;Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Emotions hold additional significance because they are "contagious," that is, they transfer between students and teachers (Frenzel et al., 2018;Tam et al., 2020). Student teachers also experience a diverse array of emotions during their school practicum. ...
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The emotional well-being of individuals is largely dependent on the quality of their social relationships, as acknowledged by self-determination theory and the belongingness hypothesis. While the significance of high-quality relationships for teachers has received increasing attention in empirical research, little is known about the impact of social relationships on student teachers' emotions in the practicum, especially from a quantitative perspective and considering multiple relationship qualities simultaneously. Research on this topic is highly topical as emotions have been found to be important drivers both for professional behaviour in the classroom and professionalisation processes in general. Against this backdrop, our study examined how the quality of social relationships between students in class, mentor teachers, and fellow student teachers influences the development of emotional experiences of student teachers in a school practicum. We conducted an online survey with 203 Austrian student teachers studying secondary education, inquiring about their emotional experiences and social relationships before and after their practicum. The results revealed that the quality of relationships with students in class was the most influential factor determining changes in student teachers’ emotional states during their practicum. These findings emphasise the importance of cultivating positive relationships with students in the classroom, especially during the school practicum in teacher education.
... Es importante resaltar las consecuencias que tiene el aburrimiento académico en las personas. Se ha encontrado que los estudiantes que experimentan aburrimiento académico tienen menores niveles de: orgullo, esperanza y disfrute (de la Fuente et al., 2020), motivación intrínseca (Khan et al., 2019), aspiraciones de carrera (Krannich et al., 2019), autorregulación emocional y progreso académico (Sharp et al., 2017), atención (Solhi, 2021), bienestar psicológico y aprendizaje autorregulado (Sverdick et al., 2021), motivación académica (Tam et al., 2020) y aprovechamiento académico (Ghensi et al., 2021;Mugon et al., 2020;Skues et al., 2016). Cabe destacar que los estudiantes con altos niveles de aburrimiento presentan mayores niveles de ausentismo y conductas mal adaptativas (Sharp et al., 2017), sentimientos de soledad, estrés y uso problemático del internet (Skues et al., 2016). ...
... Students frequently complain about boredom. Boredom has previously been linked to negative academic outcomes such as academic motivation, strategies, and achievement [1]- [4] that was also among the important factors leading to dropout as reported by Durairaj et al. [5]. It is important to comprehend students' in-class boredom, particularly factors that may make worse [6]. ...
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Boredom has previously been linked to negative academic outcomes such as academic motivation, strategies, and achievement. The understanding of multiple intelligence approaches creates opportunities for all learners to develop their potential to optimize learning through differentiated instructions. This research aims: i) to design and to develop differentiated instruction based on learners’ multiple intelligences for elementary schools; and ii) to measure the effectivity of students’ learning attitude and mastery of concepts. Using design and development research (DDR) anchored on analysis, development, design, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE) model and quasi-experimental research, the differentiated instruction based on multiple intelligence was conducted in a private Islamic Elementary School in collaboration with 3 class teachers. Based on the results of observations conducted at the school, the findings revealed that the learners can maximize their logical-mathematical, language, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences through a differentiated instruction based on multiple intelligence approach. Students experienced a joyful and meaningful learning atmosphere; hence it was expected that their intelligences can be developed naturally. In addition. this instruction was found to be effective to enhance science concept mastery especially in the aspects of remembering, understanding, and applying. The differentiated instruction based on multiple intelligences should be developed further to examine the effectiveness of the model in thematic learning for students both with low and high achievement.
... Critically, longer scales also tend to induce boredom, making it unclear whether boredom is a function of the study instrument or one's primary task (e.g., Goetz et al., 2016;Tam et al., 2020). Still, future work may use alternative measures and manipulations to advance the research presented here. ...
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Boredom is an emotion that constantly fluctuates in employees of all ages and occupations. Here, we draw on functional theories of boredom and theories of emotion regulation to develop an episodic model of how boredom shapes employee attention and productivity over time. We argue that employees often suppress boredom at work to “power through” boring tasks and objectives, resulting in residual bouts of mind-wandering—and thus productivity deficits—during future performance episodes. However, following boredom on an initial task, the commencement of a subsequent task that employees perceive to be meaningful creates an attentional pull that breaks the link between boredom and future mind-wandering, preventing the effects of boredom from spilling over to inhibit future productivity. Study 1 draws on archival experience sampling data to test our hypotheses and examine whether boredom exhibits reciprocal relationships with mind-wandering and productivity over time. Study 2 uses an experimental design to determine whether boredom and task meaningfulness interact to exert a causal effect on future mind-wandering. Study 3 uses a time-separated single-day design to replicate Studies 1 and 2 and examine our contention that employees often suppress boredom at work which, rather than preventing the effects of boredom, puts them “on hold” until a later point in time. Our findings provide insight into how to mitigate the far-reaching effects of boredom at work; they also advance episodic accounts of emotions, attention, and performance in organizations.
... Aligned with emotion crossover theory, an individual's emotional state is likely to be transmitted to another in the same social setting (Härtel & Page, 2009). Results have also found that even individuals' perception of social interaction partners' emotional states can be contagious (Tam et al., 2019). In the context of classroom, classroom teachers' negative emotional experiences such as job strain and burnout due to their workloads are more likely to be transmitted to the pre-service EFL teachers. ...
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While the sense of belonging has seen a surge of interest in the field of social psychology, there has been a scarcity of research on the construct during school placement in initial teacher education (ITE) programs. The present study set out to explore the sense of belonging experiences of three prospective English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher during school placement along with the contributing factors involved in establishing a sense of belonging. The findings from exploratory focus group interviews with the participants and their graphic elicitation tasks revealed that interpersonal relationships and institutional factors possess essential roles in establishing a sense of belonging during school placement. Finally, pedagogical implications are discussed so as to enhance the effectiveness of school placement designs in ITE.
... As learners in the classroom, they have more contact and interaction with teachers than other people (such as parents), so students' class participation, learning motivation, and their relationship with teachers are all related to teacher emotion (Yan et al., 2011;Becker et al., 2014). When students perceive that teachers are bored, their learning motivation will decrease (Tam et al., 2019). In addition, teachers troubled by negative emotions may be less caring and tolerant of students and unable to maintain an excellent teacher-student relationship. ...
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While research on teacher emotions has grown in the past decades, little is known about rural teachers’ and novice teachers’ emotions. Based on ecological theory, this study selected two novice EFL teachers as the research objects. The goal was to explore their emotional experiences and the factors that influenced them over 3 years while teaching in rural primary schools. The research data was collected primarily through semi-structured interviews, teaching diaries, and narrative frameworks. Three-step coding and topic analysis were used to analyze the collected data. The data analysis revealed that the two novice teachers generated 62 emotions while interacting with various ecosystems. In Microsystems, teacher-student interaction has a strong influence on participants’ emotions. Two participants experienced 19 positive emotions and 9 negative emotions during their interactions with the students. In addition, novice teachers may experience negative emotions if they are burdened with too many non-teaching tasks. In this study, two participants were able to effectively manage their negative emotions. The general emotional trend was positive, which motivated them to stay and continue teaching in the rural area. The results of this study have implications for the professional development of rural teachers and novice teachers.
... Although the language of education is typically framed in terms of learning objectives (what teachers wish to teach) and learning outcomes (what it is hoped that students will learn), there is always far more learning that occurs than this; at the very least, whether positive or negative, students learn attitudes and values, approaches to problem solving, ways of thinking, ways of relating to others in this context, motivation, and ways of understanding. It is telling, for instance, that perceived boredom in a teacher results in greater actual boredom in students [57]. Similarly, approaches to teaching and structural features of educational systems that disempower learners create attitudes of acquiescence and detract from their intrinsic motivation to learn [58][59][60]. ...
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This paper analyzes the ways that the widespread use of generative AIs (GAIs) in education and, more broadly, in contributing to and reflecting the collective intelligence of our species, can and will change us. Methodologically, the paper applies a theoretical model and grounded argument to present a case that GAIs are different in kind from all previous technologies. The model extends Brian Arthur’s insights into the nature of technologies as the orchestration of phenomena to our use by explaining the nature of humans’ participation in their enactment, whether as part of the orchestration (hard technique, where our roles must be performed correctly) or as orchestrators of phenomena (soft technique, performed creatively or idiosyncratically). Education may be seen as a technological process for developing these soft and hard techniques in humans to participate in the technologies, and thus the collective intelligence, of our cultures. Unlike all earlier technologies, by embodying that collective intelligence themselves, GAIs can closely emulate and implement not only the hard technique but also the soft that, until now, was humanity’s sole domain; the very things that technologies enabled us to do can now be done by the technologies themselves. Because they replace things that learners have to do in order to learn and that teachers must do in order to teach, the consequences for what, how, and even whether learning occurs are profound. The paper explores some of these consequences and concludes with theoretically informed approaches that may help us to avert some dangers while benefiting from the strengths of generative AIs. Its distinctive contributions include a novel means of understanding the distinctive differences between GAIs and all other technologies, a characterization of the nature of generative AIs as collectives (forms of collective intelligence), reasons to avoid the use of GAIs to replace teachers, and a theoretically grounded framework to guide adoption of generative AIs in education.
... If the teacher cannot communicate and utilise learning facilities properly, students will find it difficult to receive lessons, get bored quickly, and have no interest in learning. This results in students looking bored and less motivated to learn, which impacts learning outcomes that are not in line with expectations (Tam et al., 2020;Wuryandani & Herwin, 2021). ...
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This study aimed to enhance the quality of Shield Metal Arc Welding instruction in Class XI Welding Engineering at State Vocational High School 1 Bukittinggi through the integration of interactive media videos. Employing a class action research design with saturated sampling, the research findings revealed that the implementation of video tutorials significantly improved student motivation and learning outcomes. The use of video tutorials captured students' interest, resulting in increased motivation for learning Shield Metal Arc Welding. In the initial cycle, student motivation in Class XI Welding Engineering at State Vocational High School 1 Bukittinggi, as measured in meeting I, stood at 54%, indicating a less motivated state. By meeting II of cycle I, the motivation increased to 61%, categorized as moderately motivated. In the subsequent cycle, meeting I recorded a motivation level of 72%, demonstrating a motivated state, while meeting II in cycle II reached 82%, indicating a highly motivated state. Consequently, there was a noticeable progression in student learning motivation from cycle I to cycle II. Furthermore, student learning outcomes in Shield Metal Arc Welding for Class XI Welding Engineering at State Vocational High School 1 Bukittinggi improved when videos were utilized as interactive media. In cycle I, the average student learning outcome was 77.88, categorized as moderate. In cycle II, the average increased to 79.06, reflecting a high level of achievement. This indicates a positive shift in student learning outcomes, moving from moderate to good performance.
... Em outras palavras, para os alunos faz muita diferença a qualidade motivacional dos seus professores. Tam et al. (2019), por exemplo, demonstraram em seu estudo que professores entediados, isto é, num estado que reflete desmotivação (Abós et al., 2018), têm alunos igualmente entediados. Mais especificamente sob o referencial da Teoria da Autodeterminação, em vários estudos tem sido revelado que professores com motivação autônoma (isto é, intrínseca e identificada), tendem a adotar as melhores práticas em seu ensino. ...
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Este estudo teve por objetivo estimar indicadores de validade com base na estrutura interna e precisão da Escala de Motivação do Professor para o Trabalho, por meio de uma Análise Fatorial Confirmatória (AFC). Participaram 452 docentes de diferentes etapas de ensino e regiões do país. A média de idade foi de 41 anos e 7 meses (DP = 10,2), variando de 18 a 66 anos, com predominância do gênero feminino (77,9%). Os resultados da AFC indicaram a presença das quatro dimensões, conforme mencionado na literatura científica, com índices de consistência interna considerados aceitáveis e bons índices de ajuste do instrumento. Foram encontradas correlações positivas e negativas entre os fatores, todas significativas. Por fim, os professores se mostraram mais motivados autonomamente. Os resultados evidenciam importantes contribuições à área psicoeducacional, com bons indicadores psicométricos do instrumento para avaliação do construto motivacional relacionado ao trabalho docente.
... Although the language of education is typically framed in terms of learning objectives (what teachers wish to teach) and learning outcomes (what it is hoped that students will learn) there is always far more learning that occurs than this: at the very least, whether positive or negative, students learn attitudes and values, approaches to problem-solving, ways of thinking, ways of relating to others in this context, motivation, and ways of understanding. It is telling, for instance, that perceived boredom in a teacher results in greater actual boredom in students [39]. Similarly, approaches to teaching and structural features of educational systems that disempower learners, create attitudes of acquiescence and detract from their intrinsic motivation to learn [40][41][42]. ...
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This paper applies a theoretical model to analyze the ways that widespread use of generative AIs (GAIs) in education and, more broadly, in contributing to and reflecting the collective intelligence of our species, can and will change us. The model extends Brian Arthur’s insights into the nature of technologies as the orchestration of phenomena to our use by explaining the nature of humans participation in their enactment, whether as part of the orchestration (hard technique, where our roles must be performed correctly) or as orchestrators of phenomena (soft technique performed creatively or idiosyncratically). Education may be seen as a technological process for developing the soft and hard techniques of humans to participate in the technologies and thus the collective intelligence of our cultures. Unlike all earlier technologies, by embodying that collective intelli-gence themselves, GAIs can closely emulate and implement not only the hard technique but also the soft that, until now, was humanity’s sole domain: the very things that technologies enabled us to do can now be done by the technologies themselves. The consequences for what, how, and even whether we learn are profound. The paper explores some of these consequences and concludes with theoretically informed approaches that may help us to avert some dangers while benefiting from the strengths of generative AIs.
... 21) Por lo que se refiere a las variables (externas) relacionadas con el profesor, faltan estudios que aborden el análisis de las relaciones entre las emociones experimentadas en el aula por este y las emociones (entre ellas, el disfrute) experimentadas por sus estudiantes. Dada la importancia del contagio emocional en el aula, Moskowitz y Dewaele, 2019/2021; Talebzadeh et al., 2020, sería interesante investigar, por ejemplo, los posibles efectos de la ansiedad (Liu y Wu, 2021), el aburrimiento (Dumančić, 2018;Tam et al., 2020) y el disfrute del profesor durante la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras (foreign language teaching enjoyment) (Dewaele, 2018; Mierzwa, 2019c; Moskowitz y Dewaele, 2019/2021; Proietti Ergün y Dewaele, 2021) en los niveles de disfrute experimentados por sus estudiantes. 22) Entre las variables (externas) relacionadas con el contexto destaca como la más estudiada la variable ambiente de clase (classroom environment, class atmosphere); pero la gran mayoría de las variables incluidas en este subgrupo contemplan aspectos vinculados con diferentes contextos de aprendizaje, con diferentes enfoques didácticos o con diferentes prácticas pedagógicas que tienen efectos diversos en los niveles de disfrute de los estudiantes. ...
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The purpose of this scoping review is to offer an overview of the empirical research on foreign language enjoyment (FLE), an emerging construct in the field of Applied Linguistics. After a first search across 15 databases and a second one applying the snowballing technique, 130 empirical studies published between 2014 and 2021 were included in the review. Among other results, the analysis of 20 bibliometric and methodological variables revealed a steady increase in the number of studies on FLE over the last seven years (Mdn = 2020), particularly in Asian contexts (n = 89, 68 %), and a clear predominance of the quantitative (n = 67) and mixed (n = 51) approaches over the qualitative research paradigm (n = 12). In order to measure the levels of FLE, operationalized as a unidimensional, bidimensional or tridimensional construct, the majority of the studies have used one of the five most well-known scales (n = 77), while the rest have used adapted versions or (very) different instruments. Complementarily, a total of 133 variables analyzed in relation to FLE were identified, classified in two groups (85 learner-internal variables, 48 learner-external variables) and six subgroups (22 linguistic and demographic, 37 motivational, 9 emotional and 17 personality variables, 25 professor- and 23 context-related variables) and ordered by their frequency of inclusion in the studies. Having found several problematic or still under-explored aspects, the study concludes with some suggestions for future research on FLE.
... Teacher boredom is a significant predictor of student motivation. Teacher boredom predicts student boredom (Tam et al., 2019). Previously, Daschmann, Goetz, and Stupnisky (2011) revealed seven situational precursors for class boredom: monotony, less meaningful learning, opportunity cost, too challenged, under-challenged, lack of involvement, and teacher dislike. ...
... The interplay between the role of the teacher and students' personality traits has also been indicated in some studies (Derakhshan 2022b;Hejazi and Sadoughi 2022). students' perception of teacher affective orientations strongly influences students' emotional states despite discrepancies between students' perceptions of teachers' actual experiences (Tam et al. 2020). In other words, perceiving L2 teachers' levels of enthusiasm, personal as well as academic support, and appreciation might heighten L2 learners' grit levels. ...
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This study sought to probe the relationship between perceived affective L2 teacher variables (i.e., teacher support, teacher enthusiasm, and teacher appreciation) and students’ L2 grit. Drawing on a quantitative research design and a sample of 285 Turkish ELT undergraduate students, we employed structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis to identify the interplay among these latent affective L2 teacher variables and their subcomponents, and the way they influence learners’ L2 grit. The results indicated that Turkish EFL learners’ domain-specific grit was significantly influenced by teachers’ appreciation, support, and enthusiasm. Moreover, EFL teachers’ enthusiasm was found to play the strongest predictive role in learners’ L2 grit. This study implies that academically/emotionally supportive, enthusiastic, and appreciative attitudes in language classes can act as a strong drive for enhancing language learners’ perseverance of effort and consistency of interest. The findings add to our understanding of teacher-related antecedents of L2 learner grit. Keywords: teacher support, teacher enthusiasm, teacher appreciation, learner L2 grit
... Research has illustrated that teachers' emotions and related factors are associated with a range of teacher outcomes including job satisfaction and burnout (Ferguson et al., 2012;Jones & Youngs, 2012), classroom quality (McLean & Connor, 2015;Sandilos et al., 2015), classroom relationships (Hamre & Pianta, 2004), instruction (McLean et al., 2017, discipline (Hagenauer et al., 2015), and classroom social/emotional climate (Roberts et al., 2016). Efforts to describe more specific connections between teachers' and students' emotions have been fruitful: Prior work has found that teachers' enjoyment, anger, anxiety, and boredom all relate to the corresponding emotion in students (Becker et al., 2014;Frenzel et al., 2009;Tam et al., 2020). As well, connections have been made between teachers' emotions and students' achievement and related learning behaviors. ...
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The present study explored associations among teachers’ anxiety for teaching mathematics, science, and English language arts and their students’ own anxiety in each content area, and how these associations varied depending on student sex and socioeconomic status (SES). Participants included 33 fourth-grade teachers and 463 students from 14 schools in the Southwestern United States. Multiple regression models with cluster-robust standard errors were run regressing students’ mid-year, self-reported content-area anxiety on teachers’ self-reported content-area anxiety at the beginning of the year and controlling for students’ beginning-of-year anxiety in that content area. Two interaction effects were detected whereby teachers’ mathematics and science anxiety were each positively associated with the mathematics and science anxiety of their low-SES students. Findings provide additional evidence for processes of emotional transmission between teachers and students in the classroom and provide additional information about the learning contexts and student groups for whom these processes may be particularly relevant.
... Previous studies focusing on boredom have also been undertaken to date. First of all, a study on the relationship between teacher boredom, learners perceived teacher boredom, and learning motivation was conducted by Tam et al (2020). They, in this regard, took 437 learners as the sample of this study. ...
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Former studies have demonstrated that the success of language learning is influenced by several factors such as cognitive, affective, and social factors. Learners with high motivation in learning will surely influence their success in language learning. On the other hand, those who have a poor motivation to learn will result in poor academic achievement. One of the affective factors that have also affected learners' progress in language learning is boredom in language learning. Drawing on the qualitative lens, the current study has attempted to investigate factors underlying this notion at the secondary school level. Six learners voluntarily participated in this study as the research participants. In the meantime, a written reflection (WR) and Focus-Group Discussion (FGD) were distributed to them so as to know such factors underlying their boredom in learning English. The findings indicated that factors underlying learners' boredom in language learning include classroom factors, linguistic factors, teaching and learning factors, and environmental factors. These findings have given an empirical contribution to the school. Suggestions are also put forward at the end of this paper.
... Kekurangan pembelajaran daring terlihat dari partisipasi pasif siswa dikarenakan mengalami kebosanan hingga mengakibatkan kurang memahami materi yang disampaikan. Penyebabnya karena tidak adanya komunikasi dua arah, guru tidak dapat memantau kesiapan dan antuasiasme, dan minat belajar siswa berkurang (Tam et al., 2020). Tindakan perlu dilakukan guru untuk beralih menggunakan strategi pembelajaran menjadi kunjungan kerumah (home visit) pada tiga kelompok menurut kedekatan lokasi tempat tinggal siswa (Ilhan, Ozfidan, & Yilmaz, 2019). ...
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Abstrak yang dipersiapkan dengan baik memungkinkan pembaca untuk mengidentifikasi konten dasar dokumen dengan cepat dan akurat, untuk menentukan relevansinya dengan minat mereka, dan dengan demikian memutuskan apakah akan membaca dokumen secara keseluruhan. Abstrak harus informatif dan sepenuhnya menjelaskan diri sendiri, memberikan pernyataan yang jelas tentang masalah, pendekatan atau solusi yang diusulkan, dan menunjukkan temuan dan kesimpulan utama. Abstrak harus sepanjang 100 hingga 200 kata. Abstrak harus ditulis dalam bentuk lampau. Nomenklatur standar harus digunakan dan singkatan harus dihindari. Tidak ada literatur yang harus dikutip. Daftar kata kunci memberikan kesempatan untuk menambahkan kata kunci, yang digunakan oleh layanan pengindeksan dan abstraksi, selain yang sudah ada dalam judul. Penggunaan kata kunci yang bijaksana dapat meningkatkan kemudahan bagi pihak yang berkepentingan untuk menemukan artikel kita
... In a classroom context, students' perceptions of bored teachers increased their own feelings of boredom, which decreased their drive to study. (Tam, et al., 2020). Boredom is an aversion for a repetitive experience of any kind, routine work, or exposure to dull and boring people (Watt & Vodanovich, 2010). ...
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Abstract - Purpose: This study has been conducted to gain insight and understanding of how downtown culture is perceived by college students. Methodology/ Approach: The data collected were from students at a small university in a small town of fewer than 50,000 people. Of the 120 responses, 30% came from students who were originally from city, 26% came from students from somewhere else in the state, 22% came from students that were originally from somewhere else in the country besides the state, and 17% are from international students. We employed a 28-question survey based on personal opinion of downtown culture and how involved students are there in the said culture. Findings: The results indicate that it would be very beneficial if downtown area held more events that are open to the whole community. It is especially important to hold events that include our diverse population of people who are from out of state or from a country abroad that are similar to military appreciation events. Implications: The future studies may investigate community/university student partnerships through interdisciplinary outreach and participation as well as service-learning. Value: The universities can play a significant role as innovation and research hubs, bringing together public, commercial, and non-profit institutions. Key Words: Culture, Perception, Opinion, Events, Boredom, City Revitalization. “Exploring the Relationship Between Mainstreet and University Students: A Case Study of a Small University in a Small Town”, International Journal of Organizational Business Excellence (IJOBEX), Volume 5, Issue 1, June 2022, pp. 1 – 14, Print ISSN: 2622-8793, Online ISSN: 2621-654X. (With Andy Bertsch, Brett Hlebechuk, James Ondracek, Tristan Maldonado, Dorion Cipriani, Adesuwa Erude, Katie Mayer, and Masaya Ito)
... During class, a teacher might find the students napping, doodling on a piece of paper, chatting with their classmates, or quietly playing with their phones. These are the possible signs of an unpleasant emotion called boredom (Mann and Robinson 2009;Tam et al. 2019). Boredom is an aversive emotional state which dissipates human resources by making an individual uninterested in, disengaged from, or even withdrawn from an ongoing activity through preventing a successful engagement of attention to the information required for participating in that activity (Daschmann, Goetz, and Stupnisky 2011;Eastwood et al. 2012). ...
Article
Given the significance of boredom and its detrimental effects on the English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ academic achievements, this study utilised an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to initially explore the boredom factors in EFL classes among a sample of 139 university students and then develop and validate the Precursors of Students’ Boredom in EFL Classes (PSBEC) in the context of Iran. Confirmatory factor analysis, based on the data from 991 university students, resulted in the confirmation of eleven-factor model of the PSBEC scales introducing eleven factors as the main precursors: (a) teaching practices, (b) excessive class control, (c) inattentive behaviour, (d) overchallenge, (e) underchallenge, (f) intrinsic values, (g) extrinsic values, (h) negative affective factors, (i) boredom proneness, (j) classroom-related factors, and (k) curriculum design. Moreover, the PSBEC scales showed good convergent validity with the Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) and the Perceived Teachers’ Enthusiasm (PTE) scales. The PSBEC scales also negatively correlated with students’ academic achievements except for boredom due to underchallenge, supporting the ecological validity. The findings help teachers assess the boredom-inducing factors in EFL classes and find ways to avoid boredom and its detrimental effects on their EFL students.
... In short, teachers' error orientations have the potential to influence teachers' and students' emotions. Moreover, prior studies have found that teachers' emotions would influence students' emotions [22,[28][29][30]. Therefore, based on the analysis of the influence of teachers' error orientations and emotions on students' achievement emotions, we further explored the mediating role of teacher emotions. ...
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Several attempts have been made to explore the factors influencing teacher emotions, most of which focus on external factors such as student behaviors and classroom teaching. However, research on the links between internal factors and teacher emotions is scant. Based on the control value theory, this article explored the influence of junior secondary mathematics teachers’ error orientations on their emotions, and how teachers’ error orientations and emotions were related to students’ mathematics learning strategies. A sample of 70 junior high school mathematics teachers and their students (N = 2453) in mainland China participated in this study. Confirmatory factor analysis and multilevel structural equation modeling were used to analyze the data. The results showed that teachers’ positive error orientation increased their positive emotions and reduced their negative emotions, whereas teachers’ negative error orientation increased their negative emotions and reduced their positive emotions. Regarding the effects of teacher emotions, teachers’ positive emotions increased students’ positive mathematics achievement emotions and reduced their negative emotions. Meanwhile, students’ negative mathematics achievement emotions significantly reduced their adoption of desirable mathematics learning strategies. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ positive error orientation and positive emotion for students’ mathematics learning.
... In fields outside occupational therapy, 'meanings' of occupation appear less bound by preoccupation with positive connotations. For instance, teaching and learning can mean boredom (Tam et al., 2020;van Hooff & van Hooft, 2014), caregiving can mean high levels of stress (Cohen et al., 2015), and children's sports may be associated with injury (Hiasat & Nischal, 2020) and social exclusion (Vandermeerschen et al., 2015). Meaning of any occupation is simultaneously individual and social, shaped by context and history as well as by available concepts. ...
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Introduction We draw on activity theory of concepts to examine ‘meaning of occupation’ and ‘substance use’ beyond preconceived notions of inherent positive or negative experiences. Objective To explore nuanced meanings of substance use and associated occupations. Method An online survey and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from professionals about prevalence of substance use, substance effects, and personal experiences. In analyzing the interview data, we attended to substance use as a discrete occupation in itself, substance use co-occurring with other occupations, and substance use altering the performance, participation, and experience of occupations. Results Three broad themes related to meaning: i) complex meanings attributed to substance use, ii) meanings of substance use as shifting and variable, and iii) meanings of substance use in the context of other occupations. Substance use enhances occupations, transforms meaning of occupations, and mitigates less desired aspects of occupations. Work, construed as positively meaningful and valued in occupational therapy literature, was a source of stress, unhappiness, and worry; substance use facilitated relaxation and pleasure. Conclusion This study furthers occupational therapy knowledge with respect to implications for conceptualization that extend beyond dualist framings and implications for occupational therapy education, practice, and policy.
Article
Background Teachers' emotions while teaching are associated to how they teach. Prior research has evidenced such associations mostly based on teacher or student ratings of different teaching behaviours. Aims This study examined the extent to which teachers' self‐rated lesson‐specific positive and negative emotions are associated with the observed quality of teacher–student interactions in terms of emotional support, classroom organization and instructional support as well as students' behavioural engagement in the same lesson. Sample The participants comprised 84 subject teachers (76.2% female) and 907 students (15–16 years old; 50.1% female) from 26 Finnish lower secondary schools. Methods The data consisted of video‐recordings from a total of 282 lessons (M = 3.36 lessons/teacher). The quality of teacher–student interactions and students' behavioural engagement was assessed using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System–Secondary (CLASS‐S) observational instrument. Data regarding teachers' positive and negative emotions were collected at the end of each video‐recorded lesson using the In Situations Teacher (InSitu‐T) Instrument. The collected data were analysed using cross‐classified two‐level modelling. Results and Conclusions The findings revealed that teachers' positive and negative emotions were positively and negatively associated, respectively, with the observed quality of teacher–student interactions in terms of emotional support and classroom organization but not instructional support. The results provide evidence of the associations between teachers' emotions and students' observed behavioural engagement. The findings complement the literature by highlighting the importance of observational data, along with teacher and student ratings.
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Teachers' motivation, which pertains to the reasons to sustain teaching, plays a pivotal role in shaping students' learning motivation, school engagement, and academic achievement. However, the relationship between teachers' motivation and students' emotional well‐being remains unclear. This study, grounded in self‐determination theory and the prosocial classroom model, investigated the associations between teachers' autonomous motivation and controlled motivation with students' emotional well‐being and examined the potential mediating role of students' perceived teacher‐student relationships and teacher support in these associations. The current study involved 49 homeroom teachers and 1853 students, assessing teachers' autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, students' perception of teacher support, teacher‐student relationships, and emotional well‐being. The results of the multilevel analysis indicated that (1) teachers' autonomous motivation positively predicted students' emotional well‐being, mediated by teacher support; (2) teachers' controlled motivation negatively predicted students' emotional well‐being, mediated by both students' perception of the student‐teacher relationship and teacher support. The findings underscore the significance of intervening in teachers' work motivation, particularly controlled motivation, in educational and teaching practices to improve students' mental health.
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The current study aims to investigate the interplay between teacher and student emotions in mathematics and the triggers of student emotions from the perspectives of their mathematics teachers. Mixed‐methods research was employed. In the quantitative phase, 214 middle school mathematics teachers and their seventh and eighth graders (5475 students total) participated in the study to explore the relationship between teacher and student emotions in mathematics. Afterward, 14 mathematics teachers were selected to participate in the qualitative phase according to the variation in class mean values of the student achievement emotion scale. Data were collected through questionnaires (Achievement Emotions Questionnaire‐Mathematics, Teacher Emotions Scale) and semi‐structured interviews. Multilevel structural equation modeling revealed no significant correlation between teacher enjoyment, anger, anxiety, and student emotions. Thematic analysis unraveled four themes in explaining the factors affecting students' emotions in mathematics: types of emotions in mathematics learning, sources of emotions, consequences of emotions, and strategies to regulate students' emotions in mathematics. This study stands as the pioneering one in emotional transmission between teachers and students in Turkiye.
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While previous studies have separately explored learner and teacher emotions in the context of second or foreign language (L2) learning, their dynamic associations over time remain underexplored. Additionally, the impact of these reciprocal interplays on learners’ communication intentions has not been taken into scrutiny in L2 research. The present study investigated the relationships between trajectories of foreign language teaching enjoyment (FLTE), foreign language learning enjoyment (FLE), and L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). Using an experience sampling method, data were collected from 9 English instructors and 162 students over two weeks. The dynamic structural equation modeling analysis revealed significant positive changes in actual and perceived FLTE, FLE, and L2 WTC. Specifically, a reciprocal relationship was found between teacher and student enjoyment, with L2 students' high FLE levels correlating with higher L2 WTC. Although student-perceived FLTE remained stable, L2 teachers’ actual enjoyment fluctuated, being influenced by FLE and L2 WTC. Additionally, L2 WTC significantly impacted teacher enjoyment. On average, teachers with more development in FLTE had students with more development in their FLE and L2 WTC. Overall, the findings underscore the dynamic interplay between teacher and student emotions in L2 learning context and its consequent positive impact on learners' communication intentions. In closing, the findings are discussed in connection with educational theories, and implications are drawn for L2 teaching.
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This article introduces the Teacher Emotions in the Classroom Q-sort (TEC-Q) as a systematic means to identify different combinations of teacher emotions within the classroom settings. Reflecting six discrete emotions, the TEC-Q was implemented using a sample of 40 secondary school teachers who performed a card-sorting task. The participants were divided into three groups based on their shared emotional profiles, namely bridging engagement and enjoyment, from misbehavior to the mix of anxiety and anger, and pride with tempered enjoyment. The findings revealed diverse emotional profiles which highlight the complex interplay between teacher emotions and classroom events.
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The attention of researchers in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has recently been drawn to boredom, recognized as one of the most prevalent and distressing emotions experienced by second and/or foreign language (L2) students. However, studies delving into boredom experienced by L2 teachers rather than learners are few and far between. This oversight is significant, considering that the emotions of both learners and teachers are bound to interact and feed into each other in classroom settings. In order to address this gap, the present research aimed to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of the L2 Teacher Boredom Scale (L2TBS). The questionnaire was administered to 225 L2 teachers from different countries (e.g., Poland, Turkey, Hungary, Iran, USA). Data were subjected to exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). The results identified the ESEM solution as the optimal model for measuring L2TBS. Five factors contributing to teacher boredom were identified: (F1) repetitiveness and monotony, (F2) inefficient communication, (F3) lack of satisfaction, (F4) lack of creativity, and (F5) lack of interest. The analysis also provided evidence for measurement invariance across gender, age, education and years of teaching experience.
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Epistemic emotions are emotions that arise as students process the alignment or misalignment between new information and their existing knowledge or beliefs, or when they are engaged in learning tasks. Understanding how and why epistemic emotions are distinct from other types of affective experiences is important, because students cognitive and behavioral responses to these emotions strongly influence their engagement with those learning tasks and, subsequently, their achievement. In this article, we focus on two epistemic emotions that might be particularly powerful for students with learning disabilities: boredom and frustration. We explore how students with disabilities may experience these feelings in the classroom, and offer strategies that teachers can use to address these feelings.
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The present study explored the antecedents and potential solutions to boredom in online English classrooms from the perspectives of 105 Thai EFL university students. Guided by a qualitative approach, an open-ended survey and semi-structured interviews were used to collect the data. The thematic analysis of the data revealed nine antecedents that contributed to students’ boredom in online English classrooms. These included monotonous teaching, difficult content and tasks, lack of interaction, screen fatigue, mode of learning, teacher’s personality trait, input overload, technical issues, and class timing allotment. As for solutions to students’ boredom, the present participants suggested that students’ boredom in an online foreign language classroom can be reduced by promoting innovative teaching, encouraging and motivating students, choosing the right classroom environment, increasing teacher-student interaction, shortening lecture hours, and turning on video cameras. Altogether, this study contributes to the emerging research trend, that is, the aspects of students’ boredom in the foreign language online classroom and concludes with recommendations for future research.
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Emotions play an important role in the work of teachers serving students with emotional and behavioral disabilities (EBD), yet little is known about teachers’ momentary affective experiences. In this study, we collected 710 surveys regarding momentary affect from 14 teachers of students with EBD. We used descriptive analysis and variance decomposition to examine the frequency, intensity, and variability of these experiences. We then tested a series of models to explore how specific professional activities relate to teachers’ momentary affect. We found that teachers experienced positive affect more frequently and intensely than negative affect and that large proportions of the variation in positive and negative affect can be attributed to variation within individual teachers across time points. For these teachers, engaging in discipline was significantly associated with a higher negative affect, whereas engaging in instructional activities was associated with a higher positive affect. We discuss implications for researchers and practitioners.
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This study modified the dualistic model of passion, adding composite passion and general passion. The study aimed to determine the levels of passion for learning English of English majors, affirm whether passion for learning English changes over the course of time, and investigate to what extent passion for learning English can predict English majors’ academic achievement. The Passion Scale was employed to assess passion for learning English of 638 English-major students. Forty students were randomly selected for focus group interviews. The findings indicate that the passion for learning English of all classes was at a “high” level. ANOVA results and focus group interviews supported that passion for learning English changed over the course of time. Importantly, the data mining results reveal that the first three best predictors were all cognitive attributes, whereas obsessive passion, composite passion, harmonious passion, and general passion were no. 4, 5, 6, and 8.
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Enjoyment is one of the most relevant and frequently experienced discrete emotions for both teachers and students in classroom learning contexts. Based on theories of emotion transmission between interaction partners, we propose a reciprocal effects model linking teachers’ and students’ enjoyment in class. The model suggests that there are positive reciprocal links between teachers’ and students’ enjoyment and that these links are mediated by teachers’ and students’ observations of each other’s classroom behaviors. The model was tested using 3-wave longitudinal data collected across the 1st 6 months of a school year from N = 69 teachers (78% female) and their 1,643 students from Grades 5 to 10 (57% female). A multilevel structural equation model confirmed our mediation hypotheses. Teacher enjoyment at the beginning of the school year (Time 1 [T1]) was positively related to student perceptions of teachers’ enthusiasm during teaching 4 weeks later (T2), which was positively related to student enjoyment at midterm (T3). Further, student enjoyment at T1 was positively related to teacher perceptions of their students’ engagement in class at T2, which was positively related to teacher enjoyment at T3. This study is the first to provide longitudinal evidence of reciprocal emotion transmission between teachers and students. Implications for future research and teacher training are discussed.
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On the basis of a new model of motivation, the authors examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher ( n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3–5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student–teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Our central goal is to provide a definition of boredom in terms of the underlying mental processes that occur during an instance of boredom. Through the synthesis of psychodynamic, existential, arousal, and cognitive theories of boredom, we argue that boredom is universally conceptualized as "the aversive experience of wanting, but being unable, to engage in satisfying activity." We propose to map this conceptualization onto underlying mental processes. Specifically, we propose that boredom be defined in terms of attention. That is, boredom is the aversive state that occurs when we (a) are not able to successfully engage attention with internal (e.g., thoughts or feelings) or external (e.g., environmental stimuli) information required for participating in satisfying activity, (b) are focused on the fact that we are not able to engage attention and participate in satisfying activity, and (c) attribute the cause of our aversive state to the environment. We believe that our definition of boredom fully accounts for the phenomenal experience of boredom, brings existing theories of boredom into dialogue with one another, and suggests specific directions for future research on boredom and attention. © The Author(s) 2012.
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The present study explored students’ use of boredom-related coping strategies at trait and state levels. Two trait-based dimensions of coping relevant to boredom were considered, namely approach – versus avoidance-oriented and cognitively – versus behaviorally-oriented coping strategies. The two dimensions were assessed in a self-report questionnaire administered to 537 grade 11 students (55.3% female, Mage = 17.15 years). Additionally, 79 of these participants completed state-based boredom-related coping measures over a 2-week period using an experience sampling method. Analyses of the trait measures suggested that two contrasting, broad approaches characterized participants’ strategies for coping with boredom, namely a cognitive-approach orientation and a behavioral-avoidance orientation. In both the trait- and state-based analyses, the cognitive-approach orientation was associated with lower levels of boredom. Implications for interventions promoting the use of cognitive-approach strategies for dealing with boredom in the classroom are discussed.Research highlights► Students’ use of boredom-related coping strategies at trait and state levels. ► Two dimensions of coping: approach versus avoidance and cognitive versus behavioral. ► Questionnaires and state-measures using the experience sampling method were assessed. ► Two contrasting approaches characterized participants’ coping with boredom. ► Cognitive-approach orientation was associated with lower levels of boredom.
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This article describes the control-value theory of achievement emotions and its implications for educational research and practice. The theory provides an integrative framework for analyzing the antecedents and effects of emotions experienced in achievement and academic settings. It is based on the premise that appraisals of control and values are central to the arousal of achievement emotions, including activity-related emotions such as enjoyment, frustration, and boredom experienced at learning, as well as outcome emotions such as joy, hope, pride, anxiety, hopelessness, shame, and anger relating to success or failure. Corollaries of the theory pertain to the multiplicity and domain specificity of achievement emotions; to their more distal individual and social antecedents, their effects on engagement and achievement, and the reciprocal linkages between emotions, antecedents and effects; to the regulation and development of these emotions; and to their relative universality across genders and cultures. Implications addressed concern the conceptual integration of emotion, motivation, and cognition, and the need to advance mixed-method paradigms. In closing, implications for educational practice are discussed.
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The goal of this study was to explore different strategies for coping with boredom. A questionnaire was developed targeting two dimensions of coping, namely approach versus avoidance oriented coping and cognitive versus behavioral oriented coping. First, based on the responses of 976 students (51% female) from grades 5 to 10, the structure of the coping with boredom scales was verified by confirmatory factor analysis. In a second step, 3 different boredom-coping groups were identified by latent profile analysis. These three groups were named Reappraisers, Criticizers, and Evaders. Third, differences between these groups concerning their frequency of experiencing boredom, their academic achievement, and other emotional, motivational, and cognitive aspects of academic achievement situations were analyzed. Relative to the other 2 groups, Reappraisers preferred cognitive-approach strategies, were less frequently bored, and experienced the most positive pattern of emotional, motivational, and cognitive outcomes. Finally, methodological and educational implications and directions for future research are discussed.
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In this study, the authors examined the relationship between teacher and student enjoyment. Based on social-cognitive approaches to emotions, they hypothesized (a) that teacher enjoyment and student enjoyment within classrooms are positively linked and (b) that teacher enthusiasm mediates the relationship between teacher and student enjoyment. Self-reported enjoyment of mathematics classes was available from 1,542 students from 71 classrooms at 2 time points (Grades 7 and 8). At Time 2, mathematics teachers' reports of their enjoyment of teaching were available (N = 71), as well as student ratings of teacher enthusiasm. The findings were in line with theoretical expectations. Multilevel structural equation modeling showed that teacher and student enjoyment were positively related even when the authors adjusted for students' previous-class levels of mathematics enjoyment, and that the effect of teacher enjoyment on student enjoyment was mediated by teacher enthusiasm. Discussion centers on the practical implications for affective interactions in the classroom.
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There has long been interest in describing emotional experience in terms of underlying dimensions, but traditionally only two dimensions, pleasantness and arousal, have been reliably found. The reasons for these findings are reviewed, and integrating this review with two recent theories of emotions (Roseman, 1984; Scherer, 1982), we propose eight cognitive appraisal dimensions to differentiate emotional experience. In an investigation of this model, subjects recalled past experiences associated with each of 15 emotions, and rated them along the proposed dimensions. Six orthogonal dimensions, pleasantness, anticipated effort, certainty, attentional activity, self-other responsibility/control, and situational control, were recovered, and the emotions varied systematically along each of these dimensions, indicating a strong relation between the appraisal of one's circumstances and one's emotional state. The patterns of appraisal for the different emotions, and the role of each of the dimensions in differentiating emotional experience are discussed.
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The control-value theory (CVT) proposes that achievement emotions and academic achievement show reciprocal effects over time. Previous studies have examined how achievement emotions predict subsequent achievement. However, evidence is limited for whether achievement can also predict achievement emotions. To examine these reciprocal relations, data were collected about two achievement emotions: enjoyment and boredom, and mathematics achievement over four waves in a single school year in primary school students in Years 5 and 6. Results from structural equation modeling supported reciprocal relations between emotions and achievement. Higher enjoyment and lower boredom predicted greater subsequent achievement and, in turn, greater academic achievement predicted subsequent greater enjoyment and lower boredom. Furthermore, the relations between emotions over time were mediated by achievement. These findings build on the evidence base for CVT and further understanding of relations between achievement emotions and academic achievement in younger students.
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This study coded and categorized 2404 motivators and demotivators freely listed by 308 college students prior to and following their being prompted to consider teacher behaviors as contributing to motivation level. Twenty categories of motivators and 20 categories of demotivators emerged; four of each reflected context factors, six of each structure/format factors, and ten of each teacher behavior factors. While teacher behaviors accounted for approximately 44% of both motivators and demotivators, negative teacher behaviors were perceived as more central to students' demotivation (i.e., were listed without prompting) than positive teacher behaviors were perceived as central to motivation. Structure/format factors were more frequently mentioned as demotivators and context factors, such as desire to know the material, grade or credit motivation, and personal desire for accomplishment, as motivators. It was concluded that motivation is perceived by students as a student‐owned state, while lack of motivation is perceived as a teacher‐owned problem.
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This article uses time-sampling data to evaluate fifth to ninth graders' experiences of boredom both as a state, related to specific school and nonschool activities, and as a trait, related to individual dispositions that students bring to school. Data come from a study in which 392 youths carried pagers and reported on their activities and emotions at random times over a week when signaled. Results show that, while boredom is reported frequently during schoolwork, it is also prevalent outside school and the same persons report boredom across these contexts. High rates of boredom were correlated with high ability and, when ability is controlled, with oppositional behavior, but not with onset of adolescence. These findings suggest that individual dispositions are an important contributor to boredom. Nonetheless, variations in rates of boredom across school task situations suggest that schools might be structured to reduce, though not eliminate, student boredom.
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Academic emotions have largely been neglected by educational psychology, with the exception of test anxiety. In 5 qualitative studies, it was found that students experience a rich diversity of emotions in academic settings. Anxiety was reported most often, but overall, positive emotions were described no less frequently than negative emotions. Based on the studies in this article, taxonomies of different academic emotions and a self-report instrument measuring students' enjoyment, hope, pride, relief, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom (Academic Emotions Questionnaire [AEQ]) were developed. Using the AEQ, assumptions of a cognitive-motivational model of the achievement effects of emotions, and of a control/value theory of their antecedents (Pekrun, 1992b, 2000), were tested in 7 cross-sectional, 3 longitudinal, and 1 diary study using samples of university and school students. Results showed that academic emotions are significantly related to students' motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, self-regulation, and academic achievement, as well as to personality and classroom antecedents. The findings indicate that affective research in educational psychology should acknowledge emotional diversity in academic settings by addressing the full range of emotions experienced by students at school and university.
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Mitigating the situational factors that give rise to state boredom is a consistent challenge facing educators. Despite the growing amount of literature devoted to the construct, the field has yet to arrive at a consensus regarding a clear theoretical or operational definition. Subsequently, inconsistencies exist in the assessment methodologies, research findings lack generalizability, and strategies for mitigation in educational settings remain elusive. In this cross-disciplinary analysis, the extant literature on state boredom is critically reviewed and synthesized, and a two-dimensional definition of state boredom as an unpleasant (subjective), low-arousal (objective) experience is proposed. Findings from the technological advances of the last decade that allow for the objective measurement of physiological states are used to inform recommendations for empirically sound assessment methodologies. Finally, the proposed definition of state boredom and related assessment strategies are discussed with respect to implications for enhancing educational practices. Emotions are of critical importance for cognitive development and optimal learning (Linnenbrink-Garcia and Pekrun 2011; Schultz and Pekrun 2007). However, not all emotions are equally relevant to academic achievement. In fact, research has suggested that "basic" emotions (anger, sadness, fear, disgust, happiness, and surprise; Ekman 1992) are rarely experienced during learning sessions (Craig et al. 2008; Lehman et al. 2008a, b). Consequently, researchers have recently begun to distinguish between "basic" and "academic" emotions (Pekrun 2011). Academic emotions refer specifically to those that
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