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Thermal model for surface grinding application

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Lucas de Martini Fernandes
Lucas de Martini Fernandes
Lucas de Martini Fernandes
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José Claudio Lopes at São Paulo State University
José Claudio Lopes
Fernando Sabino Fonteque Ribeiro at Paraná Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology
Fernando Sabino Fonteque Ribeiro
Rubens Gallo
Rubens Gallo
Rubens Gallo
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Abstract and Figures

Due to the characteristics of the grinding process, thermal damage may occur in the workpiece surface, resulting in the rejection of a component and considerably increasing the production costs. This study aims to analyze the heat fluxes, energy partition, and temperatures during surface grinding process with both conventional and MQL lubrication. Through the proposed analysis, the heat fluxes and maximum temperature can be predicted, enabling the avoidance of thermal damages and increasing the efficiency of the process. A comparison between the calculated and experimental value has shown that the difference is acceptable for various situations, in the order of 4.72% for the conventional method and 7.38% for the MQL method. A thermal model was developed. The transient two-dimensional heat diffusion equation was discretized by finite volume method in space and explicit discretized in time. The heat fluxes were estimated using inverse problem technique of heat transfer aiming the obtainment of the temperature of certain workpiece points. A comparison of the methods of lubrication showed that the conventional method was way more efficient than MQL, presenting considerably lower total heat flux and maximum reached temperature and any kind of thermal damage wasn’t observed. On the other hand, thermal damage occurred in the workpieces. Also, clogging phenomenon in the grinding wheel surface after the process in MQL condition was observed.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Thermal model for surface grinding application
Lucas de Martini Fernandes
1
&José Claudio Lopes
1
&Fernando Sabino Fonteque Ribeiro
1
&Rubens Gallo
2
&
Henrique Cotait Razuk
2
&Luiz Eduardo de Angelo Sanchez
1
&Paulo Roberto de Aguiar
3
&Hamilton José de Mello
1
&
Eduardo Carlos Bianchi
1
Received: 14 February 2019 /Accepted: 4 July 2019 /Publ ished online: 24 July 2019
#Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
Due to the characteristics of the grinding process, thermal damage may occur in the workpiece surface, resulting in the rejection
of a component and considerably increasing the production costs. This study aims to analyze the heat fluxes, energy partition, and
temperatures during surface grinding process with both conventional and MQL lubrication. Through the proposed analysis, the
heat fluxes and maximum temperature can be predicted, enabling the avoidance of thermal damages and increasing the efficiency
of the process. A comparison between the calculated and experimental value has shown that the difference is acceptable for
various situations, in the order of 4.72% for the conventional method and 7.38% for the MQL method. A thermal model was
developed. The transient two-dimensional heat diffusion equation was discretized by finite volume method in space and explicit
discretized in time. The heat fluxes were estimated using inverse problem technique of heat transfer aiming the obtainment of the
temperature of certain workpiece points. A comparison of the methods of lubrication showed that the conventional method was
way more efficient than MQL, presenting considerably lower total heat flux and maximum reached temperature and any kind of
thermal damage wasn’t observed. On the other hand, thermal damage occurred in the workpieces. Also, clogging phenomenon in
the grinding wheel surface after the process in MQL condition was observed.
Keywords Surface grinding .Thermal model .MQL lubrication
1 Introduction
In many industrial applications, the grinding process is fre-
quently the final step in the process chain towards finished
workpieces. This involves two aspects: firstly, being the ulti-
mate process, the appearance of the ground areas is presented
to the costumer. In this way, the tolerance for faults and all
other deviations from the intended surface characteristics is
*Eduardo Carlos Bianchi
eduardo.bianchi@unesp.br
Lucas de Martini Fernandes
lucas-asewas@hotmail.com
José Claudio Lopes
jclaudio.lopes@hotmail.com
Fernando Sabino Fonteque Ribeiro
fernando_fonteque@yahoo.com.br
Rubens Gallo
rubensgallo@utfpr.edu.br
Henrique Cotait Razuk
cotait@utfpr.edu.br
Luiz Eduardo de Angelo Sanchez
luiz.sanchez@unesp.br
Paulo Roberto de Aguiar
aguiarpr@unesp.br
Hamilton José de Mello
hamilton@unesp.br
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,
College of Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP),
Bauru, SP 17033-360, Brazil
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of
Technology Paraná (UTFPR), Cornélio Procópio, PR 86300-000,
Brazil
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, São
Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP 17033-360, Brazil
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2019) 104:2783–2793
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04101-6
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Throughout the grinding operation, several cutting edges come into contact with the workpiece, deforming and scraping over its surface. As a result, much of the process energy is dissipated as heat, causing the temperature in the cutting zone to increase [9][10][11]. The heat generated is so intense that if it is not mitigated, several problems can arise in grinding, ranging from accelerated wear of the grinding wheel due to the weakening of the bond, microstructural modification of the workpiece material, to even clogging of the grinding wheel pores, preventing the removal of the chips, thus damaging the workpiece [12]. ...
... This disadvantage is due to the lower ability to dissipate heat from the compressed air in MQL compared to the fluid used in the conventional method. Therefore, there may be greater wear on the grinding wheels and thermal damage to the workpiece [10,44]. ...
An experimental evaluation between pure and diluted MQL versus flood lubri-cooling focused on cost and environmental impact
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In machining processes, cutting fluid presents itself as a fundamental component, as they are responsible for the refrigeration and lubrication of the cutting interface. This is especially true for grinding processes, as the heat generated is so intense that it can cause thermal damage to the workpiece, changing its microstructure and mechanical properties. The application of the fluid in the process also helps with a better surface finishing and integrity of the workpiece with little geometric inaccuracies. However, its usage may cause damage to the health of the operators and the environment, as there is presence of toxic additives to improve the cutting fluid’s efficacy. While the most common method used with cutting fluid is the flood method, which consists in applying large quantities of pure oil or oil emulsified in water, one of the more eco-friendly alternatives is the minimum quantity lubrification (MQL) that uses a small amount of oil pulverized in the cutting surface with the usage of a jet of compressed air, achieving, in many cases, results similar to the flood method due to the technique’s excellent lubricating capability. On the other hand, this method presents some challenges to overcome, such as the lower cooling capacity and wheel clogging due to hot chips. To circumvent such obstacles, two techniques were found: adding water to the cutting fluid and a wheel cleaning system (jet of compressed air aimed at the surface of the grinding wheel to remove the chips clogged in the wheel pores). This paper analyzes the use of water paired with the MQL method in the external cylindrical plunge grinding of alumina (Al2O3) to minimize the flaws of the technique. The parameters evaluated include surface roughness (Ra), roundness error, diametrical wheel wear, grinding power, pollution analysis, and cost analysis for flood method, MQL with pure oil (1:0), and MQL with water in 1:1, 1:3, and 1:5 oil–water proportions, with and without wheel cleaning jet. MQL with pure oil generated the worst results, while diluted MQL presented better results. The use of diluted MQL 1:5 with wheel cleaning jet (WCJ) brought results that approximated most of the conventional method, with a fraction of the pollution and cost, showing the potential for using MQL with WCJ as an alternative to the flood method in the industry. However, high cutting temperatures and wheel clogging in MQL still pose obstacles, requiring more research in this method to improve it even further its efficiency.
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... This extreme heat generated during the process significantly hinders the workpiece's quality (Sinha et al., 2023). This is highly disadvantageous because the workpiece has already been produced to its entire value, and scrapping it costs money (de Martini Fernandes et al., 2019). Also, Surface Roughness (Ra) is a crucial quality characteristic that directly impacts the tribological performance, wear resistance, and useful life of many parts and components (Ghosh et al., 2019). ...
GRA and CoCoSo Based Analysis for Optimal Performance Decisions in Sustainable Grinding Operation
Article
  • Feb 2025
  • IJMEMS
Currently, researchers are continually thinking of intelligent and sustainable manufacturing methods. Surface grinding is the finishing machining process performed for dimensional accuracy and surface smoothness. The heat caused during grinding hinders these responses, leading to poor quality and rejection of the workpiece, which has been produced to its entire value. So, optimizing the surface grinding input parameters controlling the output responses is crucial. This is generally achieved using Taguchi and other optimization methods. In the case of multiple responses, equal weightage is considered for all the responses to get an optimized input parameter setting. This gives less flexibility for the decision-maker to choose the grinding parameters following his priorities for the responses. The issue is addressed with two effective Multi-Attribute Decision-Making (MADM) methods, namely Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) and Combined Compromise Solution (CoCoSo). This paper focuses on applying the above MADM methods for ranking the grinding input parameters settings obtained from the Taguchi analysis of the selected case study, surface grinding of EN8 steel plates using a Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL), a green Cutting Fluid (CF). Two sets of weights are considered for the dual responses of the selected study to obtain the ranking of the grinding parameters to aid the decision-maker in making flexible decisions. The ranking correlation studies showing high correlation and statistical significance are also presented. Both the GRA and CoCoSo approaches are efficient, relatively simple to comprehend, and provide a flexible strategy for the decision-maker to make intelligent decisions, avoiding trial and error.
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... (b) stainless steel [14]; (c) AA6060 aluminum alloy [15]; (d) AZ31B magnesium alloy [16]; (e) Ti-6Al-4V [17]; (f) CuSn10 bronze [18]; (g) chips produced without chip breaker [19]; (h) chips of aluminum created by the turning tool's chips breaker [19]; (i) AA6060 aluminum alloy [15]; j) AC4CH aluminum (alloy [20]; (k) modulation-assisted drilling of stainless steel [21]; (l) conventional drilling of stainless steel [21]; (m) low carbon steel [22]; (n) AA1050 aluminum alloy [23]; (o) AISI 4340 steel [24]; (p) low alloy steel [25]. ...
Producing Metal Powder from Machining Chips Using Ball Milling Process: A Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2023
In the pursuit of achieving zero emissions, exploring the concept of recycling metal waste from industries and workshops (i.e., waste-free) is essential. This is because metal recycling not only helps conserve natural resources but also requires less energy as compared to the production of new products from virgin raw materials. The use of metal scrap in rapid tooling (RT) for injection molding is an interesting and viable approach. Recycling methods enable the recovery of valuable metal powders from various sources, such as electronic, industrial, and automobile scrap. Mechanical alloying is a potential opportunity for sustainable powder production as it has the capability to convert various starting materials with different initial sizes into powder particles through the ball milling process. Nevertheless, parameter factors, such as the type of ball milling, ball-to-powder ratio (BPR), rotation speed, grinding period, size and shape of the milling media, and process control agent (PCA), can influence the quality and characteristics of the metal powders produced. Despite potential drawbacks and environmental impacts, this process can still be a valuable method for recycling metals into powders. Further research is required to optimize the process. Furthermore, ball milling has been widely used in various industries, including recycling and metal mold production, to improve product properties in an environmentally friendly way. This review found that ball milling is the best tool for reducing the particle size of recycled metal chips and creating new metal powders to enhance mechanical properties and novelty for mold additive manufacturing (MAM) applications. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct further research on various parameters associated with ball milling to optimize the process of converting recycled copper chips into powder. This research will assist in attaining the highest level of efficiency and effectiveness in particle size reduction and powder quality. Lastly, this review also presents potential avenues for future research by exploring the application of RT in the ball milling technique.
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... Nickel-base superalloy as Inconel 718 is a well-known difficult-to-machine material due to low thermal conductivity, and chemical reactivity, which leads to high temperature in the cutting zone [7]- [9]. The extreme energy, which is expended by the grinding, generates high heat during the process, and consequently, the temperature of the workpiece surface and subsurface is elevated [10], [11] Oliveira et al. [12] propose that as heat increases, it accelerates the cutting tool wear, which affects the final quality of the machined surface [13], [14]. ...
Grinding temperature and its consequences on induced residual stresses during grinding of nickel-based superalloys: a review
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
In the modern era, the grinding process is economically preferred over conventional milling, turning, and drilling processes considering the factors of high tool wear and time constraints. The grinding process offers a more refined surface finish, high tolerances and is suitable for machining difficult-to-machine materials like nickel-based superalloy. High-Temperature application components used for aerospace industries always impose thermal problems due to their high corrosion resistance and low thermal conductivity which largely influence the surface integrity during machining nickel-based superalloys. Various techniques for grinding temperature measurement in the contact zone of wheel and workpiece and the effects of process parameters on grinding temperature and induced residual stresses are described in this paper. A comprehensive review has been carried out to control thermal damage due to high heat generation and its correlations with the induced residual stress at the ground surface during grinding of Ni-based superalloys by optimizing the grinding parameters, cooling environments and selection of grinding wheel and suggests new findings.
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... In addition, the reentry of the tool in the material is critical because the cutting force increases from zero to its average value very fast. These thermomechanical loads are prone to cause microcracks on the material surface and premature tool wear [2][3][4]. ...
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  • INT J ADV MANUF TECH
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Computational investigation for structural behavior in deep grinding process
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Contribution for minimization the usage of cutting fluids in CFRP grinding
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Composite materials are becoming essential and widely used in modern industry, mainly in aeronautics, aerospace, and naval sectors. The reason for its increasing use is their structural composition, a combination of two different materials, resulting in a low weight, extremely rigid, and resistant. Due to the material’s anisotropy, it tends to present residual stresses or structural distortions. Recent researches show that the finishing machining process called grinding is the most recommended for eliminating these structural problems. In grinding process, there needs to be a great amount of cutting fluid (flood cooling), and the surface wear is high. The abundant application of these fluids has become a factor of concern for the modern industries, due to the issues related to occupational health and environmental hazard because of their toxic compounds. In reference to these concerns, arises a new methods of application as well the optimized cooling, the minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique and dry grinding. This way, this work analyzed the behavior of the surface grinding of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites using optimized cooling, MQL, and dry cutting as an alternatives to the conventional coolant technique by SEM images of workpiece surface. Surface roughness, grinding force, specific grinding energy, and G ratio were also analyzed. SEM images showed the difference on fiber surface which is produced by the increase of the depth of cut and different lubrication methods adopted. With the results obtained, the MQL technique generated the lowest grinding values and grinding specific energy. The optimized and flood methods provided the lowest wear of the grinding wheel, as well as the better surface finishing.
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Application of a wheel cleaning system during grinding of alumina with minimum quantity lubrication
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High thermal loads generated during grinding of ceramic materials increase abrasive tool wear and damage workpiece quality. In this regard, the application of cutting fluid has been mandatory, although several researchers have been working to reduce oil consumption in such processes, as it increases the cost of the final product and is harmful to both people and environment. Among the alternatives, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) has been increasingly investigated, even though clogging of the grinding wheel is prone to occur. In order to improve the cleaning of the abrasive tool during the process and reduce oil consumption, this paper proposes the investigation of the performance of MQL technique applied together with a wheel cleaning system, which consists of a compressed air jet directed to the wheel surface, during grinding of alumina. Different direction angles of the air jet were tested and conventional flood coolant as well as MQL alone were applied for comparison purposes. Flood coolant was the most efficient method regarding cleaning of the grinding wheel, decrease of diametral wheel wear, surface roughness, and average power followed by the use of MQL with an air jet directed to the wheel surface with an angle of 30°. This latter arrangement, however, can become an option when the reduction of oil consumption is a priority, as it provides the best results when compared to the other air jet direction angle configurations.
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The effects of the flow rate and speed of lubricoolant jets on heat transfer in the contact zone when grinding a nitrided steel
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In this paper, the influence of lubrication parameters, such as flowrate and jet velocity, on the cutting fluid efficiency are studied. A foil/workpiece thermocouple and an inverse matching method are used to observe changes in the heat partition ratio, the heat flux absorbed into the fluid, the convection heat transfer coefficient (CHCT) and the maximum temperature in the contact area. Low jet velocity and flowrate tend to decrease the cutting fluid efficiency however excessive flowrate or jet speed in grinding are useless and do not lead to an extra decrease in the temperature of the grinding zone. The “burn out” phenomenon is also studied and the temperature at which it occurs is compared to the autoignition point of the cutting fluid. When burn occurs, the fluid no longer lubricates or cools the contact area. It allows an increase in the temperature in the grinding zone which may damage the microstructure of the workpiece, and produce distortions and cracks.
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Comparative analysis of two CBN grinding wheels performance in nodular cast iron plunge grinding
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The extensive tribological use of nodular cast iron in ground transport industry, e.g., trains and automobiles, has brought growing scientific interest. The various applications of this material are due to the versatility of mechanical properties without adding alloy elements, making possible to achieve good results varying just the heat treatment. Due to its high fluidity, workpieces made of this material can be produced with final dimensions and shapes very close to the designed ones, making necessary just the use of finishing machining operations to get the final dimensions, more specifically those concerning the grinding process. To optimize cost production, machining processes became the focus of scientists and engineers. The grinding wheel can determine the success of an operation as its properties influence productivity and workpiece quality decisively. This work analyzes the grinding process of the ductile iron GGG-70 (average hardness of 270 HB) using two types of vitrified bonded CBN grinding wheels, which have as their only distinction the marked difference in friability of the abrasive grains. The performance of each grinding wheel will be analyzed taking into account the output parameters values obtained from surface roughness, average power, diametric wear of the grinding wheel, microstructure of the ground surfaces, and microhardness measures from the ground surface to the center of the workpiece. It was observed that the less friable wheel produced, regarding the average surface roughness, values of 0.27, 0.30, and 0.36 μm for the feed rates of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mm/min, respectively, and, regarding the diametric wheel wear, produced values of 2.52, 2.99, and 4.01 μm for the same feed rates, respectively. On the other hand, when using the more friable wheel, average surface roughness values of 0.33, 0.44, and 0.64 μm and diametric wheel wear values of 3.21, 4.22, and 7.24 μm were obtained. In this way, the less friable wheel showed better results for all the conditions. Considering the feed rate order of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mm/min, the improvement in surface roughness was about 18.18, 31.82, and 43.75%, respectively, and the reduction of the wheel wear was about 21.50, 29.15, and 44.61%.
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Plunge cylindrical grinding with the minimum quantity lubrication coolant technique assisted with wheel cleaning system
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2018
  • INT J ADV MANUF TECH
MQL technique is considered as a cleaner machining compared to the conventional coolant delivery one, thereby ensuring environmental sustainability and economic benefits. However, one of problems commonly reported when using the MQL technique is the wheel clogging phenomenon as a result of the inefficient chip removal from the cutting zone, then the chips lodge inside the pores of the grinding wheel, adversely affecting the quality and the finishing of the final product. In this context, this study was carried out to evaluate the performance of the minimum quantity lubrication coolant technique assisted with a wheel cleaning jet (MQL + WCJ) in plunge grinding of hardened steel. This cooling-lubrication technique was tested using the following flow rates: 30, 60, and 120 ml/h. Comparative tests were also carried out with the conventional coolant technique, as well as with the traditional MQL technique (without the wheel cleaning jet). The output variables used to assess the efficiency of the MQL + WCJ technique are roughness, roundness, workpiece microhardness, grinding wheel wear, and power consumption. The results showed that the machining with the MQL + WCJ technique outperformed the traditional MQL technique in all the output parameters investigated. Also, the efficiency of the MQL + WCJ technique increased with flow rate, thereby being an alternative coolant delivery technique in grinding due to cleaner environment, more sustainable and lower consumption of fluid compared to conventional coolant one. No thermal damages and cracks on the machined surface and sub-surfaces were observed after grinding AISI 4340 steel, irrespective of the technique.
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A Heat Transfer Model of Grinding Process Based on Energy Partition Analysis and Grinding Fluid Cooling Application
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2017
In the grinding process, high temperature in grinding area is generated by the frictional resistance between workpiece and abrasive grains on the grinding wheel cylindrical surface. Grinding fluid application is an optimal option to reduce the thermal effect and crack on the workpiece ground surface. In this paper, a grinding process heat transfer model with various grinding fluid application is introduced based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methodology. The effect of specific heat, viscosity, and surface tension of grinding fluid are taken into account. In the model, the grinding contact area is considered as a heating resource. Most of the heat energy is conducted into the workpiece. The rest of the energy is taken away by the grinding wheel, grinding fluid, and chips. How many percentage of the generated heat is conducted into the workpiece is a key issue, namely, the energy partition ratio e. An energy partition equation is introduced in this paper with the cooling effect of different grinding fluid. Generated heat energy based on the calculation from energy partition equation is applied on the grinding contact area in the heat transfer model.
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Environment-Friendly Technological Advancements to Enhance the Sustainability in Surface Grinding- A Review
Article
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  • J CLEAN PROD
Surface grinding is a widely used machining process for finishing of materials. Industry is looking for materials and techniques which are more productive as well as environment friendly. Researchers have worked upon various aspects to improve the overall performance of surface grinding in context of environmental and economic issues. But no comprehensive review on surface grinding, which covers all technological issues related to the process, including modelling and simulation, has been reported yet. This review is on research and technological advancements in surface grinding. It discusses critical findings pertaining to these advancements and gives recommendations related to surface grinding.
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Application of the auxiliary wheel cleaning jet in the plunge cylindrical grinding with Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique under various flow rates
Article
  • May 2018
Minimum Quantity Lubrication is an alternative technique to conventional techniques that are related to environmental sustainability and economic benefits. This technique promotes the substantial reduction of the amount of coolant employed in machining processes, representing a mitigation of risks to people’s health that are involved with the process. On the other hand, it has been reported in the literature that some problems of using the Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique can impair the grinding efficiency. One of these problems is associated with wheel clogging phenomenon, which is caused by inefficient chip removal from the cutting zone as well as from mixture of metal dust and oil accumulated on the wheel surface during grinding. If chips lodge inside the pores of the grinding wheel as machining progresses, they will adversely affect dimensional and geometric quality of final product. Also, this will require more frequent dressing. A solution for this problem can be an effective cleaning system of the abrasive wheel during grinding with the traditional Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique Assisted with Wheel Cleaning Jet. In this context and aiming to explore the various potential health, environmental and economic benefits that have been widely reported in the literature about the use of Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique in grinding, this study presents an application of the Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique at flow rates (30, 60 and 120 mL/h) and assisted with wheel cleaning jet (Minimum Quantity Lubrication + Assisted with Wheel Cleaning Jet) in plunge grinding of a hardened steel with an aluminum oxide wheel. Experiments were also carried out with traditional Minimum Quantity Lubrication (without wheel cleaning) and with the conventional coolant techniques for comparison. The output variables were geometrical errors (surface roughness and roundness) of the workpiece, diametric wheel wear, acoustic emission, vibration and tangential cutting force. Results showed that Minimum Quantity Lubrication + Assisted with Wheel Cleaning Jet (with wheel cleaning jet) not only outperformed the traditional Minimum Quantity Lubrication technique in all the parameters analyzed, but in some cases it proved to be compatible with the conventional coolant technique under the conditions investigated. Also, most of values of the output parameters tested decreased with increase in flow rate.
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Recent developments in grinding machines
Article
  • Aug 2017
  • CIRP ANN-MANUF TECHN
Grinding is often the final step in the process/manufacturing chain, meaning that no subsequent post-grinding correction of the surface and geometry is performed. This imposes strong requirements on grinding-machine technology and on the understanding of this finalising process. While grinding has unique capabilities it is nevertheless in competition with other machining processes. The evolution of grinding machines is driven by process requirements like accuracy, MRR, and subsurface integrity. The regeneration of the tool on the machine with dressing devices is to be regarded as unique for grinding machines, hence a grinding machine always runs two separate processes. The high accuracy of grinding has, in fact, been an obstacle to simply adopting developments from other machining processes. Also, a lack of experienced machinists and a general trend towards individualized products and one-piece flow has required a transition from an experience-based approach to a science-based approach. Development is further driven by market demands, such as cost-reduction in terms of CAPEX, footprint, TCO versus quality, and throughput, which affect business models and the machine’s design and construction. Moreover, the current mega-trends – such as resource efficiency, individualization, ergonomics and Industry 4.0 – are changing the appearance of grinding machines, which is also affected by the availability of new technologies, especially sensors, actuators and the control or machine intelligence. This paper reviews the most-relevant technologies, assesses their impact and the readiness of industry to adopt them, identifies the still-open issues, and concludes with future research requirements.
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