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Plants, People, Planet. 2019;1:323–335.
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wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ppp3
DOI: 10.1002/ppp3.39
REVIEW
The benefits of trees for livable and sustainable communities
Jessica B. Turner‐Skoff | Nicole Cavender
This is an op en access article under the terms of the C reat ive Commo ns Attri bution License, which permits use, dis tribut ion and reproduction in any medium,
provide d the original work is properly cited.
© 2019 The Authors, Plants, People, Planet © New Phy tologis t Trust
The Mor ton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, USA
Correspondence
Jessica B. Turner‐Skoff, The Morton
Arboretum, 4100 Illinois Route 53, Lisle,
Illinois 60532, USA.
Email: jturner@mortonarb.org
Societal Impact Statement
Trees play a critical role for people and the planet. Numerous studies have dem‐
onstrated that the presence of trees and urban nature can improve people’s men‐
tal and physical health, children's attention and test scores, the property values in
a neighborhood, and beyond. Trees cool our urban centers. Trees are essential for
healthy communities and people. The benefits that trees provide can help cities and
countries meet 15 of the 17 internationally supported United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals. This critical review provides a comprehensive argument that
trees should be considered an important part of the equation by project managers
and civic leaders as we collectively work toward reaching these sustainability goals.
Summary
We live in an era influenced by humans to the point that the Earth's systems are now
altered. In addition, a majority of the world's population live in cities. To meet the needs
of people in a changing world, The United Nations General Assembly created the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG) to improve the quality of life for peo‐
ple. These broad goals outline the greatest challenges of our time. An effective strategy
to assist in meeting these goals is to plant and protect trees, especially in cities where
the majority of people live. This paper serves as a critical review of the benefits of trees.
Trees promote health and social well‐being by removing air pollution, reducing stress,
encouraging physical activity, and promoting social ties and community. Children with
views of trees are more likely to succeed in school. Trees promote a strong economy and
can provide numerous resources to the people that need them. While cities are getting
hotter, trees can reduce urban temperatures. They provide habitat and food for animals.
Finally, trees are valuable green infrastructure to manage stormwater. Money spent on
urban forestry has a high return on investment. As we navigate this human‐dominated
era, we need skilled people who understand the nuances of the built environment and
trees as we strategically plan the cities of the future. The overwhelming evidence from
the scientific literature suggests that investing in trees is an investment in meeting the
UN SDG, and ultimately an investment for a better world.
KEY WORDS
benefits of trees, cities, climate change, ecosystem services, human health, sustainability,
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, urban forest
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1 | INTRODUCTION
This current era, the Anthropocene, is driven by human influence
and it has ushered in a growing number of direct and indirect chal‐
lenges that can greatly impact the health and prosperity of people
and the planet (Ellis, 2015). Climate change is driving an unprece‐
dented number of extreme climatic events and causing ocean levels
to rise (Goudie, 2019). The human population continues to increase
(UN, 2015a) and metropolitan regions are growing and expanding.
By 2050, most of the world's population (70%) will live in cities (FAO,
2016). These concentrated populations have a wide variety of chal‐
lenges, ranging from people not having access to clean water to pol‐
lution‐related health issues (UN, 2015b).
People and cities need efficient and effective solutions to address
the challenges of this current era. In 2015, the United Nations (UN)
outlined 17 goals for sustainable development. The UN Sustainable
Development Goals (UN SDG), while ambitious, have the promise to im‐
prove the quality of life for the billions of people on this planet and serve
as a strong example of what the global society prioritizes (UN, 2015b).
Environmental and nature‐based solutions can help address a
majority of these outlined goals. Previous work has aligned envi‐
ronmental topics, such as plant conservation (Sharrock & Jackson,
2017), soil and soil science (Keesstra et al., 2016), and the prevention
of land degradation (Vlek, Khamzina, & Lulseged, 2017) as solutions
to meet the UN SDG. One additional way to address the challenges
that the urban population faces is to provide people with green
spaces and to plant, maintain, and protect trees (FAO, 2016; Endreny
et al., 2017; Endreny, 2018; World Resources Institute, 2018). The
direct and indirect benefits of trees and nature are vast (Blackmore,
2009; Brack, 2002; Hirons & Thomas, 2018; Kuo, 2015; Tyrväinen,
Pauleit, Seeland, & De Vries, 20 05), and much research has focused
on the benefits of trees to urban residents (Jennings & Johnson
Gaither, 2015).
This paper provides a critical and succinct review on how the
benefits of trees can increase the well‐being of a majorit y of the
world's population. The authors classify the benefits of trees into
five categories: (a) health and social well‐being; (b) cognitive de‐
velopment and education; (c) economy and resources; (d) climate
change mitigation and habitat; and (e) green infrastructure (Table 1).
In addition to the benefits in these categories, the presence of trees
and green space can help a city to meet Goal 11, sustainable cities
and communities, of the UN SDG through providing universal access
to green and public spaces. This paper expands on the work of the
FAO (2016) and highlights additional goals of the UN SDG that can
be met through a healthy urban forest.
2 | THE SCIENTIFIC BENEFIT OF TREES
2.1 | Health and social well‐being
One of the most important benefits for human health that urban
forests can provide is the interception and reduction of air pol‐
lution (McDonald et al., 2007, 2016; Nowak, Crane, & Stevens,
2006; Nowak, Hirabayashi, Bodine, & Greenfield, 2014; Nowak,
Hirabayashi, Doyle, McGovern, & Pasher, 2018). Air pollution (e.g.
particulate matter (PM), ozone, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aro‐
matic hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.) is linked
to bronchitic symptoms, intraocular pressure (leads to glaucoma),
myocardial infarction (i.e. heart attacks), changes in autonomic and
micro‐vascular function, autism, blood pressure, cognitive develop‐
ment problems in children (slower processing speeds, behavioral
problems, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms), blood
mitochondrial abundance, heart failure, and mortality in humans
(Berhaneetal.,2016;Dietal.,2017;Hoeket al.,2013;Mustafićet
al., 2012; Nwanaji‐Enwerem et al., 2019; Peterson et al., 2015; Shah
et al., 2013; Volk, Lurmann, Penfold, Hertz‐Picciot to, & McConnell,
2013; Weichenthal, Hatzopoulou, & Goldberg, 2014; Zhong et al.,
2016). Trees remove a tremendous amount of air pollution. It is esti‐
mated that from the contiguous United States, urban trees remove
711,000 metric tons of air pollution each year (Nowak et al., 2006).
Previous research demonstrated that out of 35 woody species stud‐
ied, all accumulated PM (Mo et al., 2015). Further, Chen, Liu, Zhang,
Zou, and Zhang (2017) suggested that PM2.5 accumulation capacity
increases as a tree matures, and a diverse planting of species aug‐
ments the trapping of PM2.5.
There is a link between trees, green spaces and mortality, and it
is documented in the literature (James, Hart, Banay, & Laden, 2016;
Nowak et al., 2018; Villeneuve et al., 2012). In one particular study,
the authors associated the increase in cardiovascular and respiratory
deaths with the infestation and death of ash trees (genus Fraxinus)
in counties within the United States (Donovan et al., 2013). Having
more trees, especially the right mature species planted in the right
locations, can reduce particulate matter and other forms of air pol‐
lution, which could reduce mortality and morbidity in our urban
centers.
Beyond pollution removal, the presence of trees provides
additional direct and indirect benefits to human health and well‐
ness (Donovan, 2017). Regardless of why trees provide so many
benefits (see Biophilia hypothesis [Wilson, 1984; Keller t & Wilson,
1995] and Attention Restoration Theory [(Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989;
Kaplan, 1995]), the presence of trees and green space promotes
well‐being. Trees and greener environments are strongly linked
to reduced negative thoughts, reduced symptoms of depression,
better reported moods, and increased life satisfaction (Berman
et al., 2012; Bratman, Hamilton, Hahn, Daily, & Gross, 2015; Li,
Deal, Zhou, Slavenas, & Sullivan, 2018; Lohr & Pearson‐Mims,
2006; Mayer, Frantz, Bruehlman‐Senecal, & Dolliver, 2009; Taylor,
Wheeler, White, Economou, & Osborne, 2015; White, Alcock,
Wheeler, & Depledge, 2013). A view of trees can help patients re‐
cover in a hospital (Ulrich, 1984) and reduce diastolic blood pres‐
sure and stress in research participants (Hartig, Evans, Jamner,
Davis, & Gärling, 2003; Jiang, Larsen, Deal, & Sullivan, 2015).
Residents of tree‐lined communities feel healthier and have fewer
cardio‐metabolic conditions than their counterparts (Kardan et al.,
2015). The presence of trees can even improve the condition of
people with a neurodegenerative disease (Mooney & Nicell, 1992).
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In addition, as people value trees and natural environments, they
like being around them and viewing them (Dwyer, Schroeder, &
Gobster, 1991; Kaplan, Kaplan, & Wendt, 1972; Lohr, Pearson‐
Mims, Tarnai, & Dillman, 2004). The presence of trees and green
spaces may encourage physical activity (Bell, Wilson, & Liu, 20 08;
Ellaway, MacIntyre, & Bonnefoy, 2005), which is related to physi‐
cal and mental health. Given the multi‐faceted health benefits of
the ecosystem service ecotherapy (Summers & Vivian, 2018), the
very act of planting and caring for trees may promote mental and
physical health. Trees not only make people happier and healthier,
but they make communities more livable.
Well‐maintained trees are associated with improving the social
capital and ecology of a community (Coley, Sullivan, & Kuo, 1997;
Elmendorf, 2008; Holtan, Dieterlen, & Sullivan, 2015; Kuo, 2003;
TABLE 1 A high‐level overview of the benefits that urban trees provide, and how the direct and indirect benefits relate to the
corresponding United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Further, the presence of trees and green space can help a city meet Goal 11,
or sustainable cities and communities, through providing universal access to green and public spaces
Benefit of urban trees categor y
Corresponding United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals
Scientific benefits of tree s
highlights
Health and social well‐being
Trees promote physical and mental health for urban
resident s. They support community ties and reduced
crime rates.
Goal 3: Good health and well‐being Reduce pollution
Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities Improve physical and mental health
Goal 16: Peace, justice, and strong
institutions
Strengthen community ties
Increase physical activity
Decrease aggression and violence
Reduce crime
Cognitive development and education
Trees increase a student's ability to succeed in school. Goal 4: Quality education Improve student performance
Reduce stress
Increase in concentration
Reduce symptoms of ADD/ADHD
Increase in attention
Increase in self‐discipline
Economy and resources
Trees are good for the economy and they reduce energy
bills. They provide many resource s, such as food, to a
community.
Goal 1: No poverty High return‐on‐investment
Goal 2: Zero hunger Support tourism
Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy Increase home prices and rental
rates
Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth Reduce energy use and bills
Goal 10: Reduced inequalities Promote food sustainability
Goal 12: Responsible consumption and
production
Provide resources and firewood
Climate change mitigation and habitat
Trees mitigate the Urban Heat Island Effect and store and
sequester carbon. They are important for habitat.
Goal 3: Good health and well‐being Reduce Urban Heat Island Effect
Goal 13: Climate action Store and sequester carbon
Goal 15: Life on land Provide critical habitat
Green infrastructure
Trees are important forms of infrastructure, especially for
storm water management
Goal 3: Good health and well‐being Manage storm water
Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation Reduce pollution
Goal 9: Industry, innovation and
infrastructure
Protect life below water and on land
Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities
Goal 12: Responsible consumption and
production
Goal 14: Life below water
Goal 15: Life on land
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Kuo, Sullivan, Coley, & Brunson, 1998), reducing violence and ag‐
gression in households (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001a), and limiting crimi‐
nal activity in neighborhoods (Donovan & Prestemon, 2012; Kuo &
Sullivan, 2001b; Troy, Morgan Grove, & O'Neil‐Dunne, 2012; Troy,
Nunery, & Grove, 2016). In one study, Kondo, Han, Donovan, and
MacDonald (2017) demonstrated that the loss of ash trees due to
the emerald ash borer in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, was positively asso‐
ciated with increases in crime. This could be an example of “cues to
care,” which is the idea that a well‐tended landscape is valued and
viewed (Troy et al., 2016). While there is a perception that the pres‐
ence of trees can increase crime, it is likely related to unmanaged and
smaller trees that provide greater protection to a criminal (Donovan
& Prestemon, 2012). Regardless of this perception, evidence indi‐
cates that trees make residents feel safer (Kuo, Bacaicoa, & Sullivan,
1998).
Based on literature cited, trees can help meet our societal goals
as outlined in the UN SDG, especially Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives
and promote well‐being for all at all ages; Goal 11: Make cities and
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable; and
Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all and build effective,
accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels. These benefits
from trees, if distributed throughout communities, can help make
cities more sustainable and livable (Table 1).
2.2 | Cognitive development and education
To increase liter acy and numer acy, children nee d to have access to na‐
ture, and at the very least, green and natural views of trees (Berman,
Jonides, & Kaplan, 2008; Faber Taylor, Kuo, & Sullivan, 20 02; Lin,
Tsai, Sullivan, Chang, & Chang, 2014; Tennessen & Cimprich, 1995).
As reviewed in Kuo, Browning, Sachdeva, Lee, and Westphal (2018),
stress levels, concentration, and intrinsic motivation are likely strong
factors in a child's success as a student. Students who are focused,
attentive, and engaged are more likely to succeed in school and
receive a quality education. At tention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) can impact a stu‐
dent's success in school (Rief, 2012). Green environments, such as
open spaces with big trees, are related to reduced symptoms of ADD
and ADHD (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2009; Faber Taylor, Kuo, & Sullivan,
2001).
Tree cover is strongly linked to student academic performance
(Kuo, Browning, Sachdeva, et al., 2018; Kweon, Ellis, Lee, & Jacobs,
2017; Matsuoka, 2010). In one study, views of trees and shrubs at
schools, as opposed to grass, were strongly related to future edu‐
cation plans and graduation rates (Matsuoka, 2010). Li and Sullivan
(2016) found that students who had views of trees and green en‐
vironment from their classrooms, as compared to being in a room
without windows or a room with a view of a brick wall, scored sub‐
stantially higher on tests measuring attention, and they had a faster
recovery from a stressful event. Students who learn in the presence
of trees and nature have improved classroom engagement (Kuo,
Browning, & Penner, 2018). Trees can promote a qualit y education,
which has innumerable advantages for society. Access to trees sup‐
ports a quality education and can help countries meet the UN SDG,
especially Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (Table 1).
2.3 | Economy and resources
Trees provide many ecosystem services that can benefit a cit y envi‐
ronment, ranging from reducing energy use and removing pollution
(Nowak & Greenfield, 2018) to increasing property values, devel‐
oping the local economy, and supporting tourism (Nesbitt, Hotte,
Barron, Cowan, & Sheppard, 2017). In the United States alone, it is
estimated that trees provide $18.3 billion in annual value due to air
pollution removal, reduced building energy use, carbon sequestra‐
tion, and avoided pollutant emissions (Nowak & Greenfield, 2018).
Allocating resources in tree planting and maintenance can be a fis‐
cally sound decision based on the benefits and ecosystem services
that tree s provide (McPherson, Simpson, Peper, Maco, & Xia o, 2005).
This high return on investment can be multiples of invested capital
over time (McPherson, van Doorn, & de Goede, 2016). Many ben‐
efits are not fully captured in this return on investment. In addition,
the presence of shade trees can re duce the rate of ageing of road and
pavement surfaces (McPherson & Muchnick, 2005), influence shop‐
pers to visit a shopping area (Wolf, 2005), and increase the selling
price of a home (Anderson & Cordell, 1988; Donovan & Butry, 2010;
Sander, Polasky, & Haight, 2010). As long as trees do not block the
view of an office building, quality landscaping with properly main‐
tained trees can increase rental rates (L averne & Winson‐Geideman,
2003). A properly planted tree can also reduce energy use (Akbari,
2002; Donovan & Butr y, 2009; Pandit & Laband, 2010; Simpson,
1998), which can reduce the cost of energy bills.
While urban trees can provide economic benefits, they can also
provide resources, such as food, to a community. The idea that trees
can provide food security and promote well‐being is not new. In fact,
agroforestry was previously recognized as a way to meet the United
Nations Millennium Development Goals (Garrity, 2004). Hundreds
of tree species are used for agroforestry to promote food sustain‐
ability and nutritional security (Dawson et al., 2013; Or wa, Mutua,
Kindt, Jamnadass, & Simons, 20 09). Urban orchards, or urban food
forestry, can be an efficient way to consistently provide free or
low‐cost nutrient‐dense food to the people that need it (Clark &
Nicholas, 2013). Urban street trees can provide many resources
to the inhabitants of cities. In New York City, 88% of tree species
present are forgeable for medicine, food, etc., including nine out of
ten of the most common tree species (Hurley & Emer y, 2018). The
“Incredible Edible” movement is an example of how underutilized
plots in urban environments can be used to grow food, as a means to
reduce food deserts and build communit y (Morley, Farrier, & Dooris,
2017). Planting urban orchards in available spaces could prove an im‐
portant tool to reduce hunger and increase social ties. Urban forag‐
ing may not be practiced in areas of higher oppor tunity (Larondelle &
Strohbach, 2016), and so it may not receive the attention it deserves
as a solution for food security.
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Forests also provide the habitat for non‐timber forest products
(NTFP) that can provide valuable resources to a local community
(Turner, 2015). Some examples of NTFP include American ginseng
(Panax quinquefolius L.), maple syrup (derived from Acer spp.) and
nuts (from trees like the European Chestnut, Castanea sativa Mill.;
Poe, McLain, Emery, & Hurley, 2013; Turner, 2015). Traditionally
NTFP are associated with a rural environment, yet urban NTFP can
provide additional financial, food, and medicinal security to people
living in cities (Kaoma & Shackleton, 2015; McLain, Hurley, Emer y, &
Poe, 2013; McLain, Poe, Hurley, Lecompte‐Mastenbrook, & Emery,
2012; Poe et al., 2013).
Finally, wood is an important source of material and energy for
much of the world. Trees that are cut down in cities or communities
can be used for timber (Sherrill, 2003). This could be used for fuel
or for producing goods. Innovative programs can promote sustain‐
ability and creative usage of urban wood. An example of this is the
“Working for Water” program which trains people in South Africa
to remove woody invasive species, and then the cleared wood can
be used for a variety of secondary industries (Binns, Illgner, & Nel,
2001). While this program works with invasive species, it serves
as an example of creative solutions involving the community with
urban issues involving trees. Urban forests can also help supply
affordable energ y to people that need it (FAO, 2016). It is import‐
ant to note, however, that burning wood is a large contributor to
air pollution in urban environments (Favez, Cachier, Sciare, Sarda‐
Estève, & Martinon, 2009). Therefore, if wood is used for fuel, it
should be burned in such a way that the benefits outweigh the
harm to human health. Trees are a valuable resource, even after
they are cut down.
Trees can help countries meet the UN SDG by providing food,
resources and economic advantages to countries. These goals in‐
clude: Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms ever ywhere; Goal 2: End
hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture; Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable, and modern energy for all; Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive em‐
ployment and decent work for all; Goal 10: Reduce inequality within
and among countries; and Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption
and production patterns.
2.4 | Climate change mitigation and habitat
Climate change directly impacts where people live. One of the
most pressing risks for human health associated with a changing
climate are the increases in heat‐related deaths, diseases, and infec‐
tious diseases (Patz, Campbell‐Lendrum, Holloway, & Foley, 2005).
The increase in heat and heat‐related health problems is especially
prevalent in cities, where the Urban Heat Island Effect increases the
impact of heat waves (Ward, Lauf, Kleinschmit, & Endlicher, 2016).
Properly placed trees can mitigate temperatures in built environ‐
ments. Not only do trees provide shade through intercepting and
absorbing light, but through evapotranspiration trees actively cool
the air of cities (EPA, 2008; Hirons & Thomas, 2018; Schwab, 2009).
An analysis of 94 urban areas around the world indicates that trees
have a significant impact on the temperature, and are responsible
for, on average, 1.9°C (SD 2.3) of cooling in a city (Figure 1a). Trees
incorporated into the built environment can reduce a city's tempera‐
ture by 9°C (Figure 1b). This reduction of temperature in major cities
(Akbari, Pomerantz, & Taha, 2001; Loughner et al., 2012; McDonald
et al., 2016) can ultimately help ameliorate the impact of climate
change on human health.
One of the key ways to limit the impacts of climate change is to
reduce the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere. Trees
are beneficial to storing carbon, which is a major contributor to cli‐
mate change (Nowak, 1993). Nowak and Crane (20 02) determined
that not only do urban trees in the coterminous United States se‐
quester 22.8 million tons of carbon each year, but the urban forest
in this area stores 700 million tons of carbon. The more mature a
tree is, the more carbon it stores in its woody biomass (Schwab,
2009). Although trees are not the single answer, healthy and ma‐
ture trees have the potential to make significant carbon mitigation
returns.
Finally, trees, specifically mature ones, perform a keystone role
in terrestrial ecosystems (Manning, Fischer, & Lindenmayer, 2006).
Trees are critically important, especially in urban areas, as they pro‐
vide food and habitat for birds, invertebrates, mammals, and plants
(Fahey, Darling, & Anderson, 2015; Schwab, 2009; Tyrväinen et al.,
2005). Improving and maintaining biodiversity is necessary for a sus‐
tainable city.
Therefore, planting and protecting trees can help a country meet
the following UN SDG: Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote
well‐being for all at all ages; Goal 13: Take urgent action to com‐
bat climate change and its impacts; and Goal 15: Protect, restore,
and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat deser tification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
2.5 | Green infrastructure
Trees are considered “decentralized green infrastructure” and can be
important tools for managing water, especially in an urban ecosys‐
tem (Berland et al., 2017). Water runoff is a serious issue in the city
environment, as runoff can increase the exposure to pollution and
cause property damage (Braden & Johnston, 2004). Trees can help
reduce and intercept stormwater and improve the quality of run‐
off water (Berland et al., 2017; Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999; Brack,
2002; Livesley, McPherson, & Calfapietra, 2016; Scharenbroch,
Morgenroth, & Maule, 2016). With less contact on impervious sur‐
faces, stormwater is cooler and has fewer pollutants when it enters
local waterways and water‐related ecosystems (Schwab, 2009).
Trees can also be valuable in phytoremediation, where they can re‐
move heavy metals and other contaminants from the environment
(French, Dickinson, & Putwain, 2006). While gray infrastructure de‐
preciates over time, trees appreciate in value as they mature (Hauer
& Johnson, 2003). Therefore, an investment in trees can make eco‐
nomic sense and align with the UN SDG.
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Green infrastructure protects life below water and life on land,
while promoting sustainability. The abilit y of trees to reduce the pol‐
lution in the waterways is beneficial to human health and well‐being.
Therefore, by promoting trees as green infrastructure, the following
UN SDG can be met Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well‐
being for all at all ages; Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all; Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation; Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable; Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production patterns; Goal 14: Conserve and sus‐
tainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development; and Goal 15: Protect , restore and promote sustainable
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat
desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodi‐
versity loss (Table 1).
FIGURE 1 (a) Trees greatly contribute to urban cooling. Cities included in this evaluation have an estimated population in the
metropolitan area greater than 2 million in the year 200 0, a metropolitan area greater than 1,000 km2, and an urban heat island effect
greater than 1°C (Center for International Earth Science Information Network ‐ CIESIN ‐ Columbia University, 2016). The effec t of trees on
urban cooling was calculated by subtracting the temperature in areas without trees from the obser ved temperatures; (b) while the standard
deviation is large, it is not normally distributed. The impact of trees on cooling the urban environment is ecologically and statistically
significant. Figures are created by Dr Christy Rollinson, Forest Ecologist at The Morton Arboretum
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3 | IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
While the above outlines how the benefits of trees can help build
sustainable cities in the future and reach the collective agenda of
the UN SDG , there are important considerations associated with this
review. First, while there is strong evidence that nature benefits hu‐
mans, much of the research conducted has been correlative. Future
studies should address methodological limitations and minimize po‐
tential errors or bias in research (such as self‐repor ting moods, sam‐
pling bias, lack of control group, and short‐time frames of research;
Keniger, Gaston, Irvine, & Fuller, 2013). Despite these concerns, the
vast number of studies illustrating the breadth of benefits related to
trees is compelling.
Many of these papers describe the importance of urban green
space. Green space can be defined as herbaceous or woody vege‐
tated areas such as parks, forests, or gardens (Jennings & Johnson
Gaither, 2015). It is unlikely that the papers that asked questions
about green space focused on grassy fields that lacked trees. In
addition, research shows that green spaces without trees or dense
vegetation can have negligible or negative impacts on people (Kuo,
Browning, Sachdeva, et al., 2018; Kweon et al., 2017; Matsuoka,
2010; Reid, Clougherty, Shmool, & Kubzansky, 2017).
While this review stresses the importance of trees, this is not
to say that other forms of nature will not provide similar benefits.
However, in the space‐limited cit y, trees are practical. They provide
a strong return on investment given their vertical orientation and
size.
Trees do not only provide positive benefits, however, as there
can be negative associations surrounding trees. These disservices to
people can range from financial strains associated with tree mainte‐
nance and care, to property damage, to safety issues associated with
limited visibility and securit y, and the inconvenience of messiness
(Escobedo, Kroeger, & Wagner, 2011; Lohr et al., 2004; Lyytimäki &
Sipilä, 20 09; Roy, Byrne, & Pickerin g, 2012; Staudhammer, Escobedo,
Luley, & Bond, 20 09; Wyman, Escobedo, Stein, Or fanedes, &
Northrop, 2012).
One of the most commonly cited disservices associated with
trees is the production of biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds
(bVOCs) which react with nitrogen oxides, to increase air pollution
in the form of ozone (Hirons & Thomas, 2018; Salmond et al., 2016).
This negative impact on air quality can be exasperated during heat
waves (Churkina et al., 2017) or in street canyons (Salmond et al.,
2016). As it is situational, measuring the impact of bVOCs is com‐
plicated. Species, number of trees, and location planted makes
a difference in the type and amount of air pollution produced or
accumulated by trees (Calfapietra et al., 2013; Donovan, Stewart,
Owen, MacKenzie, & Hewitt, 2005; Janhäll, 2015). Complicating the
issue of disservices/benefit s, the amount of ozone that a tree inter‐
cepts and uptakes may be greater than any ozone produced through
bVOCs (Calfapietra et al., 2013; Salmond et al., 2016). Further, trees
are more effective at absorbing and accumulating gas and particu‐
late pollutants than other city surfaces (as reviewed in Salmond et
al., 2016).
Since trees can produce disservices, trees should be valued for
what they holistically contribute to a community, rather than being
valued for singular benefits. For example, while trees in a street can‐
yon may result in more localized pollution, they may provide second‐
ary benefits such as reducing the movement of pollutants to other
locations or masking noise pollution (Salmond et al., 2016). In fact,
the benefits of trees are often so valued that any disser vices that can
be associated with them are outweighed (Lohr et al., 2004; Wyman
et al., 2012). When planting trees, people can reduce possible disser‐
vices through careful species selection, and selecting species with
low potential for invasion. Resources exist, like the Northern Illinois
Tree Selector (2019), which can help people select the appropriate
tree for the appropriate site, all the while considering disservices,
services, and if a tree species has invasive traits.
The benefits of trees are relative to seasonal and temperate zone
differences. Another important consideration is that not all trees are
equal. Some benefits may be more pronounced in specific species
(Chen et al., 2017; Grote et al., 2016; Xiao & McPherson, 2016).
Benefits differ within a species as well. A small street tree does not
provide the same benefits as a large, 100‐year‐old tree. Mature and
old trees are increasingly rare, and yet they can provide the great‐
est benefits (Lindenmayer, 2017; Lindenmayer & Laurance, 2017;
Lindenmayer, Laurance, & Franklin, 2012). Given that they are single
organisms, large old trees provide a disproportionate impact on bio‐
diversit y and ecological processes, from providing habitat for other
animals and plants to facilitating important ecological cycles (Le
Roux, Ikin, Lindenmayer, Manning, & Gibbons, 2015; Lindenmayer,
2017; Lutz et al., 2018; Stagoll, Lindenmayer, Knight, Fischer, &
Manning, 2012). A larger tree can provide substantially greater ben‐
efits than a smaller tree can (Stephenson et al., 2014). There is also
cultural value associated with large and mature trees (Blicharska
&Mikusiński,2014).Citiesand urban centers should managetheir
forests to conserve large‐diameter trees to maximize the ecosystem
services the trees can provide (see Cavender & Donnelly, 2019).
Few trees reach maturity in an urban environment (Watson &
Himelick, 2013). While many cities participate in tree plantings,
the lack of follow‐up care can impact survival rates, thus result in a
waste of resources (Widney, Fischer, & Vogt, 2016). However great
the number of benefits a mature tree can provide, it takes time for
the benefits of trees to exceed the costs associated with the planting
and maintenance (Vogt , Hauer, & Fischer, 2015). One way to increase
survival rates of planted trees—and thus, ensure a wise investment—
is to garner community support with tree plantings. This can reduce
vandalism and create a sense of ownership (Black, 1978). For exam‐
ple, Sklar and Ames (1985) found that trees planted with community
participation had significantly higher survival rates (~60%–70%) as
compared to trees that were planted without community participa‐
tion (<1%). Involving the local community in tree planting may also
increase neighborhood ties ( Watkins et al., 2018). This may lead to a
positive social effect.
A major issue that extends beyond the scope of this paper is that
often low‐income countries have the greatest need for improved
urban conditions, and therefore, they may have the greatest need for
330
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TURNER‐SKOFF aN d CaVENdER
trees. However, many of these countries may not have the climate to
support trees; they may be xeric or in areas that are susceptible to
droughts (McDonald et al., 2016). The variance in climates empha‐
sizes the importance of proper selection of trees, identifying trees
that are adapted to local climates or have high plasticity and can
survive in unfavorable conditions. Green infrastructure that collects
and integrates stormwater drainage where trees are planted may
offer a solution to tree survival in xeric environments. Regardless,
water availability must be considered before planting (McDonald et
al., 2016).
Moving for ward, emphasis should be placed on reducing the in‐
equality of tree distribution in the urban forest within and among
cities. Trees and green spaces are often unequally distributed among
communities with var ying demographics such as income and race
(Jennings, Johnson Gaither, & Gragg, 2012; Landry & Chakraborty,
2009; Pincetl, 2010). Schwarz et al. (2015) found that when analyz‐
ing seven major cities, the authors found a strong relationship be‐
tween urban tree cover and income: the lower the income, the fewer
the trees. Decision‐makers may underestimate the importance of
trees and plants in humanitarian work due to bias of plant blindness
(Balding & Williams, 2016), but this paper illustrates the benefits.
Future research is needed to understand all of the benefits and
disservices that trees provide to people. First, moving beyond cor‐
relation, more experimental studies should be conducted that eval‐
uate the benefit of trees to people. Jennings and Johnson Gaither
(2015) outlined how future research should focus efforts on un‐
derstanding how health and green space are related in low‐income
populations and rural minorities. Historically, research has been
geographically biased with many of the studies occurring in North
America and Europe (Keniger et al., 2013). There are many opportu‐
nities to expand this research to the southern hemisphere. Given the
short‐time frame of most social and psychological studies (Keniger
et al., 2013), longitudinal studies will help determine longer‐term im‐
pacts of trees and nature on people. As discussed in Salmond et al.
(2016), researchers should work to understand the scale of benefits
or disser vices. This includes a more localized approach to research,
such as understanding the local impacts of street trees in regulating
air qualit y, rather than at regional scale. In addition, rather than fo‐
cusing on individual pollutants, research is needed that investigates
the interaction of air pollution, pollen, and temperature at a local
scale (Salmond et al., 2016). Understanding the benefits of nature,
beyond trees, is important for strategic urban planning in xeric en‐
vironments. Finally, while there are trade‐offs between disservices
and services, future‐focused urban planning and research is needed
so the right species are planted in the right environment to minimize
the negative impacts of any disservices and maximize the benefits.
4 | CONCLUSION
Investing in trees will result in sustainable cities with happier and
healthier people. We reviewed the substantial evidence to better
understand the tangible and real benefits that trees provide. While
there are considerations, planting and protecting trees is a real so‐
lution to many of society's challenges, offering high potential with
relatively small input and energ y. The results can be profound in the
long term. In particular, the five categories of benefits outlined in
this article (health and social well‐being, cognitive development and
education, economy and resources, climate change mitigation and
habitat, and green infrastructure) are of particular importance, es‐
pecially as there is a great global migration into cities. While previ‐
ous work illustrated that trees can help meet several of the UNSDG,
this review demonstrates that planting and protecting of trees can
directly and indirectly contribute to 15 of the 17 goals. This is more
than previously described. Beyond the UN SDG, the planting and
protecting of trees support s the United Nation's New Urban Agenda
(NUA). The NUA, which was created to promote the development
of sustainable cities, stresses the importance of green and quality
public spaces, as well as green infrastructure (United Nations, 2017).
For people to receive their benefits, the urban forest needs to be
healthy and diverse to create the most sustainable and livable com‐
munities possible.
We have entered a new era in which humans are the dominant
species and the main influencer of the planet. The built environ‐
ment as it currently exists is not conducive to most trees (Watson
& Himelick, 2013). In order to receive the benefits that trees pro‐
vide, we need people who have the skills required to care for trees.
Horticulture experts and plant scientists are of vital importance to
the world, and they need to be future‐focused in their work, ac‐
tively seeking positive outcomes for society's challenges (Blackmore
& Paterson, 2006; Raven, 2019; Smith, 2019). This new era of the
Anthropocene requires a new era of horticulture. Experts need to
understand how to address society's needs and the realities of the
urban environment, while taking trees and adapting them to where
people live. This requires skills in arboriculture, sourcing, cultivation,
production, and care in a way that is calculated and encompasses
urban planning. We also need broad engagement across all sectors
(Cavender & Donnelly, 2019) to strategically plan and manage the
urban forest to gain the most benefits (Miller, Hauer, & Werner,
2015).
If we want to have the benefits of urban trees in the future, we
must think of our urban forests as an investment. Like any invest‐
ment, if trees are not cared for, they depreciate in value and can
become a liability. Through planting and care, however, urban for‐
ests can have compounding benefits, trickling through ever y layer
of society, leading to a better world. A s the proverb says, “The best
time to plant a tree is twenty years ago, the second best time is now.”
We must act now for a better world.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr Christy Rollinson for her analysis and creation
of the figure. Thanks to Claudia Wood, Rita Hassert, and Maureen
Sullivan for their assistance and input, and to Dr Steve Tichy for his
medical expertise. In addition, we thank the two anonymous review‐
ers who provided excellent feedback. We thank tree champions
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TURNER‐SKOFF aN d CaVENdER
everywhere and The Morton Arboretum supporters and colleagues
who work to understand, plant and protect trees for a healthier and
more beautiful world.
ORCID
Jessica B. Turner‐Skoff https://orcid.org/0000‐0002‐1032‐0986
Nicole Cavender https://orcid.org/0000‐0001‐5804‐061X
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How to cite this article: Turner‐Skoff JB, Cavender N. The
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