Content uploaded by Moritz Jeppe Heinle
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Moritz Jeppe Heinle on Jul 18, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
OF THE ARABIAN GULF
SAUDI ARABIAN WATERS
Fifty Years of Scientic Research
A Publication by Saudi Aramco and King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Chief Editors
Dr. Khaled A. Al-Abdulkader1, Dr. Ronald A. Loughland1 and Dr. Mohammed A. Qurban2
1Environmental Protection Department, Saudi Aramco
2Center for Environment & Water, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Photography
Applaudo Grupa d.o.o.
Maps Production
Syed Azher Hussain
Publishing Coordination
Meerja Humayun Baig
Production and Direction
Bruno Nicolis
Design and Layout
Roberto Chillon
Printing and Binding
Papergraf - Piazzola sul Brenta (Padova), Italy
© 2019 Saudi Aramco & King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except brief extracts for the purpose of review, without the prior permission in
writing of Saudi Aramco.
ISBN: 978-603-02-7862-6
Dr. KhaleD a. al-abDulKaDer, Dr. ronalD a. loughlanD, and Dr. MohaMMeD a. Qurban
ECOSYSTEMS
AND BIODIVERSITY OF
THE ARABIAN GULF
SAUDI ARABIAN WATERS
Fifty Years of Scientic Research
5
Preface
For nearly ve decades, the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) has partnered
with Saudi Aramco to document and explore the wondrous ecosystem that exists in the Arabian Gulf.
The book before you oers a comprehensive and up to date guide on the fruits of that work and its
ndings.
Through its pages, marine scientists, decision makers, students and indeed anyone with an interest in
marine environmental protection, will have access to a wealth of scientic information.
The Arabian Gulf is environmentally challenged because of the natural stressors of salinity and temperature
uctuations. Rapid population growth and associated developmental activities along its coasts, particularly
those related to the urban and industrial development, are adding additional stress on the Arabian Gulf ’s
fragile environment.
The partnership between KFUPM and Saudi Aramco, has resulted in a greater understanding of the
Arabian Gulf’s natural ecosystems, ensuring greater protection of biodiversity and natural resources. The
backbone of this partnership has been the Marine Environmental Sustaining Research Program, which has
produced fundamental knowledge on the Arabian Gulf ’s marine environment. In addition, detailed and
in-depth environmental impact assessments have been systematically conducted for proposed development
projects as well as environmental monitoring during construction and commencement of operations, all
contributing to our knowledge of the ecosystems. This information has contributed to the protection of the
ecosystems and the development of a sheries management framework in the Arabian Gulf.
We are grateful for the collaboration and eorts of the interdisciplinary teams of the Environmental
Protection Department of Saudi Aramco and the Marine Studies Section of KFUPM in preparation of this
book. A deep and sincere appreciation is extended to each and every person who, for nearly ve decades,
has played a part in this partnership in marine environment protection. This book is a testament to your hard
work and our collective desire to preserve the beautiful ecosystem that ourishes in the Arabian Gulf.
A H. N
Saudi Aramco President & CEO
7
Foreword
The Arabian Gulf has always been a special component of the Kingdom’s economy and culture.
Aside from its rich oil and gas resources, it is also an important source of food and water, and
is a major transportation point. But not to be undermined or forgotten is the fact that it also
supports vital and thriving ecosystems. In its waters are seagrass, coral reefs, salt marshes, and mangroves,
as well as intertidal and subtidal sediments and deeper water areas. These interacting habitats provide the
essential components for a vibrant and productive marine ecosystem. However impressive this may sound,
the Arabian Gulf is also facing natural and human-induced stress, such as elevated seawater temperature and
salinity; coupled with coastal urbanization and rapid industrialization. These stresses, if not managed, can
impact the long-term ecosystem services currently provided by the Arabian Gulf.
Scientic research on its marine environment is the result of collaboration between industry and
academia. It was in 1982 that the Environmental Protection Department of Saudi Aramco and the Marine
Studies Section of the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals began joint research into the
Arabian Gulf’s ecosystem. This partnership involved the development of research programs to study the
Arabian Gulf’s ecosystem values, interactions, and reduce the impact of stress. Currently, the sixth phase of
this sustaining research program is focusing on the biodiversity status across the Arabian Gulf ’s ecosystems.
This book gathers the results and the major scientic ndings of this long-term collaborative program and
provides a detailed, updated review on the state of the marine ecosystems and biodiversity of the Western
Arabian Gulf. For anyone who has an interest in the topic, it serves as the current denitive work, and is a
reminder of the importance of marine ecosystems.
P. S N. A
Rector of King Fahd University
of Petroleum & Minerals
Chapter Three
The Natural Ecosystem
of the Western Arabian Gulf
Chapter One
General Introduction
Preface
Foreword
Contents
7
9
Chapter Two
The Phisical Environment
of the Western Arabian Gulf
Chapter Four
Fauna
19
61
11
325
Chapter Six
Impacts on Ecosystems:
Mitigation and Management
Chapter Seven
Management of the Gulf’s
Ecosystems: The Way Forward
Chapter Five
Use of the Natural Resources
References
Appendix
451
515
547
616
569
309
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
3 .11
The Pelagic Environment
of the Arabian Gulf
Todd r. Clardy1, MoriTz J. Heinle1, and yu-Jia lin1
Introduction
The marine pelagic ecosystem is dened as the portion of the ocean that is not inuenced by the
ocean bottom or by coastal eects, such as freshwater discharge from rivers or anthropogenic wastewater
discharge. This makes the marine pelagic realm the largest ecosystem on Earth. Oceans cover 71% of the
Earth’s surface and have an average depth of 3.8 km, meaning approximately 99% of Earth’s available livable
habitat is the pelagic realm (Norse, 1994). Due in part to its large size, the pelagic environment directly
or indirectly inuences almost all marine life and has a major inuence on terrestrial life as well. Pelagic
waters account for a large proportion of primary production on Earth (Field, et al., 1998) and provide
> 80% of the sh consumed by humans (Pauly, et al., 2002). Given their size and importance, marine
pelagic ecosystems have been well studied globally, including their biodiversity, trophic structure, nutrient
cycling, response to climate change, and more.
Pelagic waters are divided into zones depending on light availability and water depth (Walker and
Wood, 2005). The epipelagic zone encompasses the upper 200 m of oceanic waters and is the region
where sunlight is most abundant and primary production is highest. Between 200 m to 1,000 m is the
mesopelagic zone, where light is available but is generally too diuse to support primary production.
Below 1,000 m is the bathypelagic zone, which is the region beyond sunlight penetration.
The entire basin of the Arabian Gulf (hereafter “Gulf”) is less than 100 m deep, and as a result, all
pelagic waters of the Gulf are considered epipelagic. The epipelagic realm in the Gulf covers an extensive
area in the central and eastern portions, but is limited along the western Gulf (Figure 3.109). Along the
Arabian Peninsula, shallow waters of less than 20 m extend over 100 km from shore. There is a high
likelihood for interaction between the bottom and the water column in these shallow regions, and for the
purposes of this chapter, they are not considered truly pelagic.
The pelagic realm is one of the largest and most important ecosystems in the Gulf. The arid climate
of the Middle East and high levels of photosynthetically active radiation promote a rich phytoplankton
assemblage and high primary production. This, in turn, supports a rich zooplankton and pelagic sh
community. Every nation in the Gulf has pelagic waters in its Exclusive Economic Zone, except Iraq
whose Gulf access is conned to the Shatt Al-Arab estuary. Given the ecological and economic importance
1
Center for Environment & Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Email: tclardy@kfupm.edu.sa.
310
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.109. The Arabian Gulf. The red line indicates the 20 m isobath.
of pelagic waters to the region, an understanding of pelagic ecology is essential to successful management
of pelagic resources by all nations in the Gulf.
Distribution
The Gulf has a surface area of approximately 2.39 × 105 km2 but a volume of just 8.63 × 105 km3
(Reynolds, 1993). The deepest waters, about 100 m, are found in a trough of water that extends northwest
along the coast of Iran from the Strait of Hormuz where the Gulf opens into the Gulf of Oman (Reynolds,
1993). Most of the Gulf is less than 60 m, and the average depth is just 35 m.
The Gulf lacks signicant riverine discharge or other coastal inputs for most of its coast. Only six
major rivers discharge into the Gulf, providing minimal freshwater input. Three of these rivers, the Tigris,
Euphrates, and Karun, discharge into the Shatt Al-Arab estuary in the northwest portion of the Gulf,
forming a complex oodplain estuary. In Iran, the Hendijan, Hileh, and Mand rivers provide additional
311
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
sources of freshwater input. Collectively, these rivers discharge 3,490 m3/s of freshwater into the Gulf
(Reynolds, 1993). The remaining areas of the Gulf, particularly those on the southwestern coast, lack
substantial riverine input. No major rivers discharge from Saudi Arabia into the Gulf.
The shallow depth of marine waters in the western Gulf limits the area of pelagic habitat of Saudi
Arabia. Much of Saudi Arabian waters are shallower than 20 m, and extensive areas are less than 10 m.
Pelagic waters are found primarily in the northeastern region where a deep trough of water extends
southeast from Kuwait to the central point of the Saudi coastline around Al-Jubail. Southeast of Al-Jubail,
the depth decreases to less than 20 m with only small pockets of deeper water. All waters southwest of
Dammam, including those that border Bahrain and Qatar, are shallower than 10 m.
Chemical Oceanography
Salinity in pelagic waters of the Gulf ranges from 35 psu to 43 psu, with a trend for increasing salinities
north to south (KFUPM/RI, 2006a). In Saudi waters of the Gulf during the spring, surface waters become
less saline than deeper waters due to surface currents, supporting the development of the pycnocline.
An important regulator of seawater chemistry is pH, which aects properties of chemical compounds,
such as chemical reactions or equilibrium conditions. In the Saudi pelagic waters of the Gulf, the pH
range is 7.39 to 8.32, with a clear annual cycle (KFUPM/RI, 2006b). The highest pH is observed during
the winter, after which it continuously declines toward the summer and starts to increase again in the fall.
This is a result of the temperature eect on pH, in which an increase in temperature leads to an increased
production of H+, and therefore, a decrease in pH.
Another important parameter in seawater chemistry is the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO),
because it provides indications on primary production and the potential for secondary consumers to live in
an area. DO in the pelagic zone of the Gulf varied from 0.81 mg/l to 9.37 mg/l during a study in 2002 and
2003, corresponding to an oxygen saturation of the water of 11.7% to 135.5% (KFUPM/RI, 2006a). DO
shows a clear annual cycle with maximum concentrations during the winter and minimum concentrations
during the summer, resulting from higher water temperatures during the summer and corresponding
lower solubility of oxygen. Additionally, stratication leads to vertical dierences in concentration during
the summer, with higher levels in surface waters than in deeper waters (KFUPM/RI, 2006b).
Nitrogen, primarily in the form of nitrite (NO3), nitrate (NO2), and ammonia (NH4), and phosphorous,
primarily as phosphate (PO4), are important elements for primary production. Nitrite concentrations in
the pelagic zone of the Arabian Gulf ranged from 0.86 µg/l to 42.21 µg/l, nitrate from 1.7 µg/l to 521.78
µg/l, and phosphate from 0.42 µg/l to 349.07 µg/l in a 2002 and 2003 study (KFUPM/RI, 2006a). These
concentrations are within the range of two other studies that studied the pelagic ecosystem in the Arabian
Gulf (Hashimoto, et al., 1998; ROPME, 2012). Deep waters in the pelagic zone have higher concentrations
of nitrate and nitrite than surface waters, although no such trend is found for phosphate. These dierences
were most pronounced during the spring and summer, indicating that Gulf deepwater is richer in nitrogen
compounds than the Indian Ocean surface water. Maximum concentrations were found at the onset of
summer (nitrite and nitrate) and spring (phosphate), whereas minimum concentrations were measured
312
CHAPTER 3
during the fall (nitrite) and winter (nitrate and phosphate). This results from increased biological activity
during the summer. For the whole Gulf, nutrient concentration decreases in a south-north direction,
as inowing water from the Strait of Hormuz enters the Gulf and nutrients are continuously used by
phytoplankton (ROPME, 2012). Common values of abiotic parameters are shown in Table 3.34.
Phytoplankton
The phytoplankton community in pelagic waters of the Gulf is dominated by diatoms (83% of all species)
with dinoagellates (15% of all species) the second most species rich group (Dorgham, 2013). At least 1,114
phytoplankton species have been identied from the Gulf, 888 of which are diatoms (Dorgham, 2013). In
an extensive cruise during the 2006 winter, it was found that phytoplankton species diversity decreased
noticeably with depth (ROPME, 2012). This study found a higher contribution of dinoagellate species (55%)
than diatom species (42%) to the overall community. This is in contrast to the review by Dorgham (2013)
and indicates variation in the contribution of these two important groups of phytoplankton. The ROPME
(2012) study also observed signicant dierences in community composition between the inner Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman, resulting from two currents that form two frontal zones in the western and eastern Gulf from
freshwater input from Shatt Al-Arab and inow from the Arabian Sea via the Gulf of Oman.
Most phytoplankton studies in waters of Saudi Arabia have focused on nearshore waters, which are
inuenced by shallow depth and nutrient input from land, and therefore, not considered pelagic. Only
one study in Saudi waters included stations that can be considered truly pelagic (KFUPM/RI, 2006c). In
general, the phytoplankton community in the Arabian Gulf is dominated by diatoms and dinoagellates
(Dorgham, 2013). In a study conducted by the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Research
Institute (KFUPM/RI) during 2002 and 2003, the phytoplankton community in all Saudi waters of the
Gulf was dominated by diatoms (65% of all species), followed by dinoagellates (30% of all species), but with
noticeable annual variability (KFUPM/RI, 2006c). Maximum cell concentrations were observed during
the summer with a second, smaller peak in the winter. Subsequently, species diversity was considerably
Table 3.34. Abiotic parameters in the pelagic waters of the Arabian Gulf.
Parameter Low High Source
Temperature 14°C 35°C Reynolds (1993)
Salinity 35 psu 43 psu KFUPM/RI (2006a)
pH 7.39 8.32 KFUPM/RI (2006b)
DO concentration 0.81 mg/l 9.37 mg/l KFUPM/RI (2006a)
DO saturation 11.7% 135.5% KFUPM/RI (2006a)
Nitrite 0.86 µg/l 42.21 µg/l KFUPM/RI (2006a)
Nitrate 1.7 µg/l 521.8 µg/l KFUPM/RI (2006a)
Phosphate 0.42 µg/l 349.07 µg/l KFUPM/RI (2006a)
313
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
higher during the winter, because the community was dominated by a small number of species with high
cell concentrations during the summer (46% Trichodesmium erythraeum and 25% Thalassionema nitzschoides
during the 2003 summer), whereas it was more evenly distributed during the winter (21% Chaetoceros
curvisetus, 19% Laudaria annulata, 18% Thalassiosira subtilis, 16% Thalassionema nitzschoides during the 2003
winter). This results from higher nutrient concentrations during the summer, which enables fast-growing
species with high nutrient demands to dominate the community. During the winter, nutrients are still being
replenished, and concentrations are lower, which allows a wider variety of phytoplankton species to grow.
During the fall, cell concentrations decline as nutrients are depleted. At the same time, species richness
increases as species that dominate the summer phytoplankton cannot sustain growth any longer, leading
to a larger number of species with lower nutrient demands. During the spring, cell numbers decrease,
although nutrient concentrations continue to increase. This is likely an adaption of the phytoplankton
community to stratication, which develops during this season and persists until the end of the summer.
During this time, the majority of the phytoplankton community is found below the pycnocline where
enough light is available for photosynthesis and nutrient concentrations are considerably higher than in
surface waters. Light levels below the pycnocline might not yet be high enough during the spring to
support high phytoplankton growth rates, and plankton trapped below it cannot sustain high cell numbers.
The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll a is an important parameter to characterize the phytoplankton
community, and chlorophyll a concentration is frequently used as proxy for primary production. Throughout
the Gulf, maximum concentrations of chlorophyll a are observed o Iran (3 mg/m3), corresponding to high
nutrient concentrations along the northeast coast (Hashimoto, et al., 1998; ROPME, 2012). Chlorophyll a
concentrations decrease from north to south in the pelagic realm of the Gulf. Concentrations in the Strait
of Hormuz and the adjacent Sea of Oman are often higher than within the Gulf, a result of intrusion of
water from the Gulf of Oman (ROPME, 2012). Seasonally, higher concentrations are observed during the
winter than in the summer (ROPME, 2012). Chlorophyll a concentration decreases with depth and is
negatively correlated with temperature and salinity (Hashimoto, et al., 1998; ROPME, 2012). Chlorophyll
a concentrations can be derived from satellite images, based on reectance of light at certain wavelengths.
In general, satellite estimates of chlorophyll a concentrations are most eective in pelagic ocean waters and
often overestimate concentrations in shallow, turbid areas. Subsequently, eld and laboratory measurements
in the Gulf have found good agreement with data from the MODIS satellite (ROPME, 2012). A two-
year study of satellite images in the Gulf indicates a decreasing gradient in chlorophyll a concentration
throughout the year with persistent seasonal and spatial chlorophyll a concentrations (ROPME, 2012).
In a KFUPM/RI (2006c) study of chlorophyll a in Saudi waters of the Gulf, concentrations of chlorophyll
a ranged from 0.23 mg/m3 to 1.75 mg/m3 and mean concentrations increased throughout the year, reaching
its maximum in winter. This indicates that the maximum value in cell concentrations, observed during the
summer, mainly included small, fast-growing phytoplankton with lower cellular chlorophyll a concentrations.
Concentrations were within the range (0.06 mg/m3 to 10.08 mg/m3) found in other studies of the pelagic Gulf
(Hashimoto, et al., 1998; ROPME, 2012). During the fall and winter, maximum chlorophyll a concentrations
were measured in the surface waters, whereas during the spring and summer, maximum concentrations
occurred at a depth of 25 m to 30 m, below the thermocline, which indicates that phytoplankton biomass
is higher in the Gulf’s deepwater than in the intruding Indian Ocean surface water. Compared with the
coastal environment, the pelagic zone usually shows lower chlorophyll concentrations, due to lower nutrient
concentrations (Hashimoto, et al., 1998; KFUPM/RI, 2006b, 2006c).
314
CHAPTER 3
Zooplankton
Zooplankton research in the Gulf dates back to the early 20th century when Pesta (1911) described a
new species of copepod from near the coast of Iran. Since that time, there have been numerous zooplankton
studies in the Gulf, the majority of which have focused on coastal habitats. The zooplankton studies of the
pelagic realm in the Gulf are restricted to a few Gulf-wide investigations or stem from coastal investigations
that also included a few pelagic stations. Several studies focused on the ecology of the Indian Ocean in
the 1960s included stations within the Gulf (Frontier, 1963; Fenaux, 1973; Kimor, 1973; Nellen, 1973).
These studies provided important snapshots into the diversity and distribution of pelagic zooplankton
communities in the Gulf. These early investigations generally represented single cruises spaced out over
months or years, focused on individual groups of organisms, or had fewer than a dozen pelagic sampling
stations.
Later Gulf-wide studies investigated pelagic zooplankton at a higher resolution than these early eorts.
Between September 1979 and August 1980, the Kuwait Institute of Scientic Research conducted a series
of cruises in the western and southern Arabian Gulf (Houde, et al., 1986; Michel, et al., 1986a, 1986b).
Most of the eort was focused on 19 stations in Kuwaiti waters, ve of which were pelagic. A single cruise
between February and March 1980 sampled at 54 stations in waters from Kuwait to the Strait of Hormuz,
26 of which were pelagic. Pelagic zooplankton communities were dominated by copepods and nauplii
over 60% of total zooplankton abundance followed by gastropods and larvaceans (Al-Yamani, et al., 1993,
1998; Al-Khabbaz and Fahmi, 1998). Following the Gulf War, a series of cruises were conducted by the
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), a group comprised of
all nations bordering the Arabian Gulf, in the western Arabian Gulf to assess the eects of a 6 to 8 million
barrel oil spill discharged during the conict. Zooplankton collections were made in the summer 2000 and
2001 and the winter of 2006. These cruises collected zooplankton from dozens of stations in the western
and central Gulf, over half of which were in the pelagic realm (ROPME, 2012). These surveys found patchy
distributions of zooplankton throughout the Arabian Gulf with no clear biogeographic patterns. Pelagic
samples typically were dominated by copepods and naupli, which averaged 41% of the total abundance, but
locally accounted for up to 86% of the total abundance (ROPME, 2012). Other important zooplankton
groups include Hydromedusae, Siphonophora, Thaliaceae, and Polychaeta. A winter 2006 ROPME survey
collected zooplankton at 115 stations throughout the Gulf, including 69 in pelagic waters (Dorgham, et
al., 2008). From this survey, 210 species of zooplankton were identied in the Gulf (ROPME, 2012). Up
to 116 of these taxa were new, indicating a high potential for endemism in Gulf pelagic waters (ROPME,
2012). Zooplankton communities had the highest abundance and diversity near the Strait of Hormuz and
in a small coastal region near the border of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
Several of the Gulf-wide zooplankton surveys sampled within Saudi Arabian waters (Kimor, 1973;
Michel, et al., 1986b; Al-Yamani, et al., 1993; Dorgham, et al., 2008), and numerous others have focused
exclusively on zooplankton within Saudi waters (Price, et al., 1993; KFUPM/RI, 1990; Azis, et al., 2003;
Baker and Hosny, 2005). The majority of these studies focused exclusively on coastal waters, such as within
Tarut Bay (KFUPM/RI, 1990) and Half Moon Bay (Baker and Hosny, 2005), and near desalination plants
(Azis, et al., 2003), meaning relatively little eort has been dedicated to pelagic waters. Moreover, these
studies focused on particular components of the zooplankton community, such as decapod larvae, and used
dierent sampling equipment, making direct comparisons among the studies dicult. Nevertheless, several
315
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
general trends in the pelagic zooplankton community can be identied from the collective research eort
in Saudi Arabian waters.
The composition of pelagic zooplankton communities in the Saudi Arabian waters of the Gulf reects
the general trends in the entire Gulf in that they are dominated by copepods, which can account for up to
85% of the total zooplankton abundance and frequently account for over 60%. From six samples collected in
Saudi waters in December 1994, Al-Khabbaz and Fahmi (1998) noted that cyclopoid and calanoid copepods
were nearly equally abundant with the cyclopoid genera Oithona and Oncea in the highest densities followed
by the calanoid genera Acartia and Paracalanus. A total of 21 copepod genera have been identied from Saudi
pelagic waters, though the number of genera is likely much higher and the number of species is unknown.
Generally, the diversity of copepods is equal to that of other regions of the Gulf (Al-Khabbaz and Fahmi, 1998),
although the densities are lower. For example, Al-Khabbaz and Fahmi (1998) found the total copepod density
to be 1,295 individuals/m3, while densities o Bahrain (2,963 individuals/m3), Qatar (4,633 individuals/m3),
and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) (6,333 individuals/m3) all were signicantly higher. After copepods,
gastropods, larvaceans, and ostracods are frequently the dominant groups, although, individually, these groups
make up less than 15% of the total zooplankton abundance (Michel, et al., 1986b; Al-Yamani, et al., 1998).
Groups such as decapods, chaetognaths, polychaetes, and larval shes make up a relatively small percentage of
the overall zooplankton community, usually less than 5%.
Biodiversity of pelagic zooplankton is often lower in waters of the Gulf than in surrounding regions. For
example, euphausids (Weigmann, 1970), appendicularians (Fenaux, 1973; Yamazi, 1974), and chaetognaths
(Furnestin and Codaccioni, 1968; Yamazi, 1974) each have a higher species count in the Arabian Sea, Indian
Ocean, and Red Sea than they do in the Arabian Gulf. This is likely a consequence of the shallow, warm,
saline waters of the Gulf, which selects for zooplankton adapted to the epipelagic realm. The waters of the
Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Red Sea extend to the mesopelagic and bathypelagic realms, potentially
leading to greater biodiversity. Many zooplankton communities have a vertical component, and many
species utilize diurnal vertical migration, wherein they reside at the surface during the night and migrate
to deeper depths during the day. Many species are also adapted to low-light conditions in the mesopelagic
realm. Given the shallowness of the Gulf, it is unlikely that organisms adapted for a depth strata deeper than
100 m or those that experience diurnal vertical migration can survive in the Gulf.
Fishes
At least 101 species of shes in the Arabian Gulf live predominantly in the pelagic realm, many of
which support valuable sheries throughout the region (Table 3.35). Many other species make occasional
use of pelagic waters for feeding, transport, or reproduction, but are more often associated with demersal
habitats.
Ecological studies on pelagic shes in the Gulf have been limited. One of the most comprehensive was
carried out by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in the late 1970s (Junemann, et
al., 1981). This survey, primarily conducted o the coast of the UAE, used a mix of acoustic sonar, gillnet,
purse seine, and trolling surveys to characterize pelagic sh communities in the southeastern Gulf. From
these surveys, the Sind sardine Sardinella sinensis was the dominant species (up to 90% of the total catch),
316
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.35.
Pelagic fishes of the Arabian Gulf, based on Carpenter, et al. (1996) and data from the KFUPM Fishery Program.
Taxa with asterisks indicate species with taxonomic confusion that are difficult to distinguish from other species.
Family Genus Species Common Name Presence in
Saudi Arabia
Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus Whale shark Rare
Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides Blacktail reef shark Rare
Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus limbatus Blacktip shark Rare
Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus plumbeus Sandbar shark Rare
Carcharhinidae Galeocerdo cuvier Tiger shark Rare
Carcharhinidae Rhizoprionodon acutus Milk shark Occasional
Carcharhinidae Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Grey sharpnose shark Rare
Sphyrnidae Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead Occasional
Sphyrnidae Sphyrna mokarran Great hammerhead Rare
Sphyrnidae Sphyrna zygaena Smooth hammerhead Rare
Myliobatidae Aetobatus narinari Spotted eagle ray Rare
Myliobatidae Aetomylaeus maculatus Mottled eagle ray Rare
Myliobatidae Aetomylaeus niehofii Banded eagle ray Frequent
Mobulidae Mobula diabolus Devil ray Rare
Clupeidae Hilsa kelee Kelee shad Rare
Clupeidae Tenualosa ilisha Hilsa shad Occasional
Clupeidae Amblygaster sirm Spotted sardinella Occasional
Clupeidae Herklotsichthys lossei Gulf herring Occasional
Clupeidae Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus Bluestripe herring Frequent
Clupeidae Sardinella albella White sardinella Occasional
Clupeidae Sardinella gibbosa Goldstripe sardinella Frequent
Clupeidae Sardinella longiceps Indian oil sardine Frequent
Clupeidae Sardinella melanura Blacktip sardinella Occasional
Clupeidae Sardinella sindensis Sind sardinella Rare*
Clupeidae Anodontostoma chacunda Chacunda gizzard shad Not recorded
Clupeidae Nematalosa nasus Bloch’s gizzard shad Frequent
Clupeidae Nematalosa persara Persara gizzard shad Rare*
Clupeidae Nematalosa resticularia Gulf gizzard shad Rare*
Clupeidae Dussumieria acuta Rainbow sardine Not recorded
Clupeidae Dussumieria elopsoides Slender rainbow sardine Not recorded
Clupeidae Etrumeus teres Redeye round herring Not recorded
Clupeidae Spratelloides delicatulus Delicate round herring Not recorded
Pristigasteridae Ilisha compressa Compressed ilisha Rare*
Pristigasteridae Ilisha melastoma Indian ilisha Occasional
Pristigasteridae Ilisha sirishai Lobejaw ilisha Not recorded
Engraulidae Encrasicholina devisi Devis’ anchovy Rare*
Engraulidae Encrasicholina heteroloba Shorthead anchovy Rare*
Engraulidae Encrasicholina punctifer Buccaneer anchovy Frequent
Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus Indian anchovy Frequent
Engraulidae Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg’s anchovy Rare*
Engraulidae Thryssa baelama Baelama anchovy Not recorded
Engraulidae Thryssa dussumieri Dussumier’s thryssa Occasional
317
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
Family Genus Species Common Name Presence in
Saudi Arabia
Engraulidae Thryssa hamiltonii Hamilton’s thryssa Occasional
Engraulidae Thryssa vitrirostris Orangemouth anchovy Not recorded
Engraulidae Thryssa whiteheadi Whitehead’s thryssa Not recorded
Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab Dorab wolf-herring Frequent
Chirocentridae Chirocentrus nudus Whitefin wolf-herring Frequent
Bregmacerotidae Bregmaceros nectabanus Codlet Rare
Bregmacerotidae Bregmaceros rarisquamosus Codlet Not recorded
Belonidae Ablennes hians Flat needlefish Frequent
Belonidae Platybelone argalus Keeltail needlefish Not recorded
Belonidae Strongylura leiura Banded needlefish Not recorded
Belonidae Strongylura strongylura Spottail needlefish Not recorded
Belonidae Tylosurus crocodilus Hound needlefish Frequent
Exocoetidae Cypselurus oligolepis Largescale flyingfish Rare
Exocoetidae Parexocoetus mento African sailfin flyingfish Rare
Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus marginatus Yellowtip halfbeak Occasional
Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus limbatus Congaturi halfbeak Rare*
Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus sindensis Sind halfbeak Rare*
Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus unicuspis Onecusp halfbeak Rare*
Hemiramphidae Rhynchorhamphus georgii George’s halfbeak Rare*
Rachycentridae Rachycentron canadum Cobia Occasional
Echeneidae Echeneis naucrates Sharksucker Occasional
Carangidae Atule mate Yellowtail scad Occasional
Carangidae Decapterus macarellus Mackerel scad Rare
Carangidae Decapterus russelli Indian scad Frequent
Carangidae Elagatis bipinnulata Rainbow runner Rare
Carangidae Megalaspis cordyla Torpedo scad Frequent
Carangidae Naucrates ductor Pilotfish Occasional
Carangidae Parastromateus niger Black pomfret Occasional
Carangidae Scomberoides commersonnianus Talang queenfish Frequent
Carangidae Scomberoides lysan Doublespotted queenfish Frequent
Carangidae Scomberoides tol Needlescaled queenfish Frequent
Carangidae Selar crumenophthalmus Bigeye scad Frequent
Carangidae Selaroides leptolepis Yellowstripe scad Frequent
Carangidae Seriola dumerili Seriola dumerili Occasional
Carangidae Trachurus indicus Arabian scad Frequent
Carangidae Uraspis helvola Whitetongue jack Rare*
Coryphaenidae Coryphaena hippurus Common dolphinfish Occasional
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena barracuda Great barracuda Not recorded
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena flavicauda Yellowtail barracuda Occasional
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena forsteri Bigeye barracuda Frequent
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena jello Pickhandle barracuda Occasional
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata Obtuse barracuda Frequent
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena putnamae Sawtooth barracuda Frequent
Sphyraenidae Sphyraena qenie Blacktail barracuda Occasional
Scombridae Auxis rochei Bullet tuna Not recorded
318
CHAPTER 3
with the rainbow sardine Dussumiera acuta, anchovies Stolephorus sp., lanternsh Benthosema pterotum, and
various small jacks (family Carangidae) also contributing signicantly to the pelagic sh community in
certain areas.
In the rst cruise of the survey during May 1977, acoustic surveys indicated 91.6% of the region had a
low density of pelagic sh schools (8.72 schools/square nautical mile (NM2)), 7.6% had a medium density
of schools (24.53 schools/NM2), and 0.8% had a high density of schools (51.12 schools/NM2) (Junemann,
et al., 1981). The average density of the entire region was 11.63 schools/NM2. The estimated weight for
each school was 2.58 tons (t), giving an estimate of 26.43 t/NM2 or 613,023 t in the total study area. Most
of the schools resided in the upper 30 m of the water column, although several were recorded to a depth
of 85 m.
Three subsequent cruises between September 1977 and September 1978 indicated a noticeable annual
cycle in the biomass of small pelagic shes (Junemann, et al., 1981). Biomass estimates were higher in the
summer (1,720,000 t) and the fall (1,173,000 t) than in the early spring (252,000 t). These surveys also
detected a trend for increased biomass from north to south in the central Gulf and a lower biomass in the
Gulf of Oman. Throughout these cruises, the dominant taxa varied between the northwest and southeast
sections of the Gulf and also between the Iranian and Arabian side of the Gulf. Generally, S. sindensis, D.
acuta, and Stolephorus sp. were the major contributors to the small pelagic sh communities, although the
exact proportions of each species within each region varied by cruise. These cruises also reported dierent
diurnal behavioral patterns between sardines and anchovy and other shes. During the day, sardines and
anchovy form large schools, but they disperse more evenly through the water column when feeding at
night. Alternatively, carangids and myctophids, which formed a smaller proportion of the total pelagic sh
abundance, reside in deeper waters during the day and migrate to the surface at night.
Family Genus Species Common Name Presence in
Saudi Arabia
Scombridae Auxis thazard Frigate tuna Not recorded
Scombridae Euthynnus affinis Kawakawa Frequent
Scombridae Rastrelliger kanagurta Indian mackerel Frequent
Scombridae Sarda orientalis Striped bonito Rare
Scombridae Scomber australasicus Spotted chub mackerel Rare
Scombridae Scomber japonicus Chub mackerel Rare
Scombridae Scomberomorus commerson Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel Frequent
Scombridae Scomberomorus guttatus Indo-Pacific king mackerel Frequent
Scombridae Thunnus albacares Yellowfin tuna Frequent
Scombridae Thunnus tonggol Longtail tuna Rare
Istiophoridae Istiophorus platypterus Indo-Pacific sailfish Rare
Ariommatidae Ariomma indica Indian ariomma Frequent
Diodontidae Cyclichthys orbicularis Orbicular burrfish Frequent
Molidae Mola mola Ocean sunfish Rare
319
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
The dominant large pelagic species in the FAO survey included narrow-barred Spanish mackerel
Scomberomorus commerson, longtail tuna Thunnus tonggol, and kawakawa Euthynnus anus, with Indo-Pacic
king mackerel S. guttatus, frigate tuna Auxis thazard, queenshes Scomberoides sp., common dolphinsh
Coryphaena hippocampus, and barracudas Sphyraena sp. making up smaller portions of the community
(Junemann, et al., 1981). The most widely distributed of the large pelagic shes was S. commerson, which
was encountered throughout most of the study area. T. tonggol was present mostly in the Gulf of Oman,
although it was occasionally encountered in the southeastern Gulf. E. anis was mostly found in the
southeastern Gulf between September to December, spreading northwesterly during the warm season
from January until May.
From 2012 to 2015, the KFUPM Fisheries Program collected information about pelagic shes from
a review of literature, trawl surveys conducted from 2013 to 2015, landing site data collected in 2014, and
a pelagic acoustic survey conducted in 2015. The acoustic survey was conducted from April 20 to May 1,
2015, using three split-beam echosounders (Simrad EK60; Kongsberg Simrad AS, Kongsberg, Norway).
Twelve mid-water trawls were conducted to verify the species composition of sh schools detected by the
echosounders. Overall, the most abundant species were goldstriped sardinella Sardinella gibosa, buccaneer
anchovy Enchasicholina punctifer, and a non-identied species of anchovy, comprising 32%, 30% and 22% of
the total catch, respectively. The mean size of these species were 11.7 cm, 8.5 cm and 3.6 cm, respectively.
The results of the acoustic survey largely agreed with the FAO study (Junemann, et al., 1981) in that small-
sized sardines and anchovies contribute high biomass to the pelagic sh community and likely play and
important ecological role.
Fisheries on pelagic species by countries around the Gulf are dominated by artisanal shermen who
mostly target scombrids and carangids. Annual catches from 2010 for these two families were estimated to
be 45,000 t and 38,000 t, respectively (Al-Abdulrazzak, et al., 2013). According to the most recent FAO
data from 1997, these families were considered fully exploited in the Gulf. The majority of the catch of
pelagic shes was from Iran, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the UAE (Al-Abdulrazzak, et al., 2013). According
to Al-Abdulrazzak, et al. (2013), the amount of discarded bycatch of pelagic shes may be a signicant but
understudied issue in the Gulf.
Many pelagic shes are migratory, traveling long distances on a seasonal basis in search of prey or
to reach spawning areas. For some species, such as the Atlantic bluen tuna Thunnus thynnus and the
striped marlin Kajikia audax, migrations can cover thousands of kilometers and span entire ocean basins
(Squire, 1987; Block, et al., 2001). Dierential migration by separate segments of the population can
help identify stock structure, wherein distinct migratory units may occupy certain portions of a species’
range. Stock identication is a priority in sheries management to prevent overexploitation of vulnerable
migratory units (Begg and Waldman, 1999; Secor, 2004). Knowledge of migration patterns (e.g., distances
covered, seasonal movements, connectivity with other migratory units, etc.) is critical to ensure eective
management of pelagic shes. Such information is particularly important for stocks that cross international
boundaries where multinational cooperation is required to eectively manage the shared resource.
Several ecologically and economically important pelagic shes in the Gulf have broad species ranges
and are known to migrate long distances. Species such as S. commerson, S. guttatus, T. tonggol, E. anis,
cobia Rachycentron canadum, and Indo-Pacic sailsh Istiophorus platypterus are each distributed widely in
the Pacic Ocean or even globally (Serventy, 1956; Siddeek, 1995; Grandcourt, et al., 2005a). Migration
320
CHAPTER 3
patterns for several of these species have been identied within their total range, but their migrations
within and around the Arabian Gulf have been studied in detail for only Indo-Pacic sailsh (see Chapter
4.3 – Marine Fishes for discussion). Tagging studies for these species may provide important data on their
spatial and seasonal distributions, which could lead to improved management throughout the entire Gulf.
S. commerson is one of the most important pelagic sh species in the Gulf and is harvested mostly by
gillnet, longline, and handline. Grandcourt, et al. (2005) examined the S. commerson shery o the UAE
using age-based population dynamics. They found the shery was likely overexploited based on two
major ndings. First, the size at which sh were fully recruited to the shery was smaller than both the
mean size at maturity for females and the size for obtaining maximal yield per recruit. Second, the shing
mortality rate (F = 0.62/year) was larger than the precautionary target (F = 0.13/year) and limit (F =
0.17/year) biological reference points. Roa-Ureta (2015) applied generalized depletion models to the
S. commerson shery in Saudi Arabian waters. Based on the reconstructed history of the stock, he found
that the shing eort remained stable during the study period while the catch varied directly with the
magnitude of recruitment. Roa-Ureta (2015) concluded, contrary to the UAE shery, that shing pressure
on S. commerson is at sustainable levels, as indicated by an annual exploitation rate of 10%. Since S. commerson
in the Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Arabian Sea are all part of the same genetic population (Hoolihan,
et al., 2006), these diering assessments could represent dierent stocks between the UAE and Saudi
waters. The assessment discrepancy highlights the need for a strategic regional approach to the assessment
and management of this, and other, highly migratory species.
Globally, over 7,500 structures related to oil and gas industries are found in coastal and pelagic waters of
53 countries (Parente, et al., 2006). These structures, comprised of pilings, pipes, and support beams, struts,
and cables, provide considerable vertical relief, eectively extending bottom complexity into the water
column and oering hard substrate where none was previously available. Oshore oil and gas platforms can
have positive eects on marine communities by providing settlement area for benthic organisms, protection
from predation, spawning habitat, and enhancing food production. These ecological benets have been
likened to those provided by articial reefs (Stanley and Wilson, 1997; Fabi, et al., 2004). Numerous studies
have shown that the biomass and abundance of marine organisms, including pelagic shes, is higher in the
immediate vicinity of oil and gas platforms (Fabi, et al., 2004; Niera, 2005; Scarcella, et al., 2011). Studies of
pelagic shes around oshore platforms often underestimate abundance and biomass near rigs due to the
diculty of collecting mobile shes within the connes of platform superstructures, meaning that the net
benet likely is higher than typically reported.
In the Saudi Arabian waters of the Gulf, hundreds of oil and gas platforms have been installed in
inshore and oshore areas. Rabaoui, et al. (2015) reported that the presence of oil and gas platforms within
a 5 km radius of sampling stations had a net positive eect on sh abundance, suggesting that the increase
in abundance was a result of the spillover eect. Biomass and biodiversity, however, were not aected by the
presence of nearby platforms. Current regulations in Saudi Arabia prevent access within a 500 m radius of
oil and gas platforms. Scarcella, et al. (2011) reported a linear decline in sh abundance with distance from
a platform in the Adriatic Sea with abundances several times higher within 50 m than at 250 m. Therefore,
it is likely that sh abundance closer to Saudi Arabian platforms is even higher than that reported by
Rabaoui, et al. (2015). The security perimeter maintained around Saudi oil and gas platforms eectively
creates a network of partial marine protected areas where shing eort is restricted. Pelagic shes common
321
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
in Saudi Arabian waters, such as herrings (Clupeidae), anchovy (Engraulidae), barracuda (Sphyraenidae),
jacks (Carangidae), and mackerels (Scombridae), have all been associated with pelagic oil and gas platforms
in other regions of the world (Franks, 2000). It is likely that these groups receive the most benet from the
network of oil and gas platforms in Saudi waters.
Trophic Structure
There are few data available for direct trophic interactions in the Gulf. Rather, the trophic structure
of the Gulf is assumed to follow a standard organization seen in oligotrophic waters worldwide (Calbet,
2008; Figure 3.110). The base of marine food webs globally is formed by phytoplankton, followed by
nanoagellates between 2 µm to 5 µm in size, (e.g., radiolarians and heterotrophic dinoagellates) and small
zooplankton (microzooplankton) between 5 µm and 200 µm in size. Microzooplankton includes tintinnids,
foraminifera, and small metazoans copepod nauplii and other small larvae. In the Arabian Sea, nanoagellates
dominate at low chlorophyll a concentrations, whereas the biomass of nanoagellates and microzooplankton
are similar during periods of high chlorophyll concentration (Garrison, et al., 2000). Calbet and Laundry
(2004) reported that these two groups can consume up to half of the available phytoplankton biomass per
day. It is likely that a similar trophic base exists in the Gulf. Primary consumers are grazed upon by larger
zooplankton (mesozooplankton), such as copepods and larval shes. The next trophic level are planktivorous
shes, such as small species of the families Clupeidae and Engraulidae, which feed on zooplankton. These
shes are abundant in the Gulf, due in part to the high primary production, which provides ample energy and
nutrients. Omnivorous and small piscivorous shes, such as the smaller species of carangids and scombrids,
rely on smaller shes and invertebrates as food sources. The highest trophic level is occupied by large shes,
such as marine mammals, sharks, and large species of scombrids and carangids.
Overall, more studies on the diet of key pelagic species are needed to develop an accurate model of the
Gulf pelagic food web. To date, diet studies have been limited to S. commerson (Grandcourt, et al., 2005a).
Many other species contribute to the pelagic marine food web in the Gulf, but their interactions will
remain unknown until further research is conducted.
Conclusions
The pelagic realm in the Gulf has been included in many ecological studies, but relatively few have
focused exclusively on pelagic habitats. More often, studies investigating coastal processes included stations
in pelagic waters. This means that the bulk of data related to the pelagic environment is scattered across the
literature. Consequently, there have been a few focused research programs on phytoplankton, zooplankton,
and shes in pelagic waters of the Gulf, which have provided valuable insights into the ecology of the
largest ecosystem in the Arabian Gulf.
Phytoplankton communities in the Gulf are dominated by a diverse diatom and dinoagellate assemblage,
with over 1,000 total species identied from the region. Species diversity and chlorophyll a concentrations
peak during cooler winter months, corresponding to high nutrient turnover. Subsequently, much of the
data on phytoplankton communities in pelagic waters of the Gulf comes from a single study, KFUPM/RI
322
CHAPTER 3
(2006c), which sampled 122 stations in pelagic waters o Saudi Arabia during 2002 and 2003. Additional
phytoplankton research throughout pelagic waters of the Gulf region, with an emphasis on documenting
species diversity and abundance, will likely reveal additional trends and patterns in other areas of the Gulf.
Zooplankton communities in the Gulf are dominated by copepods, which can account for over 80% of
total abundance. There is a general trend for higher abundance and diversity of zooplankton in the south,
Figure 3.110. Food web for pelagic waters of the Arabian Gulf.
323
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN ARABIAN GULF
near the Strait of Hormuz. Waters surrounding the Gulf are generally higher in diversity, which suggests
that physical and environmental conditions in the Gulf limit the zooplankton community. Likely, this is
related to the shallow depth of the Gulf compared to surrounding waters. As with phytoplankton studies,
few investigations have dealt explicitly with pelagic waters of the Gulf. Most information on zooplankton
in the pelagic realm comes from several studies that lacked methodological consistency. For example,
existing data are drawn from samples collected with nets ranging in mesh size from 100 µm to 333 µm and
using a mixture of oblique, vertical, and surface tows, making direct comparisons among studies dicult.
Finally, the taxonomic resolution of previous zooplankton studies varies greatly. Some identied broad
groups to the class level while others focused on specic groups and identied those to the genus level. No
studies have attempted species level identication of any pelagic zooplankton group.
Pelagic shes in the Gulf include some of the most ecologically and economically important species
in the entire Gulf region. Many species have been studied at the individual level, but there have been
relatively few broad-scale ecological studies of pelagic shes. An FAO survey used acoustic sonar, gillnet,
purse seine, and longline gear to look at pelagic shes o the UAE (Junemann, et al., 1981). Sardines were
the dominant small pelagic group, and S. commerson, T. tonggol and E. anus were identied as the most
abundant large pelagic taxa. Many of these species, particularly the large pelagic species, are migratory,
although the exact migratory routes and stock structure for these species is not clear. Such data are critical
for successful management of these shes, particularly since they are a shared resource among many Gulf
nations and may require regional cooperation to manage. Finally, oshore oil and gas platforms inuence
pelagic sh communities in many regions of the world. Given the abundance of articial structures in Gulf
waters, it is likely that pelagic shes derive some benet, although to what degree remains unclear.
While we have learned much about the patterns and trends of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and shes
in the pelagic realm of the Gulf in recent decades, focused eort on the pelagic ecosystem could tell us
much more about the ecology of pelagic waters. The biggest drawbacks of previous studies are that most
have included pelagic waters incidentally and have used a variety of sampling gears. These drawbacks
make assembling data on the pelagic realm dicult and limit the comparisons among studies. Considering
pelagic waters represent the largest ecosystem in the Gulf and are shared by eight of the nine nations
bordering the Gulf, an understanding of the dynamics of the pelagic ecosystem is essential to successful
management of one of the most important habitats in the region.
References
571
REFERENCES
Abayachi, J.K., Darmoinan, S.A. and DouAbul, A.A.Z. 1988. The Shatt al-
Arab River: A nutrient salt and organic matter source to the Arabian
Gulf. Hydrobiologia 166: 217-224.
Abbas, J. 2006. Economic halophytes of Bahrain, pp. 113-120, in Khan,
M.A., Boer, B., Kust, G.A. and Barth, H-J. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems.
Vol. II: West and Central Asia. Springer.
Abbas, J.A. 2002. Coastal vegetation of Bahrain Island. Arab Journal of
Scientic Research 20: 87-91.
Abbas, J.A. 2002. Plant communities bordering the Sabkhat of Bahrain
Island, pp. 51-62, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems.
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Abbas, J.A. and Al-Saleh, F.S. 2002. Medicinal plants of Bahrain. University
of Bahrain Publications, 290 p.
Abdelly, C., Debez, A., Smaoui, A. and Grignon, C. 2010. Halophyte-
Fodder species association may improve nutrient availability and
biomass production of the sabkha ecosystem, in Öztürk, M., Böer,
B., Barth, H.J., Clüsener-Godt, M., Khan, M. and Breckle, S.W. (eds.).
Sabkha ecosystems. Tasks for vegetation science, Vol. 46. Springer,
Dordrecht.
Abdel-Moati, M. 2006. Coral reef conservation in Qatar Marine
Conservation Forum. EWS WWF, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Abdelrahman, S.M. and Ahmad, F. 1993. The residual currents at mooring
positions in the inner sea of the ROPME Sea Area, pp. 165-188,
in ROPME/IOC (UNESCO)/UNEP/NOAA/EPC (KUWAIT).
Final report of the scientic workshop on the results of the R/V Mt.
Mitchell Cruise in the ROPME Sea Area, Vol. 1, Annex II.
Abdel-Razik, M.S. 1991. Population structure and ecological performance
of the mangrove Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. on the Arabian
Gulf coast of Qatar. Journal of Arid Environments 20: 331-338.
Abdul Aziz, P.K., Al-Tisan, I., Al-Daili, M., Green, T. and Ba-Mardouf,
K. 2003. Marine macrofouling: A review of control technology
in the context of an on-line experiment in the turbine condenser
water box of Al-Jubail Phase-1 power/MSF plants. Desalination 154:
277-290.
Abdul Aziz, P.K., Al-Tisan, I., Al-Daili, M., Green, T.N., Abdul Ghani, I.D.
and Javeed, M.A. 2000. Eects of environment on source water for
desalination plants on the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia. Desalination
132: 29-40.
Abdul Aziz, P.K., Al-Tisan, I.A., Daili, M.A., Green, T.N., Dalvi, A.G.I. and
Javeed, M.A. 2003. Chlorophyll and plankton of the Gulf coastal
waters of Saudi Arabia bordering a desalination plant. Desalination
154: 291-302.
Abdulaziz, H.A. and Krupp, F. 1994. The Arabian Gulf environment and
the consequences of the 1991 oil spill. The Status of coastal and
marine habitats two years after the Gulf War oil spill. Cour. Forsch.
Inst. Senckenberg, Frankfurt 166: 3-10.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 1999. The role of shallow waters in the life cycle of
the Bahrain penaeid shrimps. Estuarine. Coastal and Shelf Sciences 49:
115-121.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2001. Bahrain shrimp shery and the marine
environment, in Tropical shrimp sheries and their impact on living
resources. FAO Fisheries Circular. No. 974. Rome, FAO, 378 p.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2001. Gillnet selectivity experiments in Bahrain waters
on the Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus commerson (Lacepede)
shery. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientic Research 19: 66-71.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2002. The nsh bycatch of Bahrain shrimp trawl
sheries. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientic Research 20: 165-174.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2006. National sheries resources survey. An
extension of MARGIS II. Bahrain Center for Studies and Research,
425 p.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2010. Turtle captures in shrimp trawl nets in Bahrain.
Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 133: 307-318.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. and Miller, J. 2012. Marine turtle mortalities in
Bahrain territorial waters. Journal of Chelonian Conservation and
Biology 11: 133-138.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. and Naylor, E. 1995. Bionomics and migration
patterns of the green tiger prawn, Penaeus semisulcatus De Haan, in
Bahrain waters. Fisheries Research 21: 395-407.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. 1999. The role of shallow waters in the life cycle of
the Bahrain penaeid shrimps. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 49:
115-121.
Abdulqader, E.A.A. and Miller, J. 2012. Marine turtle mortalities in Bahrain
territorial waters. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 11: 133-138.
Abideen, Z., Ansari, R. and Khan, M.A. 2011. Halophytes: Potential source
of ligno-cellulosic biomass for ethanol production. Biomass Bioenerg
5: 1818-1822.
Abideen, Z., Ansari, R., Gul, B. and Khan, M.A. 2012. The place of
halophytes in Pakistan’s biofuel industry. Biofuels 2: 211-220.
AboEl-Nil, M.M. 2001. Growth and establishment of mangrove
(Avicennia marina) on the coastline of Kuwait. Wetlands Ecology and
Management 9: 421-428.
Abulfaith, H.A. 2002. Mangroves and their associated salt marshes in
Qatar, pp. 25-35, in Javed, S. and de Souza, A.G. (eds.). Research
and management options for mangrove and saltmarsh ecosystems.
ERWDA, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Aburto, M.O., de los Angeles Carvajal, M., Barr, B., Barbier, E.B., Boesch,
D.F., Boyd, J., Crowder, L.B., Cudney-Bueno, R., Essington, T. and
Ezcurra, E. 2012. Ecosystem-based management for the oceans.
Island Press.
Abuzinada, A.H. and Krupp, F. (eds.). 1994. The status of coastal and
marine habitats two years after the Gulf War oil spill. Cour. Forsch.
Inst. Senckenberg 166: 80.
Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z.
(eds.). 2008. Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution.
Birkhäuser, Basel, 285 p.
Abuzinada, A.H. and Krupp, F. (eds.). 1994. The status of coastal and
marine habitats two years after the Gulf oil spill. Courier Forsch.
Inst. Senckenberg 166. Commission of the European Communities,
Brussels. National Commission for Wildlife and Development,
Riyadh, pp. 1-76.
Ackerman, J.D. 2006. Seagrass reproduction of seagrasses: Pollination
572
REFERENCES
in the marine context, pp. 89-109, in Larkum, A.W.D., Orth, R.J.
and Duarte, C.M. (eds.). Seagrasses: Biology, ecology and their
conservation. Springer, London.
Ackerman, R.A. 1997. The nest environment and the embryonic
development of sea turtles, pp. 83-106, in Lutz, P. and Musick, J.
(eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press.
Adams, D.J., Alewood, P.F., Craik, D.J., Drinkwater, R.D. and Lewis, R.J.
1999. Conotoxins and their potential pharmaceutical applications.
Drug Development Research 46(3-4): 219-234.
Adams, S.M. 2005. Assessing cause and eect of multiple stressors on
marine systems. Mar. Poll. Bull. 51: 649-657.
Agardy, T. 1999. Ecosystem-based management: A marine perspective, pp.
44-46, in Maltby, E., Holdgate, M., Acreman, M. and Weir, A. (eds.).
Ecosystem management-questions for science and society. RHIER,
University of London, Egham.
Agardy, T. 2000. Information needs for marine protected areas: Scientic
and societal. Bulletin of Marine Science 66(3): 875-888.
Ahmad, F. and Sultan, S.A.R. 1991. Annual mean surface heat uxes in
the Arabian Gulf and the net heat transport through the Strait of
Hormuz. Atmosphere Ocean 29(1): 54-61.
AI-Mudaar, N., Fawzi, N.O. and Al-Edanee, J. 1990. Hydrocarbons in
the surface sediments and bivalves from Shatt Al-Arab and its rivers,
Southern Iraq. Oil Chemical Pollut. 7: 17-28.
Airoldia, L., Balata, D. and Beck, M. 2008. The Gray Zone: Relationships
between habitat loss and marine diversity and their applications in
conservation. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 366:
8-15.
Akili, W. and Torrance, J.K. 1981. The development and geotechnical
problems of sabkha, with preliminary experiments on the static
penetration resistance of cemented sands. Q.J. Eng. Geol. London 14:
59-73.
Aksakal, A. and Rehman, S. 1999. Global solar radiation in northeastern
Saudi Arabia. Renewable Energy 17: 461-472.
Al Rashidi, M., Shobrak, M., Al-Eissa, M.S. and Székely, T. 2012. Integrating
spatial data and shorebird nesting location to predict the potential
future impact of global warming on coastal habitats: A case study on
Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 19(3):
311-315.
Al Shaikh, N.Y. 2003. Excavations at Thaj, Dilmun. J. Bahrain Hist. Archaeol.
Soc. 21: 56-65.
Al Shaikh, N.Y. 2004. Almuntiqah alsharqiyah asur ma qibla altarikh. Al
Waha 33: 6-21.
Al Shehhi, M.R., Gherboudj, I. and Ghedira, H. 2014. An overview
of historical harmful algae blooms outbreaks in the Arabian Seas.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 86(1): 314-324.
Al Suweidi, A., Wilson, K., Healy, T. and Vanneyre, L. 2012. First
contemporary record of green turtle chelonia mydas nesting in the
United Arab Emirates. Marine Turtle Newsletter 133: 16-17.
Al-Abdulkader, K.A. 1991. Phytoplankton ecology of the western Arabian
Gulf, M.S. Thesis, pp. 1-76, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Al-Abdulkader, K.A. and El-Sayed, S.Z. 1992. Phytoplankton ecology
of the Western Arabian Gulf (Persian Gulf), in Falkowski, P.G.,
Woodhead, A.D. and Vivirito, K. (eds.). Primary productivity and
biogeochemical cycles in the sea. Environmental Science Research,
Vol. 43. Springer, Boston, MA, USA.
Al-Abdulkader, K. and Loughland, R.A. 2011. Conservation of marine
and coastal habitats, p. 455, in Loughland, R.A. and Al-Abdulkader,
K. (eds.). Marine Atlas of the Western Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Al-Abdulkader, K.A. and El-Sayed, S.Z. 1992. Phytoplankton ecology of
the Western Arabian Gulf (Persian Gulf), pp. 505-506, in Primary
productivity and biogeochemical cycles in the sea. Springer, U.S.
Al-Abdulkader, K.A., Loughland, R.A. and Wyllie, A. 2011. Conservation
of natural coastal marine resources, pp. 340-359, in Abdulkader,
K.A. and Loughland, R.A. (eds.). Marine Atlas of the Saudi Arabian
Waters of the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Al-Abdulrazzak, D. and Pauly, D. 2014. Managing sheries from space:
Google Earth improves estimates of distant sh catches. ICES Journal
of Marine Science 71(3): 450-454.
Al-Abdulrazzak, D., Moniri, N.R., Moniri, N.R., Zeller, D., Zylich, K.,
Belhabib, D., Pauly, D. and Tesfamichael, D. 2013. From dhows to
trawlers: A recent history of sheries in the Gulf countries, 1950 to
2010. Report for the Fisheries Center at the University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, p. 69.
Al-Abdulrazzaq, S., Khalaf, F., Al-Bakri, D., Shublaq, W., Al-Sheikh,
Z., Kittaneh, W., Al-Ghadban, A. and Al-Saleh, S. 1982. Marine
sedimentology and benthic ecology of Kuwait marine environment.
Kuwait Institute of Scientic Research, Kuwait, Vols. I-II.
Al-Aidaroos, A.M. 1993. Planktonic decapoda from the western coast of
the Gulf. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 27: 245-249.
Alam, I.A.H., Al-Arfaj, A.A. and Sadiq, M. 1998. Metal concentrations
in sediment samples collected during Umitaka-Maru Cruises in
1993-1994, pp. 149-159, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and
Reynolds, R.M. (eds.). Oshore environment of the ROPME Sea
Area after the war-related oil spill. Terra Scientic Publishing Co.
TERRAPUB, Tokyo, Japan.
Alam, I.H. 1993. The 1991 Gulf War oil spill — Lessons from the past and
a warning for the future. Mar. Poll. Bull. 27: 358-360.
Al-Amoudi, O.S.B., Abduljauwad, S.N., Rasheeduzzafar and Maslehuddin,
M. 1992. Eect of chloride and sulfate contamination in soils on
corrosion of steel and concrete. Transportation Research Record (1345):
67-73.
Al-Amoudi, O.S.B. 1994. Chemical stabilization of sabkha at high moisture
contents. Engineering Geology 36(3-4): 279-291.
Al-Arfaj, A.A. and Alam, I.A. 1993. Chemical characterization of sediments
from the Gulf area after the 1991 Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin
27: 97-101.
Alawadhi, A.A. 1997. Pretreatment plant design — Key to a successful
reverse osmosis desalination plant. Desalination 110(1-2): 1-10.
Al-Bakri, D. and Kittaneh, W. 1998. Physico-chemical characteristics
and pollution indicators in the intertidal environment of Kuwait.
Environmental Management 22: 415-424.
Al-Bakri, D., Behbehani, M. and Khuraibet, A. 1997a. Quantitative
assessment of the intertidal environment of Kuwait I: Integrated
environment classication. Environmental Management 51: 321-332.
Al-Bakri, D., Behbehani, M. and Khuraibet, A. 1997b. Quantitative
assessment of the intertidal environment of Kuwait II: Controlling
factors. Environmental Management 51: 333-341.
Al-Bakri, D., Khuraibet, A. and Behbehani, M. 1997. Quantitative
assessment of the intertidal environment of Kuwait I: Integrated
environmental classication. Journal of Environmental Management 51:
321-332.
Alder, J., Zeller, D., Pitcher, T. and Sumaila, R. 2002. A method for
evaluating marine protected area management. Coastal Management
30: 121-131.
Aleem, A.A. 1979. A contribution to the study of seagrasses along the Red
Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. Aquatic Botany 7: 71-78.
Al-Eisawi, D.M. 2002. Status and threats to mangrove and salt marsh
ecosystems in Bahrain, pp. 16-24, in Javed, S. and de Souza, A.G.
(eds.). Research and management options for mangrove and
saltmarsh ecosystems. ERWDA, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Alfreydah, K.A. and Alhusayn, W.A. 1998. Al Uqair. Port of Hajer and
South of Najd. Al Janadriya, Dammam.
Al-Furaih, A.A.F. 1984. Maastrichtian ostracodes from Wadi al-Atj, Saudi
Arabia. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientic Research 2: 495-503.
Al-Ghadban, A.N, Jacob, P.G. and Abdali, F. 1994. Total organic carbon
in the sediments of the Arabian Gulf and need for biological
productivity investigations. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28: 356-362.
Al-Ghadban, A.N., Al-Dousari, A.M., Al-Kadi, A., Behbehani, M. and
573
REFERENCES
Caceres, P. 1998. Mineralogy, genesis and sources of surcial sediments
in ROPME Sea Area, pp. 65-88, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y.
and Reynolds, R.M. (eds.). Oshore environment of the ROPME
Sea Area after the war-related oil spill — Results of the 1993-94
Umitaka-Maru Cruises. Terra Sci. Publ. Co., Tokyo, Japan.
Al-Ghadban, A.N., Al-Yamani, F., Al-Samma, A., Al-Hassam, R.,
Behbehani, M., Al-Hassan, J., Al-Rushaid, R., Al-Shemmari, H., Al-
Matrouk, K., Al-Khabaz, A. and Bahloul, M. 2007. Environmental
stress of Kuwait’s coastal area due to the 1991 oil slick. International
Journal of Oceans and Oceanography 2(1): 25-50.
Al-Ghadban, A.N. and Price, A.R.G. 2002. Dredging and inlling, pp.
207-218, in Khan, N.Y., Munwar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The
Gulf ecosystem, health and sustainability. Backhuys, Leiden, the
Netherlands.
Al-Ghadban, A.N., Karam, H. and Al-Wayel, H. 1993. Textural
characteristics of ROPME Sea Area bottom sediments, pp. 95-115,
in ROPME/IOC (UNESCO)/ UNEP/NOAA/EPC (KUWAIT).
Final report of the scientic workshop on the results of the R/V Mt.
Mitchell Cruise in the ROPME Sea Area, Vol. 1, Annex II.
Al-Ghadban, A.N., Massoud, M.S. and Abdali, F. 1996. Bottom sediments
of the Arabian Gulf. 1. Sedimentological characteristics. J. Univ.
Kuwait, Sci. 23(1): 71-88.
Al-Habshi, A., Youssef, T., Aizpuru, M. and Blasco, F. 2007. New mangrove
ecosystem data along the UAE coast using remote sensing. Aquatic
Ecosystem Health & Management 10: 309-319.
Al-Haimi, Y. 2007. Sustainable development and business management
— QAFCO’s experience. 20th AFA International Annual Technical
Conference, Tunisia.
Al-Hajari, M. and Al-Saif, Z. 1989. Preliminary report on Al-De
excavations. Atlal 12: 29-37.
Al-Harmi, L. 1988. Sources of oil pollution in Kuwait and their inputs in
the marine environment. Final Report-EES-125. Kuwait Institute
of Scientic Research, Kuwait.
Al-Hasan, R.H. and Jones, W.E. 1989. Marine algal ora and seagrasses
of the coast of Kuwait. Journal of the University of Kuwait (Science) 16:
289-340.
Al-Hasash, A.M. 2006. Brief report on the excavations at Thaj. Atlal 19:
15-19.
Al-Hashash, A., Saif, Z.A., Hwyje, S.A., Hamady, M.A., Turky, S.A.,
Habram, A., Harby, M.A., Rashidy, F.A. and Shaikh, N.A. 2005.
Report on the excavation of Thaj (1421 A.H./2001 A.D.). Atlal 18:
19-21.
Al-Hashash, A.M., Al-Saif, Z.A., Al-Sanna, S.H. and Al-Abduljabbar, N.
2002. The archaeological works at the site of Thaj 1420 A.H./1999
A.D. Atlal 17: 17-21.
Al-Hashash, A.M., Al-Zayer, W., Al-Saif, Z.A., Al-Hajri, M., Al-Sanna, S.
and Al-Shaikh, N. 2001. Report on the archaeological excavations at
Thaj Tel al Zayer. Atlal 16: 23-26.
Al-Hashimi, A.H. and Salman, H.H. 1985. Trace metals in the sediments
of the northwestern coast of the Arabian Gulf. Mar. Poll. Bull. 16:
118-120.
Al-Hassan, J.M., Afzal, M., Rao, C.V.N. and Fayad, S. 2000. Petroleum
hydrocarbon pollution in sharks in the Arabian Gulf. Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 65: 391-398.
Ali A., Alfarhan, A., Robinson, E. and Altesan, W. 2009. Soil quality of die
o and die back mangrove grown at Al-Jubail area (Saudi Arabia)
in the Arabian Gulf. American Journal of Applied Sciences 6: 498-506.
Ali, A.H. 2013. First record of six shark species in the territorial marine
waters of Iraq with a review of cartilaginous shes of Iraq.
Mesopotamian Journal of Marine Science 28: 1-16.
Al-Jaloud, A.A. and Hussain, G. 2006. Sabkha ecosystem and halophyte
plant communities in Saudi Arabia, pp. 1-7, in Khan, M.A., Boer,
B., Kust, G.A. and Barth, H-J. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Vol. II: West
and Central Asia.
Al-Kaisi, K.A. 1976. On the phytoplankton of the Arabian Gulf. 2nd Joint
Oceanography Assembly, September 13-24, Edinburgh, U.K.
AL-Kalali, N. and Subasing, W. 2008. Coastal and marine development
principles and major issues in the Gulf. Proceedings of the PIANC-
COPEDEC VII conference, February 24-28, 2008, Dubai, Paper
No. Keynote 02.
Al-Kandari, M., Al-Yamani, F. and Al-Rifaie, K. 2009. Marine
phytoplankton atlas of Kuwait’s waters. Kuwait Institute for Scientic
Research. Safat, Kuwait.
Al-Khabbaz, M. and Fahmi, A.M. 1998. Distribution of copepoda in the
ROPME Sea Area 1994, pp. 303-318, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem,
M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M. (eds.). Oshore environment of the
ROPME Sea Area after the war-related oil spill — Results of
the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises. Terra Scientic Publishing
Company, Tokyo, Japan.
Al-Khayat, J.A. 2005. Some macrobenthic invertebrates in the Qatari
waters, Arabian Gulf. Qatar University Science Journal 25: 126-136.
Al-Khayat, J.A. 2008. Molluscs of the State of Qatar. Qatar Biodiversity
Newsletter 2(1): 5.
Al-Khayat, J.A. and Al-Ansi, M.A. 2008. Ecological features of oyster beds
distribution in Qatari waters, Arabian Gulf. Asian Journal of Scientic
Research 1(6): 544-561.
Al-Khayat, J.A. and Al-Maslamani, I.A. 2001. Fouling in the pearl oyster
beds of the Qatari waters, Arabian Gulf. Egypt Journal of Aquatic
Biology and Fisheries 5(4): 145-163.
Al-Kindi, A.Y.A., Brown, J.A. and Waring, C.P. 2000. Endocrine,
physiological and histopathological responses of sh and their
larvae to stress with emphasis on exposure to crude oil and various
petroleum hydrocarbons. Sultan Qaboos Journ. Sci. Res. Scie. & Technol.
(Special rev. ed.): 1-30.
Alkolibi, F.M. 2002. Possible eects of global warming on agriculture
and water resources in Saudi Arabia: Impacts and responses. Climatic
Change 54(1-2): 225-245.
Allard, M.W., Miamoto, M.M., Bjorndal, K.A., Bolten, A.B. and Bowen,
B.W. 1994. Support for natal homing in green turtles from
mitochondrial DNA sequences. Copeia 1994(1): 34-41.
Allen, E.A., Fell, P.E., Peck, M.A., Gieg, J.A., Guthke, C.R. and Newkirk,
M.D. 1994. Gut contents of common mummichogs, Fundulus
heteroclitus L., in A restored impounded marsh and in natural
reference marshes. Estuaries 17(2): 462-471.
Allen, J.R.L. and Pye, K. (eds.). 1992. Coastal salt marshes: Their nature
and importance. Salt marshes, morphodynamics, conservation and
engineering signicance, pp. 1-18. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, U.K.
Aller, R.C., Aller, J.Y. and Kemp, P.F. 2001. Eects of particle and solute
transport on rates and extent of remineralization in bioturbated
sediments, pp. 315-333, in Aller, J.Y., Woodin, S.A. and Aller, R.C.
(eds.). Organism-sediment interactions. Belle W. Baruch Library in
Marine Science: 21. University of South Carolina Press.
Allgeier, J.E., Yeager, L.A. and Layman, C.A. 2013. Consumers regulate
nutrient limitation regimes and primary production in seagrass
ecosystems. Ecology 94: 521-529.
Allison G.W., Lubchenco, J. and Carr, M.H. 1998. Marine reserves are
necessary but not sucient for marine conservation. Ecological
Application. Ecosystem Management for Sustainable Marine Fisheries
8(1) Supplement: S79-S92.
Al-Lihaibi, S.S. and Al-Omaran, L. 1996. Petroleum hydrocarbons in
oshore sediments from the Gulf. Marine Pollution Bulletin 32: 65-69.
Al-Lihaibi, S.S. and Ghazi, S.J. 1997. Hydrocarbon distributions in
sediments of the open area of the Arabian Gulf following the 1991
Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34(11): 941-948.
Allsopp, M., Walters, A., Santillo, D. and Johnston, P. 2006. Plastic debris in
the world’s oceans. Greenpeace. http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/
marinelitter/ publications/ docs/plastic_ ocean_report.pdf.
Al-Mahmood, A.M. 1993. Distribution of heavy metals in sediment of
5 74
REFERENCES
Abu Ali and Tanajib area of Saudi Arabia coastline during March
1992, pp. 74-84, in ROPME/IOC (UNESCO)/UN, EP/NOAA/
EPC(KUWAIT), Final report of the scientic workshop on the
results of the R/V Mt. Mitchell Cruise in the ROPME Sea Area, Vol.
2, Annex IV.
Al-Mansour, A.H. 2001. Desalination industry development in the last
two decades and its eect on production cost. Proceedings of the
IDA World Conference. Manama, Bahrain.
Al-Maslamani, I., LeVay, L., Kennedy, H. and Jones, D.A. 2007. Feeding
ecology of the grooved tiger shrimp Penaeus semisulcatus De Haan
Decapada: Penaeidae in inshore waters of Qatar. Arabian Gulf. Marine
Biology 150: 627-637.
Almazroui, M. 2011. Calibration of TRMM rainfall climatology over
Saudi Arabia during 1998-2009. Atmospheric Research 99: 400-414.
Almazroui, M., Islam, M.N., Jones, P.D., Athar, H. and Ashfaqur, R.M.
2012. Recent climate change in the Arabian Peninsula: Seasonal
rainfall and temperature climatology of Saudi Arabia for 1979-2009.
Atmospheric Research 111: 29-45.
Al-Merghani, M., Miller, J.D., Al-Mansi, A., Khushaim, O. and Pilcher,
N.J. 1996. The marine turtles of the Arabian Gulf. NCWCD
Studies 1991-1994, pp. 351-359, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and
Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Al-Merghani, M., Miller, J.D., Pilcher, N. and Al-Mansi, A. 2000. The
green and hawksbill marine turtles in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia:
Synopsis of nesting studies 1989-1997. Fauna of Arabia 18: 369-384.
Al-Mohanna, S.Y. and George, P. 2009. The biology of sea turtles and their
environment in Kuwait. Phase II: Nesting population and phylogeny,
nal report for project 1999-1207-02. Kuwait Foundation for the
Advancement of Sciences, Kuwait.
Al-Mohanna, S.Y. and Meakins, R.H. 2000a. First record of the
Leatherback Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, from Kuwait. Zoology in
the Middle East 21: 27-29.
Al-Mohanna, S.Y. and Meakins, R.H. 2000b. Recent records of marine
turtles Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta, and Eretmochelys imbricata
in Kuwait. Zoology in the Middle East 20: 33-36.
Al-Mohanna, S.Y., George, P. and Subrahmanyam, M.N.V. 2007. Benthic
microalgae on a sheltered intertidal mud at in Kuwait Bay of the
Northern Arabian Gulf. Journal of Marine Biological Association of India
49: 27-34.
AI-Mudaar, N., Fawzi, N.O. and Al-Edanee, J. 1990. Hydrocarbons in
the surface sediments and bivalves from Shatt Al-Arab and its rivers,
Southern Iraq. Oil Chemical Pollut. 7: 17-28.
Al-Mughanam, A. 1993. Sassanid dirhams from the island of Tarut, pp.
409-422, in Al-Khalifa, A.K. and Rice, M. (eds.). Bahrain through
the ages: The history. Kegan Paul, London.
Al-Mughanam, A. 2000. A preliminary report on the excavation of al-
uqair, north-west of Abu Zahmul in Al-Hasa Region. Atlal 15: 45-
86.
Al-Muzaini, S., Beg, M.U., Al-Mutari, M. and Al-Mullalhah, A. 1995.
Seawater quality at industrial euents discharge zone. Water Science
and Tec hnology 32: 21-26.
Al-Naser, R.K., Al-Abbasi, M.W. and Elewi, A.H. 2010. Some recent
gastropoda from Khor Al-Zubair, northwest of Arabian Gulf. Iraqi
Journal of Earth Sciences 10(1): 19-30.
Al-Nomazi, M.A. 2009. A study on marine biofouling in the intake and
discharge zones of the Jubail desalination and power plants. M.S.
Thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, 78 p.
Al-Osairi, Y., Imberger, J. and Falconer, R. 2011. Mixing and ushing in
the Persian Gulf (Arabian Gulf). J. Geophys. Res. 116: C03029.
Al-Rukaibi, D. 2010. Water resources of GCC countries. www.ce.utexas.
edu/prof/mckinney/ce397/Topics /Gulf/ Gcc_2010.pdf.
Al-Rumaidh, M.J. 2002. The biology, population dynamics and shery
management of the blue swimming crab, Portunus pelagicus
(Linnaeus, 1758), in Bahraini waters: (Crustacea: Decapoda;
Brachyura; Portunidae). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wales, Bangor,
U.K., 546 p.
Al-Saar, A. and Al-Tamimi, H. 2006. Conservation of coral reefs in
Kuwait, Marine Conservation Forum. EWS-WWF, Abu Dhabi,
UAE.
Alsaar, A.H. and Lone, K.P. 2000. Reproductive cycles of Diadema
sotesum and Echinometra mathei (Echinoidea: Echinodermata)
from Kuwait (Northern Arabian Gulf). Bulletin of Marine Science
67(2): 845-856.
Al-Saleh, E., Drobiova, H. and Obuekwea, C. 2009. Predominant
culturable crude oil degrading bacteria in the coast of Kuwait. Int.
Biodet. Biodeg. 63: 400-406.
Al-Sayed, H. and Zainal, K. 2005. The occurrence of Anostracans-Fairy
shrimp Branchipus schaeeri in vernal pools of Bahrain. Journal of
Arid Environments 61: 447-460.
Al-Sayed, H., Al-Rumaidh, M. and Nayar, N. 1997. Spat settlement and
growth of yearling of the pearl oyster Pinctada radiata in Bahrain
water. Arabian Gulf Journal of Scientic Research 15(2): 467-480.
Al-Sayed, H., Naser, H. and Al-Wedaei, K. 2008. Observations on
macrobenthic invertebrates and wader bird assemblages in a
protected marine mudat in Bahrain. Aquatic Ecosystem Health &
Management 11(4): 450-456.
Al-Shaibani, A. 2013. Economic potential of brines of Sabkha Jayb
Uwayyid, Eastern Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal of Geoscience 6: 2607-
2618.
Al-Suwaidi, A. 1994. Finance of international trade in the gulf. Cornwall:
Hartnolls Ltd.
Al-Suwailem, A.M. 2001. Mangroves marine habitats, pp. 31-95, in
Mangrove rehabilitation in the Arabian Gulf, 5th Technical Report
submitted to the Islamic Development Bank.
Al-Tammemi, A.Y. 1972. Carbonate bottom sediments of the Arabian
Gulf in relation to environment parameters. Unpublished M.S.
Thesis, Pennsylvania State Univ.
Al-Thukair, A.A. and Al-Hinai, K. 1993. Preliminary damage assessment
of algal mats sites located in the western Gulf following the 1991 oil
spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 229-238.
Al-Thukair, A.A., Khan, M.A. and Al-Hinai, K.G. 1995. Monitoring of
coastline and habitat changes of Tarut Bay, Saudi Arabia using satellite
images, in Proceedings of ASCE-SAS Second Regional Conference
and Exhibition, “Save Environment,” November 16-18, 1995,
Beirut, Lebanon.
Al-Tisan, I.A. and Saeed, M.O. 2014. Eect of discharges from desalination
plants on coastal environments in Saudi Arabia. 5th Joint KFUPM-
JCCP Environment Symposium, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, March 3-5, 2014.
Al-Yahya, H., El-Gendy, A.H., Al-Farraj, S. and El-Hedeny, M. 2011.
Evaluation of heavy metal pollution in the Arabian Gulf using the
clam Meretrix meretrix Linnaeus, 1758. Water Air & Soil Pollution
214: 499-507.
Al-Yamani, F.Y. and Prusova, I. 2003. Common copepods of the
Northwestern RSA: Identication guide. Kuwait Institute of
Scientic Research, Technical Report. 190 p.
Al-Yamani, F. 2008. Importance of the freshwater inux from the Shatt
Al-Arab River on the Gulf marine environment, pp. 207-222, in
Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H.J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al Abdessalaam,
T.Z. (eds.). Protecting the Gulf ’s marine ecosystem from pollution.
Basel, Birkhäuser.
Al-Yamani, F., Boltachova, N., Revkov, N., Makarov, M., Grintsov, V.,
Kolesnikova, E. and Murina, G.V. 2009. Winter species composition,
diversity and abundance of macrozoobenthos in Kuwait’s waters,
Arabian Gulf, in Neubert, E., Amr, Z., Taiti, S. and Gümüs, B. (eds.).
Animal biodiversity in the Middle East. Proceedings of the 1st Middle
575
REFERENCES
Eastern Biodiversity Congress, Aqaba, Jordan, October 20-23, 2008.
ZooKeys 31: 17-38.
Al-Yamani, F., Polikarpov, I., Skryabin, V., Bishop, J., Al-Rifaie, K., Al-
Mansouri, H., Al-Enezi, M., Lennox, A., Al-Kandari, M., Behbehani,
M., Al-Ghunaim, A. and Ismail, W. 2008. Assessment of the eects of
the Shatt Al-Arab’s altered discharge regimes on the ecology of the
northern Arabian Gulf — Phase II. KISR Final Report 9061.
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Ismail, W.A. and Fahmi, A.M. 1995. Copepods from
Kuwaiti coastal waters of the RSA. Kuwait Institute of Scientic
Research, Technical Report, 235 p.
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Rifaie, K., Al-Mutairi, H. and Ismail, W. 1998. Post-spill
spatial distribution of zooplankton in the ROPME Sea Area, pp.
193-202, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M.
(eds.). Oshore environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the war-
related oil spill — Results of the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises.
Terra Scientic Publishing Company, Tokyo, Japan.
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Rifaie, K. and Ismail, W. 1993. Post-spill zooplankton
distribution in the NW RSA. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 27: 239-243.
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Skryabin, V., Boltachova, N., Revkov, N., Makarov,
M., Grintsov, V. and Kolesnikova, E. 2012. Illustrated atlas on the
zoobenthos of Kuwait. Kuwait Institute for Scientic Research,
Kuwait.
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Skryabin, V., Khvorov, S. and Prusova, I. 2011. Marine
zooplankton practical guide for the northwestern Arabian Gulf, Vol.
1. Kuwait Institute for Scientic Research, Kuwait, 196 p.
Al-Zahrani, K.H. 2010. Water demand management in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia. The International Journal of Arts & Sciences 2(3): 68-76.
Al-Zaidan, A.S.Y., Jones, D.A., Al-Mohanna, S.Y. and Meakins, R. 2003.
Endemic macrofauna of the Sulaibikhat Bay salt marsh and mud
at habitats, Kuwait: Status and need for conservation. Journal of Arid
Environments 54: 115-124.
Al-Zaidan, A.S.Y., Kenned, H., Jones, D.A. and Al-Mohanna, S. 2006. Role
of microbial mats in Sulaibikhat Bay (Kuwait) mudat food webs:
Evidence from 13C analysis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 308: 27-
36.
Al-Zayani, A. 2003. The selection of marine protected areas: A model for
the Kingdom of Bahrain. Ph.D. Thesis. Center for Environmental
Sciences, University of Southampton, U.K.
Ambrose, W.G. 1993. Eects of predation and disturbance by ophiuroids
on soft-bottom community structure in Oslofjord: Results of a
mesocosm study. Marine Ecology Progress Series 97(3): 225-236.
Anchor Environmental. 2003. Literature review of eects of re-suspended
sediments due to dredging operations. Prepared for Los Angeles
Contaminated Sediments Task Force Los Angeles, by Anchor
Environmental, California, 84 p.
Anderson, P.K. 1986. Dugongs of Shark Bay, Australia: Seasonal migration,
water temperature and forage. National Geographic Research 2(4): 473-
490.
Anderson, R.C. and Simpfendorfer, C.A. 2005. Regional overview: Indian
Ocean, in Fowler S.L., Cavanagh, R.D., Camhi, M., Burgess, G.H.,
Cailliet, G.M., Fordham, S.V., Simpfendorfer, C.A. and Musick, J.A.
(eds.). Sharks, rays and chimaeras: The status of the chondrichthyan
shes. Status survey. IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group, Cambridge.
Anon. 1992. An assessment of biotopes and coastal zone management
requirements for the Arabian Gulf. MEPA Technical Report, Saudi
Arabia, No. 5.
Anvar Batcha, S.M. 1997. Studies on the intertidal and benthic macrofauna
of Dammam Corniche and Half Moon Bay beaches of the Arabian
Gulf. Journal of Marine Biology Association, India 39(1 & 2): 40-43.
Apel, M. 1994a. Eects of the 1991 oil spill on the crab fauna (Crustacea:
Decapoda: Brachyura) of intertidal mud ats in the western Arabian
Gulf. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 166: 40-46.
Apel, M. 1994b. Biology, ecology and taxonomy of Brachyuran and
Paguridean Crustacea, pp. 406-437, in Feltkamp, E. and Krupp,
F. (eds.). Establishment of a marina habitat and wildlife sanctuary
for the Gulf region. Final report of phase II. Jubail, Frankfurt aM,
Germany.
Apel, M. 1996. Ecological observations on crab communities (Crustacea:
Decapoda: Brachyura) on intertidal mud ats in the Western Arabian
Gulf and the eect of the 1991 oil spill, pp. 327-338, in Krupp, F.,
Abuzinada, H.A. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine sanctuary for
the Arabian Gulf. Senckenbergische Nat.forschende Gesellschaft,
Frankfurt, Germany.
Apel, M. and Turkay, M. 1999. Taxonomic composition, distribution and
zoogeographic of the Grapsid and Ocypodid crab fauna of intertidal
soft bottoms in the Arabian Gulf. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
49 (Supplement A): 131-142.
Aragones, L. 1996. Dugongs and green turtles: Grazers in the tropical
seagrass ecosystem. Ph.D. Thesis. James Cook University of North
Queensland, Townsville, Australia.
Aragones, L. 2000. A review of the role of the green turtle in tropical
seagrass ecosystems, pp. 69-85, in Pilcher, N. and Ismail, G. (eds.). Sea
turtles of the Indo-Pacic, research management and conservation.
University of Malaysia, Sarawak, ASEAN Academic Press, London.
Aragones, L.V., Lawler, I.R., Foley, W.J. and Marsh, H. 2006. Dugong
grazing and turtle cropping: grazing optimization in tropical seagrass
systems? Oecologia 149: 635-647.
Arakawa, H., Hirawake, T. and Morinaga, T. 1998. Distribution of turbidity
in the ROPME Sea Area, pp. 49-63, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem
M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M. (eds.). Oshore environment of the
ROPME Sea Area after the war-related oil spill — Results of the
1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises. Terra Sci., Tokyo, Japan.
Arkema, K.K., Abramson, S.C. and Dewsbury, B.M. 2006. Marine
ecosystem-based management: From characterization to
implementation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4: 525-532.
Arnold, E.N. 1986. A key and annotated checklist to the lizards and
amphisbaenas of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 8: 385-435.
Arnold, E.N. 1987. Zoogeography of the reptiles and amphibians of Arabia,
pp. 245-256, in Krupp, F., Schneider, W. and Kinzelbach, R. (eds.).
Proceedings of the symposium on the fauna and zoogeography
of the Middle East, Mainz 1985. BeihefrezumTübinger Atlas des
Vorderen Orients (A) 28.
Arrian. 1884. The Anabasis of Alexander or the history of the wars and
conquests of Alexander the Great. Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Aspinall, S.J. 1996. Status and conservation of the breeding birds of the
United Arab Emirates. Hobby, Dubai.
Aspinall, S.J. 2002. Birds in sabkha environments, pp. 311-314, in Barth,
H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Austen, M.C., Lambshead, P.J.D., Hutchings, P.A., Boucher, G., Snelgrove,
P.V.R., Heip, C., King, G., Koike, I. and Smith, C. 2002. Biodiversity
links above and below the sediment-water interface that may
inuence community stability. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 113-
136.
Averett, D.E., Hayes, D.F. and Schroeder, P.R. 1999. Estimating contaminant
losses during dredging. Proc. of World Dredging Association, 19th
Technical Conference.
Azam, M., Elshorbagy, W., Tetsuya, I., Tomohiko, T. and Koichi, T. 2006. 3D
application to study the residual ow in the Arabian Gulf. ASCE/J.
Water Way Port Coastal Ocean Eng. 132(5): 388-400.
Azis, P.K.A., Al-Tisan, I.A., Daili, M.A., Green, T.N., Dalvi, A.G.I. and
Javeed, M.A. 2003. Chlorophyll and plankton of the Gulf coastal
waters of Saudi Arabia bordering a desalination plant. Desalination
154: 291-302.
Badawi, H.K. 1975. On maturation and spawning in some penaeid prawn
of the Arabian Gulf. Marine Biology 32: 1-6.
Bailey, G. 2007. In the land of the Ichthyophagi: Modelling sh exploitation
in the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman from the 5th millennium BC
to the late Islamic period by Mark Beech. Review. Bull. Soc. Arab.
Stud. 12: 48-49.
576
REFERENCES
Bak, R.P.M. 1990. Patterns of echinoid bioerosion in two Pacic coral reef
lagoons. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 66: 267-272.
Bak, R.P.M. 1994. Sea urchin bioerosion on coral reefs: Place in the
carbonate budget and relevant variables. Coral Reefs 13(2): 99-103.
Baker, A.C. 2003. Flexibility and specicity in coral-algal symbiosis:
Diversity, ecology, and biogeography of symbiodinium. Annual
Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34: 661-689.
Baker, A.C., Glynn, P.W. and Riegl, B. 2008. Climate change and coral reef
bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery
trends and future outlook. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 80(4):
435-471.
Baker, A.C., Starger, C.J., McClanahan, T.R. and Glynn, P.W. 2004. Coral
reefs: Corals’ adaptive response to climate change. Nature 430: 741.
Baker, M. and Hosny, C.F.H. 2005. Zooplankton diversity and abundance
in Half Moon Bay, Saudi coastal waters. RSA. Sci. J. King Faisal Univ.
(Basic Appl. Sci.) 26: 1-30.
Baldwin, R. 2005. Marine Mammals, pp. 335-343, in Hellyer, P. and
Aspinall, S. (eds.). The Emirates. A natural history. London.
Baldwin, R. and Gardner, D. 2005. Marine reptiles, pp. 243-251, in Hellyer,
P. and Aspinall, S. (eds.). The Emirates. A natural history. London.
Baldwin, R.M., Collins, M., Van Waerebeek, K. and Minton, G. 2004.
The Indo-Pacic humpback dolphin of the Arabian region: A status
review. Aquatic Mammals 30(1): 111-124.
Baldwin, R.M., Gallagher, M. and Waerebeek, K. 1999. A review of
cetaceans from waters o the Arabian Peninsula, pp. 161-189, in
Fisher, M., Ghazanfar, S.A. and Spalton, A. (eds.). The natural history
of Oman, A Festchrift for Michael Gallagher. Leiden.
Balletto, E., Cherchi, M.A. and Gasperetti, J. 1985. Amphibians of the
Arabian Peninsula. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 7: 318-392.
Ballorain, K., Ciccione, S., Bourjea, J., Grizel, H., Enstipp, M. and Georges,
J.Y. 2010. Habitat use of a multispecic seagrass meadow by green
turtles Chelonia mydas at Mayotte Island. Marine Biology 157(12):
2581-2590.
Banat, I.M., Hassan, E.S., El-Shahawi, M.S. and Abu-Hilal, A.H. 1998. Post-
Gulf-War assessment of nutrients, heavy metal ions, hydrocarbons,
and bacterial pollution levels in the United Arab Emirates coastal
waters. Environment International 24: 109-116.
Banse, K. and McCain, C.R. 1986. Winter blooms of phytoplankton in
the Arabian Sea as observed by coastal zone color scaner. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. 34: 201-211.
Barber, B.J. and Behrens, P.J. 1985. Eects of elevated temperature on
seasonal in situ leaf productivity of Thalassia testudinum Banks ex
König and Syringodium liforme Kützing. Aquat. Bot. 22: 61-69.
Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C. and
Silliman, B.R., 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem
services. Ecological monographs 81: 169-193.
Barnes, R.D. 1974. Invertebrate zoology (3rd edition), W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Barros, A., Álvarez, D. and Velando, A. 2014. Long-term reproductive
impairment in a seabird after the prestige oil spill. Biology Letters
10(4): DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2013.1041.
Barth, H-J. 2002. The coastal ecosystems 10 years after the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. Preliminary Report (unpublished). University of
Regensburg, Department of Physical Geography, pp. 1-11. http://
www.uni-r.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_III/Geographie/phygeo/
downloads/barthcoast.pdf.
Barth, H-J. and Khan, N.Y. 2008. Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf, pp.
1-21, in Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H-J., Krupp, F., Böer, B. and Al
Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds.). Protecting the Gulf ’s marine ecosystems
from pollution. Birkhäuser Basel, Springer.
Barth, H-J. 2003. The inuence of cyanobacteria on oil polluted intertidal
soils at the Saudi Arabian Gulf shores. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:
1245-1252.
Barth, H-J. 2007. Crab induced salt marsh regeneration after the 1991
Gulf War oil spill. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 10(3):
327-334.
Barth, H-J. and Böer, B. (eds.). 2002. Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 354 p.
Basaham, A.S. and Al-Lihaibi, S.S. 1993. Trace elements in sediments of the
Western Gulf. Mar. Poll. Bull. 27: 103-107.
Basson, P.W. 1979a. Marine algae of the Arabian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia
(rst half). Botanica Marina 22: 47-64.
Basson, P.W. 1992. Checklist of marine algae of the Arabian Gulf. Journal of
the University of Kuwait (Science) 19(2): 217-229.
Basson, P.W., Burchard, J.E., Hardy, J.T. and Price, A.R.G. 1977. Biotopes
of the western Arabian Gulf: Marine life and environments of Saudi
Arabia. Aramco Department of Loss Prevention and Environmental
Aairs, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Basson, P.W., Mohamed, S.A. and Arora, D.K. 1989. A survey of the benthic
algae of Bahrain. Botanica Marina 32: 27-40.
Batanouny, K.H. 1987. Current knowledge of plant ecology in the Arab
Gulf countries. Catena 14: 291-315.
Batanouny, K.H. 1993. Ecophysiology of Halophytes and their traditional
use in the Arab World, in Halophyte utilization in Agriculture.
Tecnomack Bari, Italy.
Bayani, N. 2016. Ecology and environmental challenges of the Persian
Gulf. Iranian Studies 49: 1047-1063.
Beasley, C.R., Fernandes, C.M., Gomes, C.P., Brito, B.A., Lima dos Santos,
S.M. and Tagliaro, C.H. 2005. Molluscan diversity and abundance
among coastal habitats of northern Brazil. Ecotropica 11: 9-20.
Beaumont, N.J., Austen, M.C., Atkins, J.P., Burdon, D., Degraer, S.,
Dentinho, T.P., Derous, S., Holm, P., Horton, T., van Ierland, E.,
Marboe, A.H., Starkey, D.J., Townsend, M. and Zarzycki, T. 2007.
Identication, denition and quantication of goods and services
provided by marine biodiversity: Implications for the ecosystem
approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54: 253-265.
Beech, M. 2000. Preliminary report on the faunal remains from an ‘Ubaid-
related settlement on Dalma Island, Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab
Emirates, pp. 68-78, in Mashkour, M., Choyke, A.M., Buitenhuis,
H. and Poplin, F. (eds.). Archaeozoology of the Near East IV. ARC
Publications, Groningen, the Netherlands.
Beech, M. 2002. Fishing in the ‘Ubaid: A review of sh-bone assemblages
from early prehistoric coastal settlements in the Arabian Gulf. J.
Oman Stud. 12: 25-40.
Beech, M. 2003. The development of shing in the UAE: A
zooarchaeological perspective, pp. 289-308, in Proceedings of the
First International Conference on the Archaeology of the UAE.
Beech, M., Cuttler, R., Moscrop, D., Kallweit, H. and Martin, J. 2005.
New evidence for the Neolithic settlement of Marawah Island, Abu
Dhabi, UAE, pp. 37-56, in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian
Studies, Archaeopress, London.
Beech, M., Elders, J. and Shepherd, E. 2000. Reconsidering the ’Ubaid of
the Southern Gulf: New results from excavations on Dalma Island,
UAE, pp. 41-47, in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies,
Brepols, Belgium.
Beech, M., Hogarth, P. and Phillips, C. 2008. Zooarchaeological evidence
for trade in marine resources in Southeast Arabia, pp. 329-335, in
Olijdam, E. and Spoor, R. (eds.). Intercultural relations between south
and southwest Asia. Studies in commemoration of E.C.L. During
Caspers (1934-1996). British Archaeological Reports International
Series. Archaeopress, Oxford.
Beech, M. and Kallweit, H. 2001. A note on the archaeological and
environmental remains from site JH 57, a 5th to 4th millennium BC
shell midden in Jazirat al-Hamra, Ra’s al-Khaimah. Tribulus 11: 17-
20.
Beech, M.J. 2004. In the Land of the Ichthyophagi: Modelling sh
exploitation in the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman from the 5th
millennium BC to the Late Islamic period. Abu Dhabi Islands
577
REFERENCES
Archaeological Survey Monograph 1. British Archaeological
Reports International Series S1217.
Begg, G.A. and Waldman, J.R. 1999. An holistic approach to sh stock
identication. Fish. Res. 43: 35-44.
Behairy, A.K.A., El-Sayed, M.K. and Durgaprasda Rao, N.V.N. 1985.
Eolian dust in the coastal area north of Jiddah, Saudi Arabia. J. Arid
Environ 8: 89-98.
Bejarano, A.C. and Michel, J. 2010. Large-scale risk assessment of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in shoreline sediments from Saudi Arabia:
Environmental legacy after 12 years of the Gulf War oil spill. Environ
Pollut. 158: 1561-1569.
Bell, J.D. and Pollard, D.A. 1989. Ecology of sh assemblages and sheries
associated with seagrasses, pp. 565-609, in Larkum, A.W.D., McComb,
A.J. and Shepherd, S.A. (eds.). Biology of seagrasses. A treatise on the
biology of seagrasses with special reference to the Australian Region.
Aquatic Plant Studies 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Bellard, C., Bertelsmeier, C., Leadley, P., Thuiller, W. and Courchamp, F.
2012. Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity. Ecol
Lett. 15(4): 365-377.
Bellwood, D.R., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C. and Nystrom, M. 2004. Confronting
the coral reef crisis. Nature 249: 827-833.
Belnap, J. 2002. Biological soil crusts of Arabian Sabkhat, pp. 227-237, in
Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Belnap, J. and Gardner, J.S. 1993. Soil microstructure of the Colorado
Plateau: The role of cyanobacterium Microcoleus vaginatus. Great
Basin Naturalist 53: 40-47.
Beltagy, I. 1980. Workshop on combatting marine pollution from oil
exploration and transport in the Kuwait action plan region. IMCO/
UNEP, December 6-10, 1980, Bahrain.
Bengtsson, J. 1998. Which species? What kind of diversity? Which
ecosystem function? Some problems in studies of relations between
biodiversity and ecosystem function. Applied Soil Ecology 10: 191-
199.
Bernhardt, J.R. and Leslie, H.M. 2013. Resilience to climate change in
coastal marine ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science 5: 371-
392.
Bertelli, C.M. and Unsworth, R.K.F. 2013. Protecting the hand that feeds us:
Seagrass (Zostera marina) serves as commercial juvenile sh habitat.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.08.011.
Bibby, T.G. 1973. Preliminary survey in East Arabia 1968. Reports of
the Danish archaeological expedition to the Arabian Gulf. Jutland
Archaeological Society Publications, Copenhagen.
Biber, P.D., Paerl, H.W., Gallegos, C.L. and Kenworthy, W.J. 2005.
Evaluating indicators of seagrass stress to light, pp. 193-209, in
Bartone, S. (ed.). Proceedings of the Estuarine indicator Workshop.
Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press.
Biles, C.L., Solan, M., Isaksson, I., Paterson, D.M., Emes, C. and Raaelli,
D.G. 2003. Flow modies the eect of biodiversity on ecosystem
functioning: An in situ study of estuarine sediments. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 285-286: 165-177.
BirdLife International. 2010. Threats, stresses and impacts. Available at:
http://www. birdlife.org/datazone/species/terms/threats.Html.
BirdLife International. 2009. Important bird area factsheet: Gulf coral
islands, Saudi Arabia. (www.birdlife.org).
BirdLife International. 2014. Country prole: Saudi Arabia. Available from:
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/ country/saudi-arabia. Checked:
2014-05-16.
Bishop, J.M. 2002. Fishing and mariculture, pp. 253-278, in Khan, N.Y.,
Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem, health
and sustainability. Backhuys Pub., Leiden, the Netherlands.
Bjorndal, K.A. 1997. Foraging ecology and nutrition of sea turtles, pp.
199-231, in Lutz, P.L. and Musick, J.A. (eds.). The biology of sea
turtles. CRC Press, New York.
Bjorndal, K.A. and Jackson, J.B. 2003. Roles of sea turtles in marine
ecosystems: Re-constructing the past, pp. 259-273, in Musick, P.
and Wyneken, J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles, Vol. II. CRC Press,
New York.
Blasco, F., Saenger, P., Auda, Y., Aizpuru, M., Loughland, R.A. and Youssef,
A.M.M. 2004. Mapping main coastal habitats and mangroves, in
Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Al Mehdi, A.M. and
Hellyer, P. (eds.). Marine Atlas of Abu Dhabi, Emirates Heritage
Club, Abu Dhabi, pp. 70-93.
Blegvad, H. 1944. Danish scientic investigations in Iran. Part III. Fishes of
the Iranian Gulf, Einar Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
Block, B.A., Dewar, H., Blackwell, S.B., Williams, T.D., Prince, E.D.,
Farwell, C.J., Boustany, A., Teo, S.L., Seitz, A., Walli, A. and Fudge,
D. 2001. Migratory movements, depth preferences, and thermal
biology of Atlantic bluen tuna. Science 293: 1310-1314.
Boer, B. 1994. Status and recovery of the intertidal vegetation after
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill, pp. 22-26, in Courier Forschungsinstitut
Senckenberg 166, Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Böer, B. 1994. Status, environmental factors and recovery of the intertidal
and terrestrial vegetation between Ras az Zaur and Abu ‘Ali Island
after the Gulf War oil spill, pp. 229-253, in Establishment of a marine
habitat and wildlife sanctuary for the Gulf region. Final report for
phase II, Jubail and Frankfurt, CEC/NCWCD.
Böer, B. 1996. Plants as soil indicators along the Saudi coast of the Arabian
Gulf. Journal of Arid Environments 33: 417-423.
Boer, B. 2002. The coastal sabkha ora of the United Arab Emirates,
pp. 303-309, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems.
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Boer, B. and Al-Hajiri, S. 2002. The coastal and sabkha ora of Qatar: An
introduction, pp. 63-70, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha
ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Böer, B. and Warnken, J. 1992. Qualitative analysis of the coastal and inland
vegetation of the Dawhat ad-Da and Dawhat al-Musallamiya
region, pp. 81-101, in Establishment of a marine habitat and wildlife
sanctuary for the Gulf region. Final report for phase I. Jubail and
Frankfurt, CEC/NCWCD.
Böer, B. and Warnken, J. 1996. Flora of the Jubail marine ildlife sanctuary,
Saudi Arabia, pp. 290-295, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader,
I.A. (eds.). A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf. Environmental
Research and Conservation following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill.
NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt
aM, Germany.
Boere, G.C. and Stroud, D.A. 2006. The yway concept: What it is and
what it isn’t, pp. 40-47, in Boere, G.C., Galbraith, C.A. and Stroud,
D.A. (eds.). Waterbirds around the world. The Stationery Oce,
Edinburgh, U.K.
Boerema, L.K. 1969. The shrimp resources in the Gulf between Iran and
the Arabian Peninsula. FAO Fisheries Circular 310: 1-29.
Bohm, A. 1931. Peridineen aus dem persischen Golf und dem Golf von
Oman. Archiv fur Orotestenkunde 74: 188-197.
Bohnsack, J.A. 1993. Marine reserves: They enhance sheries, reduce
conicts, and protect resources. Oceanus 36: 63-71.
Bolam, S.G. and Fernandes, T.F. 2002. Dense aggregations of tube-
building polychaetes: Response to small-scale disturbances. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 269: 197-122.
Bolten, A.B. 2003. Variation in sea turtle life history patterns: neritic vs.
oceanic developmental stages, pp. 243-257, in Lutz, P.L. and Musick,
J.A. and Wyneken, J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles. Vol. II. CRC
Press, New York.
Bonnet, B., Payri, C. and Guerere, M. 1985. Ecological and physiological
signicance of algal feeding by the Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas
L. in the coral reefs of La Réunion and Tromelin Islands, Abstract. p.
37, in Gabrie, C., Toat, J.L. and Salvat B. (assoc. eds.). Proceedings
of the 5th International Coral Reef Congress Antenne Museum-
EPHE, Tahiti, French Polynesia 2.
Booth, D.T. and Evans, A. 2011. Warm water and cool nests are best. How
578
REFERENCES
global warming might inuence hatchling green turtle swimming
performance. PLoS ONE 6: 8: e23162.
Borja, A., Franco, J. and Muxika, I. 2004. The biotic indices and the Water
Framework Directive: The required consensus in the new benthic
monitoring tools. Marine Pollution Bulletin: 48: 405-408.
Borja, A., Franco, J. and Perez, V. 2000. A marine biotic index to establish
the ecological quality of soft-bottom benthos within European
estuarine and coastal environments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(12):
1100-1114.
Borja, A., Miles, A., Occhipinti-Ambrogi, A. and Berg, T. 2009. Current
status of macroinvertebrate methods used for assessing the quality
of European marine waters: Implementing the water framework
directive. Hydrobiologia 633: 181-196.
Borsani, R. and Ghiazza, E. 2001. MSF desalination units over 15 MIGD
is becoming a reality and start a new age for the old technology.
Proceedings of the IDA World Congress, Manama, Bahrain.
Bosire, J., Kirui, B.K., Kairo, J.G., Langat, J., Onduso, G. and Obinga, A. 2012.
Mangrove ecosystem recovery at Mwache Mombasa. Unpublished.
Bostock, J. and Riley, H. 1855. The natural history. Pliny the elder. Taylor
& Francis, London.
Both, C., Van Turnhout, C.A.M., Bijlsma, R.G., Siepel, H., Van Strien, A.J.
and Foppen, R.P.B. 2010. Avian population consequences of climate
change are most severe for long-distance migrants in seasonal
habitats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 277: 1259-1266.
Bouchard, S.S. and Bjorndal, K.A. 2000. Sea turtles as biological transpor ters
of nutrients and energy from marine to terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology
818: 2305-2313.
Boulos, L. 1985. The Middle East, pp. 129-185, in Goodin, J.R. and
Northington, D.K. (eds.). Plant resources of arid and semiarid lands:
A global perspective. Academic Press.
Bowen, W.D. 1997. Role of marine mammals in aquatic ecosystems.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 158: 267-274.
Boyd, C.E. 2010. Perspective on seawater desalination and the environment.
A presentation at the Arab Water Desalination and Exhibition
Conference. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, April 2010.
Boynton, W.R., Kemp, W.M. and Keefe, C.W. 1982. A comparative analysis
of nutrients and other factors inuencing estuarine phytoplankton
production, pp. 69-90, in Kennedy, V.S. (ed.). Estuarine comparisons.
Academic Press, New York.
Brampton, A.H. 1992. Engineering signicance of British salt marshes,
pp. 115-122, in Allen, J.L.R. and Pye, K. (eds.). Salt marshes
morphodynamics, conservation and engineering signicance.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Brannon, J.M. 1978. Evaluation of dredge material pollution potential.
Synthesis of research results. Dredge Material Research Program.
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. Vicksburg,
Mississippi Technical Report DS-78-6.
Braulik, G.T., Ranjbar, S., Ow, F., Aminrad, T., Mohammad, S., Dakhteh,
H., Kamrani, E. and Mohsenizadeh, F. 2010. Marine mammal records
from Iran. J. Cetacean Res. Manage. 111: 49-63.
Bray, R.N., Bates, A.D. and Land, J.M. 1997. Dredging — A handbook for
engineers. 2nd edition Arnold, London.
Bremner, J., Rogers, S.I. and Frid, C.L.J. 2003. Assessing functional
diversity in marine benthic systems: A comparison of approaches.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 254: 11-25.
Brewer, P.G. and Dyrssen, D. 1985. Chemical oceanography of the Persian
Gulf. Prog. Oceanog. 14: 41-55.
Brewer, P. and Dyrssen, D. 1984. Chemical oceanography of the Persian
Gulf. Essays on oceanography: A tribute to John Swallow. Woods Hole
Oceanogr. Inst. 14: 41-55.
Brewer, P., Fleer, A., Kadar, S., Shafer, D. and Smith, C. 1978. Chemical
oceanographic data from the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution Technical Report, WHOI-78-37,
pp. 1-105.
Bron, F. 2002. Languages and writing, pp. 153-157, in Simpson, S.J. (ed.).
Queen of Sheba. Treasures from ancient Yemen. British Museum
Press, London.
Brown, A.C. and McLachlan, A. 2002. Sandy shore ecosystems and the
threats facing them: Some predictions for the year 2025. Environmental
Conservation 29(1): 62-77.
Brown, B.E. 1997. Adaptations of reef corals to physical environmental
stress, pp. 221-299, in Blaxter, J.H.S. and Southward, A.J. (eds.).
Advances in Marine Biology 31. Academic Press, London.
Brown, G. 2006. The sabkha vegetation of the United Arab Emirates, pp.
37-51, in Khan, M.A., Boer, B., Kust, G.A. and Barth, H-J. (eds.).
Sabkha ecosystems. Vol. II: West and Central Asia, Springer.
Brown, G., Böer, B. and Sakkir, S. 2008. The coastal vegetation of the
western and southern Gulf — Characterisation and conservation
aspects, pp. 23-44, in Abuzinada, A.H., Barth, H-J., Krupp, F., Boer,
B. and Al Abdessalaam, T.Z. (eds.). Protecting the Gulf’s marine
ecosystems from pollution. Birkhauser Verlag/Switzerland.
Brown, J.J., Cybulska, I., Chaturvedi, T. and Thomsen, M.H. 2014.
Halophytes for the production of liquid biofuels, pp. 67-72, in
Khan, M.A., Böer, B., Öztürkm M., Al-Abdessalam, T.Z., Clusener-
Godt, M. and Gul, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems: Vol. IV: Cash crop
Halophyte and biodiversity conservation, Tasks for Vegetation Science
47, Springer.
Brown, R.W. 1986. The content and nature of Arabian Gulf seawater.
Emirates Natural History Group Bulletin 29: 5-12.
Bryden, M., Marsh, H. and Shaughnessy, P. 1998. Dugongs, whales,
dolphins and seals: A guide to the sea mammals of Autralasia. Allen
and Unwin, Australia.
Bulthuis, D.A. 1987. Eects of temperature on photosynthesis and growth
of seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 27: 27-40.
Bundy, G., Connor R.J. and Harrison C.J.O. 1989. Birds of the Eastern
Province of Saudi Arabia. Witherby. London, U.K.
Bu-Olayan, A.H. and Thomas, B.V. 2005. Validating species diversity
of benthic organisms to trace metal pollution in Kuwait Bay, o
the Arabian Gulf. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 3:
93-100.
Buqis, A.S. and Abdulqader, E.A.A. 1993. Identication and some
morphometric measurements of penaeid prawns collected during
Leg IV of the Mt. Mitchell cruise in the ROPME sea area. Paper
presented at the scientic workshop on results of the R/V Mt.
Mitchell cruise, Kuwait, January 24-28, 1993..
Burchard, J.E. 1979. Coral fauna of the eastern Arabian Gulf. Aramco
Dept. of Environmental Aairs, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 129 p.
Burd, A.B. and Dunton, K.H. 2001. Field verication of a light-driven
model of biomass changes in the seagrass Halodule wrightii. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser. 209: 85-98.
Burkholder, G. 1972. Ubaid sites and pottery in Saudi Arabia. Archaeology
25: 264-269.
Burns, G. and Heatwole, H. 1998. Home range and habitat use of the
Olive Sea Snake, Aipysurus laevis, on the Great Barrier Reef,
Australia. Journal of Herpetology 32: 350-358.
Burns, K.A., Ehrhardt, M.G., Howes, B.L. and Taylor, C.D. 1993. Subtidal
benthic community respiration and production near the heavily
oiled Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 199-
205.
Burns, K.A., Villeneuve, J.P., Anderlini, V.C. and Fowler, S.W. 1982. Survey
of tar, hydrocarbon and metal pollution in the coastal waters of
Oman. Mar. Poll. Bull. 7: 240-247.
Burstein, S.M. 1989. Agatharchides of Cnidus. On the Erythraean Sea.
Hakluyt Society, London.
Burt, J., Bartholomew, A., Bauman, A., Saif, A. and Sale, P.F. 2009a. Coral
recruitment and early benthic community development on several
materials used in the construction of articial reefs and breakwaters.
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 373: 72e78.
Burt, J., Bartholomew, A., Usseglio, P., Bauman, A. and Sale, P.F. 2009b.
579
REFERENCES
Are articial reefs surrogates of natural habitats for corals and sh in
Dubai, United Arab Emirates? Coral Reefs 28: 663e675.
Burt, J.A., 2014. The environmental costs of coastal urbanization in the
Arabian Gulf. City 18: 760-770.
Burt, J.A., Al-Khalifa, K., Khalaf, E., Alshuwaikh, B. and Abdulwahab,
A. 2013. The continuing decline of coral reefs in Bahrain. Marine
Pollution Bulletin 72: 357-363.
Bush, P. 1973: Some aspects of the diagenetic history of the sabkha in Abu
Dhabi, Persian Gulf, pp. 395-406, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian
Gulf. Springer, New York.
Bush, P.R. 1970. Chloride rich brines from sabkha sediments and their
possible role in ore formation. Inst. Mining Metallurgy, Trans., (sec. B.)
79: 137-144.
Busharb, A. 1993. The contribution of Portuguese sources and documents
in recording the history of Bahrain in the rst half of the 16th century,
pp. 144-154, in Al Khalifa, A.K. and Rice, M. (eds.). Bahrain through
the ages, the history. Kegan Paul, London.
Butayban, N. 2005. Assessment of the state of the environment in the
ROPME Sea Area relevant to the GPA source categories. Document
prepared for UNEP/GPA as input into UNEP 2006.
Butler, G.P. 1969. Modern evaporite deposition and geochemistry of
co-existing brines, the sabkha, Trucial Coast, Arabian Gulf. J. Sed.
Petrology 39: 70-89.
Butler, G.P., Kendall, C.G., Kinsman, D.J., Shearman, D.J. and Skipwith, S.P.
1965. Recent anhydrite from the Trucial coast of the Arabian Gulf.
Geol. Soc. London Circ. 120: 3.
Butler, G.P., Krouse, R.H. and Mitchell, R. 1973. Sulphur isotope
geochemistry of an arid, supratidal evaporite environment, Trucial
Coast, p. 471, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf. Springer-Verlag,
New York.
Cabaco, S., Santos, R. and Duarte, C.M. 2008. The impact of sediment
burial and erosion on seagrasses: A review. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science 79: 354-366.
Calbet, A. 2008. The trophic roles of microzooplankton in marine systems.
ICES Journal of Marine Science 65: 325-331.
Calbet, A. and Landry, M.R. 2004. Phytoplankton growth,
microzooplankton grazing, and carbon cycling in marine systems.
Limnology and Oceanography 49: 51-57.
Calleja, M.L., Barrón, C., Hale, J.A., Frazer, T.K. and Duarte, C.M. 2006.
Light regulation of benthic sulfate reduction rates mediated by
seagrass (Thalassia testudinum) Metabolism. Estuaries and Coasts 29:
1255-1264.
Camp, E., Suggett, D.J., Gendron, G., Jompa, A., Manfrino, C. and Smith, D.J.
2016. Mangrove and seagrass beds provide dierent biogeochemical
services for corals threatened by climate change. Front. Mar. Sci 3: 52.
Campbell, A. and Dawes, J. 2005. Encyclopedia of underwater life (1st
edition). Oxford University Press, London.
Campbell, A., Kapos, V., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Bubb, P., Chenery, A., Coad,
L., Dickson, B., Doswald, N., Khan, M.S.I., Kershaw, F. and Rashid,
M. 2009. Review of the literature on the links between biodiversity
and climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation. CBD
Technical Series 42, 124 p.
Campbell, J.E., Lacey, E.A., Decker, R.A., Crooks, S. and Fourqurean, J.W.
2015. Carbon storage in seagrass beds of Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates. Estuaries and Coasts 38: 242-251.
Campbell, J.L., Mitchell, M.J., Groman, P.M., Christenson, L.M. and
Hardy, J.P. 2005. Winter in northeastern North America: A critical
period for ecological processes. Front. Ecol. Environ 3: 314-322.
Carlson Jr., P.R., Yarbro, L.A., Peterson, B.J., Ketron, A., Arnold, H. and
Madley, K.A. 2002. The inuence of sediment sulde on the
structure of south Florida seagrass communities, pp. 215-217, in
Greening, H.S. (ed.). Proceedings, seagrass management: It’s not just
nutrients! Tampa Bay Estuary Program, St. Petersburg, Florida, 246 p.
Carpenter, K., Krupp, F., Jones, D.J. and Zajonz, U. 1996. FAO Species
indentication guide for shery purposes. The Living Marine
Resources of Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar and the
United Arab Emirates. FAO.
Carpenter, K.E., Harrison, P.L., Hodgson, G., Alsaar, A.H. and Alhazeem,
S.H. 1997. The corals and coral reef shes of Kuwait. Kuwait Institute
for Scientic Research, Kuwait, 166 p.
Carpenter, K.E., Krupp, F., Jones, D.A. and Zajonz, U. 1997. FAO species
identication eld guide for shery purposes. The living marine
resources of Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and the
United Arab Emirates. FAO species identication eld guide for
shery purposes. The living marine resources of Kuwait, Eastern
Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.
Carr, A.F. 1986. Rips, FADs and little loggerheads. BioScience 236: 92-100.
Carr, A.F. 1987. New perspectives on the pelagic stage of sea turtle
development. Conservation Biology 1: 103-121.
Carr, M. 2000. Marine protected areas: Challenges and opportunities
for understanding and conserving coastal marine ecosystems.
Environmental Conservation, 27(2): 106-109.
Carruba, R.W. and Bowers, J.Z. 1982. Englebert Kaempfer’s rst report of
the torpedo sh of the Persian Gulf in the late 17th century. Journal of
the History of Biology 15: 263-274.
Carson, H.S., Colbert, S.L., Kaylor, M.J. and McDermid, K.J. 2011. Small
plastic debris changes water movement and heat transfer through
beach sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 1708-1713.
Carter, R. 2005. The history and prehistory of pearling in the Persian Gulf.
J. Econ. Soc. Hist. Orient 48: 139-209.
Carter, R.A. 2006. Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf
during 6th and 5th millennia BC. Antiquity 80: 52-63.
Castro, J.I. 1996. Biology of the blacktip shark, Carcharhinus limbatus, o
the southeastern United States. Bulletin of Marine Science 59: 508-522.
Cathleen, B. 2011. Ichthyology at the Florida Museum of Natural History.
Florida Museum of Natural History.
Cava, F.M., Robinson, J.H. and Earle, S.A. 1993. Should the Arabian
(Persian) Gulf become a marine sanctuary? Oceanus 36: 53-62.
CDE. 1984. Environmental analysis, Qatif Home Ownership Project.
Final draft environmental report prepared for Consulting and Design
Engineering by Saudi Arabian Tetra Tech. for the Arabian American
Oil Company.
Center for Environment and Water, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Research Institute. 2007. Study of Al-Khafji seawater
quality and marine habitats. Technical Report, 214 p.
Chalker, B.E. and Barnes, D.J. 1990. Gamma densitometry for the
measurement of skeletal density. Coral Reefs 9: 11-23.
Chan, E.H. 2013. A report on the rst 16 years of a long-term marine
turtle conservation project in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Conservation
Biology 2(2): 129-135.
Chang, H.H., 1979. Minimum stream power and river channel patterns.
Journal of Hydrology 41: 303-327.
Chao, S-Y., Kao, T.W. and Al-Hajri, K.R. 1992. A numerical investigation
of circulation in the Arabian Gulf. J. Geophys. Res. 97(C7): 11219-
11236.
Chapagain, A.K. and Hoekstra, A.Y. 2004. Water footprints of nations, Vol.
1: Main Report. Value of Water Research Report Series Number 16,
UNESCO-IHE Institute of Water Education, Delft, the Netherlands.
Chapman, A.D. 2009. Numbers of living species in Australia and the
World. (2nd edition). Commonwealth of Australia, Australia.
Chapman, P.M. 2001. Utility and relevance of aquatic oligochaetes in
ecological risk assessment. Hydrobiologia 463: 149-169.
Chapman, R.W. 1978. General information on the Arabian Peninsula, pp.
4-30, in Al-Sayyari, S.S. and Zotl, J.G. (eds.). Quaternary Period in
Saudi Arabia. Springer Verlag. Vienna.
Chen, W., Almatar, S., Alsaar, A. and Yousef, A. 2013. Retained and
discarded bycatch from Kuwait’s shrimp shery. Aquatic Science and
Technology 1: 86-100.
Cheung, W.W.L., Lam, V.W.Y., Sarmiento, J.L., Kearney, K., Watson, R. and
580
REFERENCES
Pauly, D. 2009. Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under
climate change scenarios. Fish and Fisheries 10: 235-251.
Cicin-Sain, B. and Knecht, R.W. 1998. Integrated coastal and ocean
management: Concepts and practices. Island Press, Washington, D.C.,
499 p.
Chilvers, B.L., Delean, S., Gales, N.J., Holley, D.K., Lawler, I.R., Marsh,
H. and Preen, A.R. 2004. Diving behaviour of dugongs, Dugong
dugon. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 304: 203-
224.
Chisti, Y. 2007. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv. 25: 294-306.
Church, J.A., Gregory, J.M., Huybrechts, P., Kuhn, M., Lambeck, K.,
Nhuan, M.T., Qin, D. and Woodworth, P.L. 2001. Changes in sea
level in climate change 2001: The scientic basis, pp. 641-693, in
Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P.,
Dai, X., Maskell, K. and Johnson, C.I. (eds.). Contribution of Working
Group I to the 3rd assessment report of the intergovernmental panel
on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Claereboudt, M.R. 2006. Reef corals and coral reefs of the Gulf of Oman.
Al-Roya Publishing, Muscat.
Clark, A.H. and Le Baron Bowen Jr., R. 1949. Echinoderms of Tarut Bay
and vicinity, Saudi Arabia with notes on their occurrence. American
Museum Novitiates, New York 1390: 1-20.
Clarke, D.G., Homziak, J., Lazor, R., Palermo, M.R., Banks, G.E., Benson,
H.A., Johnson, B.H., Smith-Dozier, T., Revelas, G. and Dardeau,
M.R. 1990. Engineering design and environmental assessment of
dredged material overow from hydraulically lled hopper barges in
Mobile Bay, Alabama. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Miscellaneous Paper D-90-4.
Clarke, M.W.H. and Keij, A.S. 1973. Organisms as producers of carbonate
sediment and indicators of environment in the southern Persian
Gulf beaches, pp. 32-56, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf.
Springer-Verlag, New York.
Clayton, D. and Pilcher, C. 1983. Kuwait’s natural history: An introduction.
Kuwait Oil Company, Ahmadi, Kuwait.
Clayton, D.A. 1986. Ecology of mud ats with particular reference to
those of the northern Arabian Gulf, pp. 83-96, in Halwagy, R.,
Clayton, D.A. and Behbehani, M. (eds.). Proceedings of First Arabian
Gulf Conference on Environment and Pollution, Kuwait, February
7-9, 1982, Alden Press, Oxford.
Clerk, O.D. and Coppejans, E. 1996. Marine algae of the Jubail Marine
Wildlife Sanctuary, Saudi Arabia, pp. 199-289, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada,
A.H. and Nader L.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the
Arabian Gulf. Environmental research and conservation following
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyad and Senckenberg
Research Institute, Frankfurt, Germany.
Cloern, J.E. 2001. Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal
eutrophication problem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 210: 223-253.
Coles, S.L. 1988. Limitations of reef coral development in the Persian Gulf:
Temperature or algal competition? Proceedings of the 6th International
Coral Reef Symposium 3: 211-216.
Coles, S.L. 2003. Coral species diversity and environmental factors in the
Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman: A comparison to the Indo-
Pacic region. Atoll Res. Bull. 507: 1-19.
Coles, S.L. and Gunay, N. 1989. Tar pollution on Saudi Arabian Gulf
beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin 01/1989; DOI: 10.1016/0025-
326X(89)90433-5.
Coles, S.L. and Fadlallah, Y.H. 1991. Cold induced reef coral mortality in
the Arabian Gulf: New lower temperature limits to coral survival.
Coral Reefs 9: 231-237.
Coles, S.L. and Fadlallah, Y.H. 1991. Reef coral survival and mortality at
low temperatures in the Arabian Gulf: New species-specic lower
temperature limits. Coral Reefs 9(23): 1-237.
Coles, S.L. and McCain, J.C. 1990. Environmental factors aecting
benthic infaunal communities of the western Arabian Gulf. Mar.
Environmental Res 29: 289-315.
Coles, S.L. and Tarr, A.B. 1990. Reef sh assemblage in the western
Arabian Gulf: A geographically isolated population in an extreme
environment. Bulletin of Marine Science 47: 696-720.
Collenette, S. 1985. An illustrated guide to the ora of Saudi Arabia.
Scorpion Publishing Ltd., London.
Conner, W.G. and Simon, J.L. 1979. The eects of oyster shell dredging on
an estuarine community. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Sci. 9: 749-758.
Connor, R.C., Richards, A.F., Smolke, R.A. and Mann, J. 1996. Patterns
of female’s attractiveness in Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphins.
Behaviour 133(37-69).
Cookson, P., Shoji, T. and Jupp, B.P. 2002. A review of 10 years of scientic
studies on mangroves in Oman, pp. 58-65, in Javed, S. and de Souza,
A.G. (eds.). Research and management options for mangrove and
saltmarsh ecosystems. ERWDA, Abu Dhabi.
Córdoba, R. and Vargas J.A. 1996. Temperature, salinity, oxygen and
nutrient proles a 200 m deep station in Golfo Dulce, Pacic coast
of Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 44(Suppl. 3): 233-236.
Cormack, C.D., Hale, J.A., Gabriel, J.J. and Langman, O. 2011. Nasima
and oil — Do they mix? Assessing crab survival in oiled sediments.
Proceedings of the 2011 International Oil Spill Conference,
American Petroleum Institute, 11 p.
Cornes, M.D. and Cornes, C.D. 1989. The wild owering plants of
Bahrain. An illustrated eld guide. Immel Publishing, London.
Cornwall, P.B. 1946. Ancient Arabia: Explorations in Hasa, 1940-1941.
Geogr. J. 107: 28-50.
Cortes, E. 2002. Incorporating uncertainty into demographic modeling:
Application to shark populations and their conservation. Conservation
Biology 16: 1048-1062.
Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., deGroot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon,
B., Limberg, K., Noeem, S., O’Neill, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G.,
Sutton, P. and Vanden Belt, M. 1997. The value of the world
ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260.
Coull, B.C. and Bell, S.S. 1979. Perspectives of marine meiofaunal ecology,
pp. 189-216, in Livingston, R.J. (ed.). Ecological processes in coastal
and marine ecosystems. Plenum Press, New York.
Courtneay, W.R., Harig, B.C. and Loisel, G.R. 1972. Ecological monitor ing
of two beach nourishment projects in Broward County, Florida.
Shore and Beach 40(2): 8-13.
COWI. 2008. http://www.cowi.com/menu/service/WaterandEnviron
ment/
Waterandnaturalresourcesmanagement/Integratedwaterresour
cesmanagement/Documents/EIA_QatarBahrainCauseway.pdf.
Crossland, C.J. 1981. Seasonal growth of Acropora cf formosa and
Pocillopora damicornis on a high latitude reef (Houtman Abrolhos,
Western Australia). Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef
Symposium, Vol. 1, pp. 663-667.
Cullen-Unsworth, L. and Unsworth, R. 2013. Seagrass meadows,
ecosystem services, and sustainability, environment. Science and Policy
for Sustainable Development 55(3): 14-28.
Culotta, W.A. and Pickwell, G.V. 1993. The venomous sea snakes: A
comprehensive bibliography. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar,
Florida, USA.
Curtis, R., Evans, G., Kinsman, D.J. and Shearman, D.J. 1963. Association
of dolomite and anhydrite in the recent sediments of the Persian
Gulf. Nature 197: 679-680.
Dalla Via, J., Sturmbauer, C., Schonweger, G., Sotz, E., Mathekowitsch,
S., Stifter, M. and Rieger, R. 1998. Light gradients and meadow
structure in Posidonia oceanica: Ecomorphological and functional
correlates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 163: 267-278.
Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Meisner, C., Wheeler, D. and Yan, J. 2007. The
impact of sea level rise on developing countries: A comparative
analysis. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4136.
Dauvin, J.C. 1998. The ne sand Abra alba community of the Bay of
Morlaix twenty years after the Amoco Cadiz oil spill. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 36: 669-676.
581
REFERENCES
Davenport, J. 1997. Temperature and the life-history strategies of sea
turtles. Journal of Thermal Biology 22(6): 479-88.
Davis, F.M. 1925. Quantitative studies on the fauna of the sea bottom. No.
2. Results of the investigations in the Southern North Sea. 1921-24.
Fisheries Investigation. Series II(8): 1-50.
Davis, J.M. and Payne, P. 1984. Supply of organic matter to the sediment in
the North Sea during a spring phytoplankton bloom. Marine Biology
78: 315-324.
Dawoud, M.A. and Al-Mulla, M.M. 2012. Environmental impact of
seawater desalination: Arabian Gulf case study. International Journal of
Environment and Sustainability 1(3): 22-37.
De Clerck, O. and Coppejans, E. 1996. Marine algae of the Jubail marine
wildlife sanctuary, Saudi Arabia, pp. 199-286, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada,
A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the
Arabian Gulf: Environmental research and conservation following
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg
Research Institute, Frankfurt, Germany.
De Grave, S., Pentche, N.D., Ahyong, S.T., Chan, T., Crandall, K.A.,
Dworschak, P.C., Felder, D.L., Feldmann, R.M., Fransen, C.H.J.,
Goulding, L.Y.D., Lemaitre, R., Low, M.E.Y., Martim, J.W., Ng,
P.K.L., Schweitzer, C.E., Tan, S.H., Tshudy, D. and Wetzer, R. 2009.
A classication of living and fossil genera of Decapod Crustaceans.
Raes Bulletin of Zoology 21: 1-109.
De Groot, S.J. 1986. Marine sand and gravel extraction in the North
Atlantic and its potential environmental impact, with emphasis on
the North Sea. Ocean Management 10: 21-36.
De Jong, R., van Gelderen, P., Lindo, M. and Fernandez, J. 2005. Duabai’s
extreme reclamations. CEDA Dredging Days 2005 Conference,
November 2-4, 2005, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
de la Torre-Castro, M. 2006. Humans and seagrasses in East Africa —
A social-ecological systems approach. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to
Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden.
de la Torre-Castro, M. and Ronnback, P. 2004. Links between humans and
seagrasses An example from tropical East Africa. Ocean and Coastal
Management 47(7-8): 361-387.
de Mora, S., Fowler, S.W., Wyse, E. and Azemard, S. 2004. Distribution of
heavy metals in marine bivalves, sh and coastal sediments in the
Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Marine Pollution Bulletin 49: 410-424.
de Mora, S., Tolosa, I., Fowler, S.W., Villeneuve, J.P., Cassi, R. and
Cattini, C. 2010. Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons and
organochlorinated contaminants in marine biota and coastal
sediments from the ROPME Sea area during 2005. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 60: 2323-2349.
de Silva, A. 1994. An account of the sea snakes Serpentes: Hydrophiidae
of Sri Lanka. Chapter 8, pp. 234-249, in Gopalakrishnakone, P. (ed.).
Sea snake toxinology. National University of Singapore, Singapore.
De Troch, M., Mees, J., Papadopoulos, I. and Wakwabi, E.O. 1996. Fish
communities in a tropical bay (Gazi bay Kenya): Seagrass beds vs.
unvegetated areas. Netherland Journal of Zoology 46(3-4): 236-252.
Dean, H.K. 2008. The use of polychaetes (Annelida) as indicator species
of marine pollution: A review. Revista de Biología Tropical 56(4): 11-38.
Defense Mapping Agency, USA. 1975. Sailing directions for the Persian
Gulf: Defense Mapping Agency. Hydrographic Center, Washington,
D.C., 352 p.
Deil, U. 1998. Coastal and sabkha vegetation, pp. 209-228, in. Ghazanfar,
S.A. and Fisher, M. (eds.). Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. and Sargatal, J. (eds.). 1996. Handbook of the birds
of the world. Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 821 p.
Den Hartog, C. 1970. The sea grasses of the world. North Holland
Publishing Company, Amsterdam. London, 275 p.
DeNicola, E., Aburizaiza, O., Siddique, A., Khwaja, H. and Carpenter, D.
2015. Climate change and water scarcity: The case of Saudi Arabia.
Annals of Global Health 81 (3): 342-353.
Dennison, W.C., Orth, R.J., Moore, K.A., Stevenson, J.C., Carter, V., Kollar,
S., Bergstrom, P.W. and Batiuk, R.A. 1993. Assessing water quality
with submersed aquatic vegetation. Bioscience 43: 86-94.
Department of Marine Fisheries. 2010. Fisheries statistics of Saudi Arabia.
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Marine Fisheries.
Desprez, M. 1992. Bilan de dix annees de suivi de l’impact biosedimentaire
de l’extraction de graves marins au large de Dieppe. Comparaison
avec d’autres sites. Rapport Groupe d’tude des Milieux Estuariens
et Littoraux GEMEL. St Valery/Somme. (Cited in Report of the
working group on the eects of extraction of marine sediments on
sheries. ICES Report No. CM 1993/E:7 Marine Environmental
Quality Committee, 51-67).
Devlin, M.J. and Brodie, J. 2005. Terrestrial discharge into the Great Barrier
Reef lagoon: Nutrient behaviour in coastal waters. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 51: 9-22.
Diaz, R.J. 1994. Response of tidal fresh water macrobenthos to sediment
disturbance. Hydrobiologia 278: 201-212.
DiGiano, F.A., Miller, C.T. and Yoon, J. 1995. Dredging Elutriate Test
Development. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi, Contract Report D-95-1.
Dodd Jr., C.K. 1988. Synopsis of the biological data on the loggerhead
sea turtle Caretta caretta Linnaeus 1758. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol.
Rep. 88: 110.
Dodd, R.S., Blasco, F., Rai, Z.A. and Torquebiau, E. 1999. Mangroves of
the United Arab Emirates: Ecotypic diversity in cuticular waxes at
the bioclimatic extreme. Aquatic Botany 63: 291-304.
Dodson, N.J. 2005. Geomorphology, sediment sources, and accumulation
rates on Arabian intertidal ats: Determined from an oil spill along
the northeast coast of Saudi Arabia. M.S. Thesis, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA, 113 p.
Doney, S.C., Ruckelshaus, M., Duy, J.E., Barry J.P., Chan, F., English,
C.A., Galindo, H.M., Grebmeier, J.M., Hollowed, A.B., Knowlton,
N., Polovina, J., Rabalais, N.N., Sydeman, W.J. and Talley, L.D. 2011.
Climate change impacts on marine ecosystems. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci.
4: 11-37.
Doody, J.P. 1992. Sea defense and nature conservation: Threat or
opportunity: Aquatic conservation. Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
2(3): 275-283.
Dorgham, M.M. 2013. Plankton research in the ROPME Sea Area,
achievements and gaps. International Journal of Environmental Research
7(3): 767-778.
Dorgham, M.M., Abdel-Aziz, N.E. and El-Sherbiny, M.O. 2008.
Zooplankton in the ROPME Sea Area, Winter 2006. Report to
ROPME, Safat, Kuwait, 259 p.
Dorgham, M.M., El-Samra, M.I. and Moustafa, T.H. 1987. Phytoplankton
in an area of multi-polluting factors west of Alexandria, Egypt. Qatar
Univ. Sci. Bull. 7: 393-419.
Downing, N. 1985. Coral reef communities in an extreme environment:
The northwestern Arabian Gulf. Proceedings of the 5th International
Coral Reef Congress, Vol. 6, pp. 343-348.
Downing, N. 1988. The coral reefs and coral islands of Kuwait. Proc.
ROPME Workshop Coastal Area Devel. GC-5/006, pp. 74-77.
Downing, N. 1992. Kuwait’s coral reefs: What future after the Gulf war? 7th
International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 2: 959-968.
Downing, N. and Roberts, C. 1993. Has the Gulf War aected coral reefs
of the Northwestern Gulf? Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 149-156.
Downing, N. and El-Zahr, C.R., 1987. Gut evacuation and lling rates
in the rock-boring sea urchin, Echinometra mathaei. Bull. Mar. Sci.
41: 579-584.
Downs, C.A., Richmond, R.H., Mendiola, W.J., Rougee, L. and Ostrander,
G.K. 2006. Cellular physiological eects of the MV Kyowa Violet
fuel-oil spill on the hard coral, Porites lobata. Environ Toxicol Chem
25: 3171-3180.
Drechsler, P. 2011. Places of contact, spheres of interaction: The ’Ubaid
phenomenon in the central Gulf area as seen from a rst season of
582
REFERENCES
reinvestigations at Dosariyah (Dawsariyyah), Eastern Province, Saudi
Arabia. Proc. Semin. Arab. Stud. 41: 69-82.
Duarte, C.M. 1990. Seagrass nutrient content. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 67: 201-
207.
Duarte, C.M. 1992. Nutrient concentration of aquatic plants: Patterns
across species. Limnology and Oceanography 37: 882-889.
Duarte, C.M. 1995. Submerged aquatic vegetation in relation to dierent
nutrient regimes. Ophelia (Dinamarca) 41: 87-112.
Duarte, C.M. 2002. The future of seagrass meadows. Environmental
Conservation 29: 192-206.
Duarte, C.M. 2010. Marine biodiversity and ecosystem services: An elusive
link. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 250: 117-131.
Duarte, C.M. and Chiscano, C.L. 1999. Seagrass biomass and production:
A reassessment. Aquatic Botany 65: 159-174.
Duarte, C.M., Losada, I.J., Hendriks, I.E., Mazarrasa, I. and Marbà, N. 2013.
The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation
and adaptation. Nature Climate Change 3: 961-968.
Duarte, C.M., Marbà, N., Gacia, E., Fourqurean, J.W., Beggins, J., Barrón,
C. and Apostolaki, E.T. 2010. Seagrass community metabolism:
Assessing the carbon sink capacity of seagrass meadows, Global
Biogeochemical Cycles 24(4).
Duarte, C.M., Middelburg, J.J. and Caraco, N. 2005. Major role of marine
vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle. Biogeosciences 2(1): 1-8.
Duy, J.E. 2006. Biodiversity and the functioning of seagrass ecosystems.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 311: 233-250.
Dunson, W.A. 1975. The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press,
Baltimore.
Dunson, W.A. and Ehlert, G.W. 1971. Eects of temperature, salinity, and
surface water ow on distribution of the sea snake Pelamis. Limnology
and Oceanography 16: 845-853.
Dunton, K.H. 1990. Production ecology of Ruppia maritima L. s.l. and
Halodule wrightii Aschers. in two subtropical estuaries. J. E x p. M a r.
Biol. Ecol. 143: 147-164.
Durako, M.J., Kenworthy, W.J., Fatemy, S.M.R., Valavi, H. and Thayer,
G.W. 1993. Assessment of the toxicity of Kuwait crude oil on the
photosynthesis and respiration of seagrasses of the Northern Gulf.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 223-227.
Ealey, T.A., Holmes, P., Abu Sitta, H., Kelly, P. and Williams, I. 1999.
Lagoon residential and recreational developments case study 1: Al
Khaleej Village, Saudi Arabia. Environmental Studies 3: 615-633.
Eapen, P.K. 1982. Fisheries of Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Agriculture and
Water, Agriculture Research Department.
Eckert, K.L., Wallace, B.P., Frazier, J.G., Eckert, S.A. and Pritchard, P.C.H.
2012. Synopsis of the biological data on the leatherback sea turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological
Technical Publication. BTP-R4015-2012, Washington, D.C.
Edmunds, P.J. and Carpenter, R.C. 2001. Recovery of Diadema antillarum
reduces macroalgal cover and increases abundance of juvenile corals
on a Caribbean reef. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 5067-5071.
Eftekhar, M., Savari, A., Rezia, H., Mahoori, A.R. and Zare, R. 2011.
Temporal and spatial distribution of Urochordata around Hormuz
Island, the RSA. Iran. Scient. Disher. J. 20: 159-166.
Eghtesadi-Araghi, P. 2011. Coral reefs in the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea:
An integrated perspective on some important stressors. Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Science 6: 48.
Einoder, L.D. 2009. A review of the use of seabirds as indicators in sheries
and ecosystem management. Fisheries Research 95: 6-13.
Eisler, R. 2000. Handbook of chemical risk assessment health hazards
to humans, plants, and animals. Vol. 1-3, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, USA.
El Samra, M.I. 1988. Chemical observations in the Arabian Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientic Research. Special publication
6(2): 205-215.
El Samra, M.I., Emara, H.I. and Shunbo, E. 1986. Dissolved petroleum
hydrocarbon in the northwestern Arabian Gulf. Mar. Poll. Bull. 17:
65-68.
El-Amry, M. 1998. Population structure, demography and life tables of
Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. at sites on the eastern and western
coasts of the United Arab Emirates. Marine and Freshwater Research
49: 303-308.
El-Ghonemy, A.A. 1985. Ecology and ora of Al Ain region. Vol. 1:
Ecology and monocotyledons Al Ain. The University of the United
Arab Emirates Al-Wahda Printing Press.
El-Gindy, A.A.H. and Dorgham, M.M. 1992. Interrelations of
phytoplankton, chlorophyll and physicochemical factors in Arabian
Gulf of Oman during summer. Ind. J. Mar. Sci., 21: 251-267.
Elhakeem, A., Elshorbagy, W. and Bleninger, T. 2015. Long-term
hydrodynamic modeling of the Arabian Gulf. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 94(1-2): 19-36.
El-Raey, M. 2009. Coastal Areas, pp. 47-62, in Tolba, M.K. and Saab, N.W.
(eds.). Arab environment: Climate change. Impact of climate change
on Arab countries. Arab Forum for Environment and Development
(AFED).
El-Serehy, H.A. 1999. Species composition and community structure of
zooplankton in the Emirates coastal water on the RSA. J. Union Arab
Biol. 12: 113-125.
Elshorbagy, W., Azam, M.H. and Taguchi, K. 2006. Hydrodynamic
characterization and modelling of the Arabian Gulf. ASCE J. Water
Way Ports Coastal Ocean Eng. 132: 47-56.
Emery, K.O. 1956. Sediments and water of the Persian Gulf. Bulletin of the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists 40: 2354-2383.
Engler, R.E. 2012. The complex interaction between marine debris and
toxic chemicals in the ocean. Environmental Science and Technology 46:
12302-12315.
Enomoto, Y. 1971. Oceanographic survey and biological study of shrimp
in the waters adjacent to the eastern coasts of the State of Kuwait.
Bulletin of Tokai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory 66: 1-74.
Enríquez, S., Agustí, S. and Duarte, C.M. 1994. Light absorption by marine
macrophytes. Oecologia 98: 121-129.
Erftemeijer, P.A. and Lewis, R.R.R. 2006. Environmental impacts of
dredging on seagrass: A review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 52: 1553-1572.
Erftemeijer, P.L., Riegl, B., Hoeksema, B.W. and Todd, P.A. 2012.
Environmental impacts of dredging and other sediment disturbances
on corals: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64: 1737-1765.
Erftenmeijer, P.L.A. and Shuail, D.A. 2012. Seagrass habitats in the Arabian
Gulf: Distribution, tolerance thresholds and threats. Aquatic Ecosystem
Health and Management 15: 73-83.
Eskoubi, K.M. and Al Aila, A. 1985. Thaj excavations, second season,
1404/1984. Atlal 9: 41-53.
Essen, M. 1996. A survey of the sheries in the Jubail marine wildlife
sanctuary, pp. 459-479, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader,
I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Euzen, O. 1987. Food habits and diet composition of some sh of Kuwait.
Kuwait Bulletin of Marine Science 9: 65-85.
Evans, G., Murray, J.W., Biggs, H.E.J., Bate, R. and Bush, P.R. 1973. The
oceanography, ecology, sedimentology and geomorphology of the
Trucial Coast barrier island complex, Persian Gulf, pp. 233-277, in
Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Evans, G. and Kirkham, A. 2002. The Abu Dhabi sabkhat. Distribution of
sabkhat in the Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries, p. 353, in
Barth, H-J. and Böer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Evans, G., Kendall, C.G. and Skipwith, P.A. 1964. Origin of the coastal
ats, the sabkha of the Trucial Coast, Persian Gulf. Nature 202(4934):
759-761.
Evans, G., Kirkham, A. and Carter, R.A. 2002 Quaternary development
583
REFERENCES
of the United Arab Emirates coast: New evidence from Marawah
Island, Abu Dhabi. GeoArabia 7(3): 441-458.
Evans, M.I. (ed.). 1994. Important bird areas of the Middle East. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 2, BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.
Evans, M.I., Symens, P. and Pilcher, C.W.T. 1993. Short-term damage to
coastal bird’s populations in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait following the
1991 Gulf War. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 157-161.
Evans-Roberts, D.J. 1979. Tides in the Persian Gulf. Consulting Engineer
43(6): 46-48.
EVS. 1997. Release of contaminants from resuspended particulate matter.
White Paper, EVS.
Fabi, G., Grati, F., Puletti, M. and Scarcella, G. 2004. Eects on sh
community induced by installation of two gas platforms in the
Adriatic Seaf. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 273: 187-197.
Fabry, V.J., Seibel, B.A., Feely, R.A. and Orr, J.C. 2008. Impacts of ocean
acidication on marine fauna and ecosystem processes. ICES Journal
of Marine Science 65: 414-432.
Facey, W. 1994. The story of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Stacey
International, London.
Fadlallah, Y.H. and Lindo, R.T. 1988. Contrasting cycles of reproduction
in Stylophora pistillata from the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, with
emphasis on temperature. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral
Reef Symposium, August 8-12, 1988, Townsville, Australia, Vol. 3, pp.
225-230.
Fadlallah, Y.H., Allen, K.W. and Estudillo, R.A. 1995. Mortality of shallow
reef corals in the western Arabian Gulf following aerial exposure in
winter. Coral Reefs 14: 99-107.
Fadlallah, Y.H., Eakin, M., Allen, K., Rahim, R., Reaka-Kudla, M. and
Earle, S. 1993. Reef coral distribution and reproduction, community
structure, and reef health (Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait):
Results of the RIV Mt. Mitchell Cruise. Proceedings of the Scientic
Workshop on the Results of the Mt. Mitchell Cruise in the ROPME
Sea Area. January 1993, Kuwait, pp. 1-26.
FAO. 1982. Assessment of the shrimp stocks of the west coast of the Gulf
between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. Fisheries Development in
the Gulf. FI:DP/RAB/80/015.
FAO. 2004. Fishery and aquaculture country proles. Saudi Arabia, in
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (online).
FAO. 2006. Review of the state of world marine capture sheries
management: Indian Ocean. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No:
488, 458 p.
Farooque, A.M., Jamaluddin, A.T.M., Al-Reweli, A.R., Jalaluddin, P.A.M.,
Al-Marwani, S.M., Al-Mobayed, A.A. and Qasim, A.H. 2008.
Parametric analyses of energy consumptions and losses in SWCC
SWRO plants utilizing energy recovery devices. Desalination 219:
137-159.
Fath, H., Sadik, A. and Mezhera, T. 2013. Present and future trend in the
production and energy consumption of desalinated water in GCC
countries. Int. J. of Thermal and Environmental Engineering 5(2): 155-
165.
Fauvelot, C. and Borsa, P. 2011. Patterns of genetic isolation in a widely
distributed pelagic sh, the narrow-barred Spanish mackerel
(Scomberomorus commerson). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
104: 886-902.
Faye, B. 1993. Mangrove, sécheresse et dromadaire. Sécheresse 4: 47-55.
Feary, D.A., Burt, J.A., Bauman, A.G., Usseglio, P., Sale, P.F. and Cavalcante,
G.H. 2010. Fish communities on the world’s warmest reefs: What
can they tell us about the eects of climate change in the future?
Journal of Fish Biology 77: 1931-1947.
Feary, D.A., Burt, J.A. and Bartholomew, A. 2011. Articial marine habitats
in the Arabian Gulf: Review of current use, benets and management
implications. Ocean and Coastal Management 54: 742-749.
Feary, D.A., Burt, J.A., Bauman, A.G., Al Hazeem, S., Abdel-Moati,
M.A., Al-Khalifa, K.A., Anderson, D.M., Amos, C., Baker, A. and
Bartholomew, A. 2013. Critical research needs for identifying future
changes in Gulf coral reef ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 72:
406-416.
Fenaux, R. 1973. Appendicularia from the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea
and the Persian Gulf, pp. 409-414, in Zeirtzschel, B. (ed.). Ecological
studies, analysis and synthesis. Vol. 3. Biology of the Indian Ocean.
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Fenchel, T. 1969. The ecology of marine macrobenthos. IV. Structure
and function of the benthic ecosystem, its chemical and physical
factors and the microfauna communities with special reference to
the ciliated protozoa. Ophelia 6: 1-182.
Fergusson, I.K., Compagno, L.J.V. and Marks, M. 2000. Predation by white
sharks Carcharodon carcharias (Chondrichthyes: Lamnidae) upon
chelonians, with new records from the Mediterranean Sea and a rst
record of the ocean sunsh Mola mola (Osteichthyes: Molidae) as
stomach contents. Environmental Biology of Fishes 58: 447-453.
Fernandez-Tajes, J., Florez, F., Pereira, S., Rabade, T., Laon, B. and Mendez,
J. 2011. Use of three bivalve species for biomonitoring a polluted
estuarine environment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
177(1-4): 289-300.
Fernández-Torquemada, Y., Gónzalez-Correa, J.M. and Sánchez-Lizaso,
J.L. 2012. Echinoderms as indicators of brine discharge impacts.
Desalination and Water Treatment 51(1-3): 567-573.
Feyrer, F., Newman, K., Nobriga, M. and Sommer, T. 2010. Modeling
the eects of future outow on the abiotic habitat of an imperiled
estuarine sh. Estuaries and Coasts. Published online. September 2010.
Ficetola, G.F. 2008. Impacts of human activities and predators on the
nest success of the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, in the
Arabian Gulf. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 7(2): 255-257.
Ficetola, G.F. 2007. The inuence of beach features on nesting of the
hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata in the Arabian Gulf. Oryx
41: 402-405.
Field, C.B., Behrenfeld, M.J., Randerson, J.T. and Falkowski, P. 1998.
Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and
oceanic components. Science 281(5374): 237-240.
Field, R.F. 2005. Reef shes: UAE and Gulf of Oman. Motivate Publishing.
Fischlin, A., Midgley, G.F., Price, J., Leemans, R., Gopal, B., Turley, C.,
Rounsevell, M., Dube, O., Tarazona, J. and Velichko, A. 2007.
Ecosystems, their properties, goods and services, pp. 211-272,
in Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group II to the 4th Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Fish, M.R., Cote, I.M., Gill, J.A., Jones, A.P., Rensho, S. and Watkinson,
A.R. 2005. Predicting the impact of sea level rise on Caribbean Sea
turtle nesting habitat. Conservation Biology 19(2): 482-491.
Fishelson, L. 1973. Ecology of coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea)
inuenced by pollution. Oecologia 12: 55-67.
Fonseca, M.S. 1989. Sediment stabilisation by Halophila decipiens in
comparison to other seagrasses. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 17:
367-380.
Fonseca, M.S. and Fisher, J.S. 1986. A comparison of canopy friction
and sediment movement between four species of seagrasses with
reference to their ecology and restoration. Marine Ecology Progressive
Series 29: 15-22.
Fookes, P.G., French, W.J. and Rice, M.N. 1985. The inuence of ground
and ground water geochemistry on construction in the Middle East.
Quarterly Journal of Engrg. Geology 18: 101-128.
Forcada, J., Hammond, P.S. and Aguilar, A. 1999. Status of the
Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus in the western
Sahara and the implications of a mass mortality event. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 188: 249-261.
Ford, E. 1923. Animal communities of the level sea bottom in the waters
adjacent to Plymouth. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the
United Kingdom 13: 164-224.
Forster, S. and Graf, G. 1995. Impact of irrigation on oxygen ux into
584
REFERENCES
the sediment: Intermittent pumping by Callianassa subterranea and
“piston pumping” by Lanice conchilega. Marine Biology 123: 246-
335.
Foster, N.M., Hudson, M.D., Bray, S. and Nicholls, R.J. 2013. Intertidal
mud at and salt marsh conservation and sustainable use in the U.K.:
A review. Journal of Environmental Management 126: 96-104.
Fouda, M.M. 1995. Status of mangrove resources in the Sultanate of
Oman. Journal of the Faculty of Science, UAE University 8: 149-168.
Fowler, S.W. 1985. Coastal baseline studies of pollutants in Bahrain, UAE
and Oman, pp. 155-180, in Proceedings of a regional symposium
for the evaluation of the marine pollution monitoring and research
programmes, ROPME/GC-4/2, Al-Ain, UAE.
Fowler, S.W. 1993. Pollution in the Gulf: Monitoring the marine
environment. IAEA Bull. 35: 9-13.
Fowler, S.W. and Knauer, G.A. 1986. Role of large particles in the
transport of elements and organic compounds through the oceanic
water column. Progress in Oceanography 16: 147-194.
Fowler, S.W., Readman, J.W., Oregioni, B., Villeneuve, J.P. and Mckay, K.
1993. Petroleum hydrocarbons and trace metals in nearshore Gulf
sediments and biota before and after the 1991 War: An assessment
of temporal and spatial trends. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 171-182.
Franks, J. 2000. A review: Pelagic shes at petroleum platforms in
the Northern Gulf of Mexico; diversity, interrelationships, and
perspective, in: Pêche Thonière et Dispositifs de Concentration de
Poissons, Caribbean-Martinique, October 15-19, 1999, pp. 502-515.
Frazzetta, T.H. 1994. Feeding mechanisms in sharks and other
elasmobranchs, pp. 31-57, in Bels, V.L., Chardon, M. and Vandewalle,
P. (eds.). Biomechanics of feeding in vertebrates. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg.
Frisk, M.G., Miller, T.J. and Fogarty, M.J. 2001. Estimation and analysis
of biological parameters in elasmobranch shes: A comparative life
history study. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 58: 969-
981.
Froese, R. and Pauly, D. (eds.). 1999. FishBase 99: Concepts, design and
data sources. ICLARM, Manila.
Frontier, S. 1963. Zooplankton récolté en Mer d’Arabie, golfe Persique
et golfe d’Aden (3° campagne océanographique du “Commandant
Robert Giraud”) : 1ère partie : données générales, répartition
quantitative. Cah. ORSTOM. Série Océanographie 6: 17-29.
Frost, T.M., Carpenter, S.R., Ives, A.R. and Kratz, T.K. 1995. Species
compensation and complementarity in ecosystem function, pp.
224-239, in Jones, C. and Lawton, J. Linking species and ecosystems.
Chapman and Hall, New York.
Fry, G.C., Milton, D.A. and Wassenberg, T.J. 2001. The reproductive
biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in northern
Australia: Characteristics important for assessing the impacts on
populations. Pacic Conservation Biology 7: 55-73.
Fuentes, M.M.P.B., Limpus, C.J. and Hamann, M. 2011. Vulnerability of
sea turtle nesting grounds to climate change. Global Change Biology
17(1): 140-153.
Furnestin, M.L. and Codaccioni, J.C. 1968. Chaetognathes du Nord-Ouest
de l’Océan Indien (golfe d’Aden, Mer d’Arabie, golfe d’Oman, golfe
Persique). Cahiers ORSTOM. Série Océanographie 6(1): 143-171.
Gab-Alla, A.A-F.A. 2008. Distribution of the sea squirt Ecteinascidia
thurstoni Herdman, 1890 (Ascidiacea: Perophoridae) along Suez
Canal and Egyptian Red Sea coasts. Oceanologia 50: 239-253.
Gallagher, M.D., Scott, D.A., Ormond, R.F.G., Connor, R.J. and Jennings,
M.C. 1984. The distribution and conservation of seabirds breeding
on the coasts and islands of Iran and Arabia. ICBP Technical Publication
2: 421-456.
Gallegos, C.L., Correll, D.L. and Pierce, J.W. 1990. Modeling spectral
diuse attenuation, absorption, and scattering coecients in a turbid
estuary. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35: 1486-1502.
Garrison, D.L., Gowing, M.M., Hughes, M.P., Campbell, L., Caron, D.A.,
Dennett, M.R., Shalapyonok, A., Olson, R.J., Landry, M.R., Brown,
S.L., Liu, H.B., Azam, F., Steward, G.F., Ducklow, H.W. and Smith,
D.C. 2000. Microbial food web structure in the Arabian Sea: A US
JGOFS study. Deep Sea Research II 47: 1387-1422.
Gasperetti, J. 1988. Snakes of the Arabia, pp. 169-450, in Büttiker, W. and
Krump, F. (eds.). Fauna of Saudi Arabia. Vol. 9. National Commission
for Wildlife Conservation and Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Gasperetti, J., Stimson, A., Miller, J.D., Ross, J.P. and Gasperetti, P. 1993.
Turtles of Arabia, pp. 170-367, in Büttiker, W. and Krump, F. (eds.).
Fauna of Saudi Arabia. Vol. 13. National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Gattuso, J-P., Gentili, B., Duarte, C.M., Kleypas, J.A., Middelburg, J.J. and
Antoine, D. 2006. Light availability in the coastal ocean: Impact
on the distribution of benthic photosynthetic organisms and their
contribution to primary production. Biogeosciences 3: 489-513.
Gavish, E. 1974. Geochemistry and mineralogy of a recent sabkha along
the coast of Sinai, Gulf of Suez. Sedimentology 21: 397-414.
Gazdar, M., Potts, D.T. and Livingstone, A. 1984. Excavations at Thaj. Atlal
8: 55-108.
George, J. and John, D. 2000. The coral reefs of Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates: Past, present and future, in Proc 2nd Arab Int Conf Exhib
Environment Biotechnol (Coastal Habitats), Abu Dhabi, UAE.
George, J.D. 2012. Reef-associated macroinvertebrates of the SE Gulf, pp.
253-308, in Riegl, B.M. and Purkis, S.J. (eds.). Coral reefs of the Gulf
— Adaptation to climatic extremes. Springer, New York.
Geraci, J.R. and St. Aubin, J. (eds.). 1988. Synthesis of eects of oil on marine
mammals. OCS Study, MMS 88-0049. Minerals Management
Service, Atlantic OCS Region, 142 p.
Gerdes, G., Spira, J. and Dimentman, C. 1985. The fauna of the Gavish
Sabkha and the Solar Lake — A comparative study, pp. 322-345, in
Friedman, G.M. and Krumbein, W.E. (eds.). Hypersaline ecosystems.
The Gavish Sabkha, Ecological Studies 53, Springer Verlag.
Gerges, M.A. 1993. On the impacts of the 1991 Gulf War on the
environment of the region: General observations. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 27: 305-314.
Gerlach, S.A. 1971. On the importance of marine meiofauna for benthos
communities. Oecologia 6: 176-190.
Gesteira, J.L.G. and Dauvin, J.C. 2000. Amphipods are good bioindicators
of the impact of oil spills on soft bottom macrobenthic communities.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 40: 1017-1027.
Getter, C.D., Ballou, T.G. and Dahlin, J.A. 1983. Preliminary results of
laboratory testing of oil and dispersants on mangroves. Proc. 1983
Oil Spill Conf., San Antonio, Texas. American Petroleum Institute 4356:
535-540.
Getter, C.D., Ballou, T.G. and Koons, C.B. 1985. Eects of dispersed oil
on mangroves — Synthesis of a seven year study. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 16: 318-324.
Ghazanfar, S.A. 1998. Plants of economic importance, pp. 241-264, in
Ghazanfar, S.A. and Fisher, M. (eds.). Vegetation of the Arabian
Peninsula. Kluwer Acadimic Publishers. Geobotany 25.
Ghazanfar, S.A. 2002. The Sabkha vegetation of Oman, pp. 99-107, in
Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Ghazanfar, S.A. 2006. Sabkhat regions of Iraq, pp. 211-217, in Khan, M.A.,
Boer, B., Kust, G.A. and Barth, H-J. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Vol. II:
West and Central Asia. Springer.
Ghazvineh, L., Valinassab, T., Savari, A. and Ghobadiyan, F. 2012.
Reproductive biology of the pharaoh cuttle Sepia pharaonis in the
Persian Gulf. World Journal of Fish and Marine Sciences 4(3): 313-319.
Ghobashy, A.F.A., Noue El-Din, N.M. and El-Sadah, S. 1994. On
zooplankton in Qatari waters. Journal of Egyptian and German Society.
Zoopl. 15: 325-345.
Giangranade, A., Licciano, M. and Musco, L. 2005. Polychaetes as
environmental indicators revisited. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50: 1153-
1162.
Gibson, V.R., Grice, G.D. and Graham, S.J. 1980. Zooplankton investigations
585
REFERENCES
in Gulf waters North and South of the Strait of Hormuz. Proceedings
of a symposium on coastal and marine environment of the Red Sea,
Gulf of Aden and Tropical Western Ocean, Vol. 3: 17-30.
Gillett, M. and Gillett, P. 2002. A winter survey of insects and other
terrestrial invertebrates on Marawah Island, Abu Dhabi. Tribulus
12(2): 12-19.
Glaser, M. 2003. Interrelations between mangrove ecosystem, local
economy and social sustainability in Caeté Estuary, North Brazil.
Wetlands Ecology and Management 11: 265-272.
Gleick, P.H. 2009. The world’s water 2008-2009. Pacic Institute for
Studies in Development, Environment and Security. Inland Press,
Washington, D.C.
Glodek, G.S. and Voris, H.K. 1982. Marine snake diets: Prey composition,
diversity and overlap. Copeia 1982: 661-666.
Glynn, P.W. 1990. Feeding ecology of selected coral-reef macroconsumers:
Patterns and eects on coral community structure. Ecosystems of the
World 25: 365-400.
Glynn, P.W., Wellington, G.M. and Birkeland, C. 1979. Coral reef growth
in the Galapagos: Limitation by sea urchins. Science 203(4375): 47-49.
Goatley, C., Hoey, A. and Bellwood, D. 2012. The role of turtles as coral
reef macroherbivores. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39979.
Gopalakrishnakone, P. 1994. Sea snake toxinology. Singapore University
Press, Singapore.
Goubanov, E.P. and Shleib, N.A. (eds.). 1980. Sharks of the Arabian
Gulf. Ministry of Public Works, Agricultural Department, Fisheries
Divisions, Kuwait.
Grabe, S.A., Price, W.W., Abdulqader, E.A.A. and Heard, R.W.J. 2004.
Shallow water Mysida (Crustacea: Mysidacea) of Bahrain (RSA):
Species composition, abundance and life history characteristics of
selected species. J. Nat. Hist. 28: 2315-2329.
Graham, J.B., Rubino, I. and Hecht, M.K. 1971. Temperature physiology
of the sea snake Pelamis platurus: An index of iits colonization
potential in the Atlantic Ocean. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 68: 1360-1363.
Grandcourt, E.M. 2012. Reef sh and sheries in the Gulf, in Riegl, B.M.
and Purkis, S.J. (eds.). Coral Reefs of the Gulf 3: 127-161. Springer, the
Netherlands.
Grandcourt, E.M., Al Abdessalaam, T.Z., Francis, F. and Al Shamsi, A.T.
2005b. Population biology and assessment of the orange-spotted
grouper, Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton 1822), in the southern
Arabian Gulf. Fisheries Research 74: 55-68.
Grandcourt, E.M., Al Abdessalaam, T.Z., Francis, F. and Al Shamsi, A.T.
2005a. Preliminary assessment of the biology and shery for the
narrow-barred Spanish mackerel, Scombomorus commerson
(Lacépède, 1800), in the southern Arabian Gulf. Fisheries Science 76:
277-290.
Grassho, K. 1976. Review of hydrographic and productivity conditions
in the Gulf region. UNESCO Tech. Pap. Marine Sci. 26: 39-62.
Grassho, K., Kremling, K. and Ehrhardt, M. (eds.). 1999. Methods of
sea water analysis. 3rd edition, 600 p., WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH,
Germany.
Grech, A., Chartrand-Miller, K., Erftemeijer, P., Fonseca, M., McKenzie,
L., Rasheed, M., Taylor, H. and Coles, R. 2012. A comparison of
threats, vulnerabilities and management approaches in global seagrass
bioregions. Environ. Res. Lett. 7(2): 024006.
Green, E.P. and Short, F.T. 2003. World atlas of seagrasses. Prepared by
the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA, 298 p.
Green, T.N., Mahmoodurrahman, M. and Al-Tisan, I. 2009. Investigation
of the cause of dead sh trapped in intake travelling screen and
pollutants in MSF/SWRO intake water, Al-Jubail desalination plants.
SWCC Saline Water Desalination Research Institute’s Technical
Report 3805/090001, 27 p.
Green, T.N., Mahmoodurrahman, M., Al-Tisan, I. and Al-Nomazi, M.
2010. Plankton blooms aect desalination processes in Al-Jubail
SWCC plants. Proceedings of the 9th Gulf Water Conference,
Sultanate of Oman, March 22-25, 11 p.
Greenlee, L.F., Lawler, D.F., Freeman, B.D., Marrot, B. and Moulin, P. 2009.
Reverse osmosis desalination: Water sources, technology, and today’s
challenges. Water Research 43(9): 2317-2348.
Gregory, G. and Al-Suhaibany, A. 2011. Chapter 10. Marine and coastal
birds, pp. 17-32, in Abdulkader, K.A. and Loughland, R.A. (eds.).
Marine atlas of the Saudi Arabian waters of the Arabian Gulf.
Published by Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Gregory, M. 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine
settings Entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers on, hitch-
hiking and alien invasions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.
364(1526): 2013-2025.
Greve, T.M. and Binzer, T. 2004. Which factors regulate seagrass growth
and distribution. European seagrasses: An introduction to monitoring
and management. Monitoring and Managing of European Seagrasses
Project (M&MS), pp. 19-23.
Grin, G.M. 1975. Dredging in the Florida Keys. Case history of a typical
dredge ll project in the northern Florida Keys. Eects on water
clarity, sedimentation rates and biota. Pub. 33. pp. 1-87. Harbor
Branch Foundation, Florida.
Grimwood, C. 1983. Eects of dredging on adjacent water. ASCE Journal
of Environmental Engineering 109(1): 47-65.
Groom, N. 1982. Gerrha — A “lost” Arabian city. Atlal 6: 97-108.
Guidetti, P., Modena, M., Mesa, G.L. and Vacchi, M. 2000. Composition,
abundance and stratication of macrobenthos in the marine area
impacted by tar aggregates derived from the Haven oil spill (Ligurian
Sea, Italy). Marine Pollution Bulletin 40: 1161-1166.
Gunderson, L.H. 2001. Managing surprising ecosystems in southern
Florida. Ecological Economic 37: 371-378.
Günther, A. 1874. A contribution to the fauna of the River Tigris. Annals
and Magazine of Natural History 4: 36-38.
Gutiérrez, J.L., Jones, C.G., Byers, J.E., Arkema, K.K., Berkenbusch,
K., Commito, J.A., Duarte, C.M., Hacker, S.D., Lambrinos, J.G.,
Hendriks, I.E., Hogarth, P.J., Palomo, M.G. and Wild, C. 2011.
Physical ecosystem engineers and the functioning of estuaries and
coasts, pp. 53-81, in Wolanski, E. and McLusky, D.S. (eds.). Treatise on
Estuarine and Coastal Science, Vol. 7, Academic Press, Waltham.
Gutterman, Y. 1993. Seed germination in desert plants. Springer-Verlag.
Haapkyla, J., Ramade, F. and Salvat, B. 2007. Oil pollution on coral reefs:
A review of the state of knowledge and management needs. Vie et
Milieu 57: 95-111.
Habbashi, B.B., Najeeb, F. and Faraj, M. 1992. Distr ibution of phytoplankton
cell abundance of chlorophyll with certain environmental factors in
the ROPME Sea Areas. Scientic Workshop on Results of the R/V
Mt. Mitchell Cruise, January 24-28. Kuwait.
Ul-Hassan, H. 1992. Immigration of Metapenaeus stebbingi, Metapenaeus
anis and Metapenaeus monoceros juveniles in the creeks and
backwaters near Karachi. Pakistan Journal of Scientic and Industrial
Research 35 (5): 190-194.
Hale, J.A., Cormack, C.D., Cotsapas, L., Montello, T.M., Langman, O.,
Gabriel, J.J. and Michel, J. 2011. Relationships between key indicators
of environmental condition and degrees of oiling in sediments in
salt marsh habitats: A balance between contamination and ecological
recovery by natural processes. Proceedings of the 2011 International
Oil Spill Conference, 12 p.
Hall, S.J. 1994. Physical disturbance and marine communities: Life in
unconsolidated sediments. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An
Annual Review, 32: 179-239.
Halwagy, R. and Halwagy, M. 1977. Ecological studies on the desert of
Kuwait. III. The vegetation of the coastal salt marshes. Journal of the
University of Kuwait Science 4: 33-74.
Hamann, M., Limpus, C.J. and Owens, D.W. 2003. Reproductive cycles of
males and females, pp. 135-161, in Lutz, P., Musick, J. and Wyneken,
J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles, Vol. II. CRC Press, New York.
586
REFERENCES
Hamed, O.A. 1992. Thermal assessment of a multiple eect boiling (MEB)
desalination system. Desalination 86: 325-339.
Hamed, O.A. 2008. Energy eciency assessment of power/water
cogeneration systems. Proceedings of the SWCC 4th Acquired
Experience Symposium, 2008/Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, June 5-7.
Hamed, O.A. 2014. Evolutionary developments of thermal desalination
plants in the Arab Gulf region. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Water Conference, 2014/Beirut, Lebanon.
Hamed, O.A. 2005. Overview of hybrid desalination systems — Current
status and future prospects. Desalination 186: 207-214.
Hamed, O.A., Akiya, T., Miyamura, H., Kannari, T. and Harada, K.
2011. Development of 7 MIGD MED-TVC distiller within the
context of tri-hybrid NF/RO/MED conguration. Proceedings
of the International Desalination Association World Congress on
Desalination and Water Reuse, 2011/Perth, Australia, September
4-9.
Hamed, O.A., Al-So, M.A.K., Mustafa, G.M., Bamardouf, K. and Al-
Washmi, H. 2001. Power/Water cogeneration cycles. Proceedings
of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse,
Manama, Bahrain.
Hamer, I. 1988. Hymenoptera highlights V. Emirates Natural History Bulletin
35: 6-12.
Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya,
T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wilson,
B. 2008a. “Tursiops aduncus.” IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2009.2, www.iucnredlist.org.
Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya,
T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wilson, B.
2008b. “Tursiops truncatus.” IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2009.2, www.iucnredlist.org.
Hampel, H., Elliot, M. and Cattrijsse, A. 2009. Macrofaunal communities
in the habitats of intertidal marshes along the salinity gradient of the
Shelde estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 84: 45-53.
Hannan, L., Roth, J., Ehrhart, L. and Weishampel, J. 2007. Dune vegetation
fertilisation by nesting sea turtles. Ecology 88(4): 1053-1058.
Harrison, P.L., Alhazeem, S.H. and Alsaar, A.H. 1997. The ecology of
coral reefs in Kuwait and the eects of stressors on corals. Kuwait
Institute for Scientic Research, Kuwait. Report No. KISR 4994,
43 p.
Harvell, C., Kim, K., Burkholder, J., Colwell, R., Epstein, P.R., Grimes,
D., Hofmann, E., Lipp, E., Osterhaus, A. and Overstreet, R.M. 1999.
Emerging marine diseases — climate links and anthropogenic
factors. Science 285: 1505-1510.
Harwood, J. 2001. Marine mammals and their environment in the 21st
century. Journal of Mammalogy 82(3): 630-640.
Hasan, A.K. 1994. A taxonomic review of the bivalve and gastropod
mollusc fauna along the Saudi intertidal zone of the Arabian Gulf.
Journal of King Abdulaziz University — Marine Sciences 7: 245-253.
Hasanean, H. and Almazroui, M. 2015. Rainfall: Features and variations
over Saudi Arabia, A review. Climate 3: 578-626
Hashimoto, S., Tsujimoto, R., Maeda, M., Ishimaru, T., Yoshida, J., Takasu,
Y., Koike, Y., Kamatani, A. and Otsuki, A. 1998. Distribution of
nutrients, nitrous oxide, and chlorophyll a of RSA: Extremly high
ratios of nitrite to nitrate in whole water column, pp. 99-124, in
Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M. (eds.). Oshore
environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the war-related oil spill
— Results of the 1993-94 Umitaka-Maru Cruises. Terra Scientic
Publishing Company, Tokyo, Japan.
Hassan, A.M. 1978. Shrimps of the coastal waters of Iraq and Kuwait
with the description of two new species of the genus Metapenaeus
(Crustacea, Decapoda, Penaeidae). Zoologicheskij Zhurnal 57(3): 385-
390.
Hastenrath, S. and Lamb, P.J. 1979. Climatic atlas of the Indian Ocean: Part
I, Surface climate and atmospheric circulation. Part II. The ocean
heat budget. Univ. of Wisconsin Press. pp. 116 and 110.
Hawkes, L.A., Broderick, A.C., Godfrey, M.H. and Godley, B.J. 2007.
Investigating the potential impacts of climate change on a marine
turtle population. Global Change Biology 13(5): 923-932.
Hawkes, L.A., Broderick, A.C., Godfrey, M.H. and Godley, B.J. 2009.
Climate change and marine turtles. Endangered Species Research 7(2):
137-54.
Hay, M.E. 1997. The ecology and evolution of seaweed-herbivore
interactions on coral reefs. Coral Reefs 16(1): S67-S76.
Hay, M.E. and Taylor, P.R. 1985. Competition between herbivorous
shes and urchins on Caribbean reefs. Oecologia 65: 591-598.
Hayes, M., Michel, J., Montello, T., Aurand, D., Al-Mansi, A., Al-Moamen,
A., Sauer, T.C. and Thayer, G. 1993. Distribution of weathering of
shoreline oil one year after the Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 27: 135-142.
Hayes, M.O. and Baird, W.F. 1993. Shoreline erosional/ depositional
patterns in Oman, pp. 144-158, in Hughes, S.A. (ed.). Coastal
engineering considerations in coastal zone management. American
Society of Civil Engineers, NY.
Hayes, M.O. and Michel, J. 2014. Sand beaches of the northeast coast
of Saudi Arabia. Posted in Beach of the Month, Features.http://
coastalcare.org/2014/04/sand-beaches-of-the-northeast-coast-of-
saudi-arabia/. Accessed June 2015.
Hayes, M.O., Gundlach, E.R. and Getter, C.D. 1980. Sensitivity ranking
of energy port shorelines, pp. 697-709, in Kraman, M.A. (ed.).
Proceedings of the Specialty Conference Ports ‘80. American Society
of Civil Engineers, Norfolk, VA, USA.
Hayes, M.O., Michel, J., Al-Mansi, A.M., Jensen, J.R., Narumalani, S.,
Aurand, D.V., Al-Momen, A.H. and Thayer, G.W. 1993. Distribution
of oil from the Gulf War spill within intertidal habitats — One year
later. Proceedings of the international oil spill conference, Florida,
USA, pp. 373-379.
Hayward, P. and Yonow, N. 1997. Miscellaneous phyla, pp. 322-325, in
Richmond, M.D. (ed.). A guide to the seashores of eastern Africa and
the western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/Department for Research
Cooperation, SAREC.
Haywood, M.D.E., Vance, D.J. and Loneragan, N.R. 1995. Seagrass and
algal beds as nursery habitats for tiger prawns (Penaeus semisulcatus
and P. esculentus) in a tropical Australian estuary. Marine Biology 122:
213-223.
Heatwole, H. 1981. Role of the saccular lung in the diving of the sea
krait, Laticauda colubrina Serpentes: Laticaudidae. Australian Journal
of Herpetology 1: 11-16.
Heatwole, H. 1975a. Sea snakes found on reefs in the southern Coral Sea:
Saumarez, Swains, Cato Island, pp. 163-171, in Dunson, W.A. (ed.).
The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD,
USA.
Heatwole, H. 1975b. Predation on sea snakes, pp. 233-249, in Dunson, W.A.
(ed.). The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore.
Heatwole, H. 1978. Adaptations of sea snakes. American Scientist 66: 594-
604.
Heatwole, H. 1997. Marine snakes: Are they a sustainable resource?
Wildlife Society Bulletin 25: 766-772.
Heatwole, H. 1999. Sea snakes. The New South Wales University Press,
Kensington, NSW, Australia.
Heatwole, H. and Cogger, C. 1994. Sea snakes of Australia, pp. 167-205,
in Gopalakrishnakone, P. (ed.). Sea snake toxinology. Singapore
University Press, Singapore.
Heatwole, H. and Cogger, H. 2013. Provenance errors and vagrants: Their
role in underestimating the conservation status of sea kraits Elapidae:
Laticaudinae. Pacic Conservation Biology 19(3/4): 295-302.
Heatwole, H. and Cogger, H. 1993. Family Hydrophiidae, pp. 310-318, in
Glasby, C.J., Ross, G.J.B. and Beesley, P.L. (eds.). Fauna of Australia.
Vol. 2A. Amphibia and reptilia. Canberra, Australian Government
Publishing Service.
Heatwole, H. and Powell, J. 1998. Resistance of eels Gymnothorax to
587
REFERENCES
the venom of sea kraits Laticauda colubrina: A test of coevolution.
Toxicon 36: 619-625.
Heatwole, H. and Seymour, R. 1975. Diving physiology, pp. 289-327, in
Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press,
Baltimore, MD, USA.
Heatwole, H. and Seymour, R. 1976. Respiration of marine snakes,
pp. 375-389, in Hughes, G.M. (ed.). Respiration of amphibious
vertebrates. Academic Press, London.
Heatwole, H., Grech, A., Monahan, J.F., King, S. and Marsh, H. 2012.
Thermal biology of sea snakes and sea kraits. Integrative and
Comparative Biology 52: 257-273.
Heatwole, H., Minton Jr., S.A., Taylor, R. and Taylor, V. 1978. Underwater
observations on sea snake behaviour. Records of the Australian Museum
31: 737-761.
Heck Jr., K.L., Hays, G. and Orth, R.J. 2003. Critical evaluation of the
nursery role hypothesis for seagrass meadows. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 253: 123-136.
Heil, C.A., Glibert, P.M., Al-Sarawi, M.A., Faraj, M., Behebehani, M. and
Husain, M. 2001. First record of a sh-killing Gymnodinium sp.
bloom in Kuwait Bay, Arabian Sea: Chronology and potential causes.
Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 214: 15-23.
Hein, L., Koppen, K.V., de Groot, R.S. and Ierland, E.C. 2006. Spatial
scales, stakeholders, and the valuation of ecosystem services. Ecological
Economics 57: 209-228.
Heithaus, M.R., Vaudo, J.J., Kreicker, S., Layman, C.A., Krützen, M.,
Burkholder, D.A., Gastrich, K., Bessey, C., Sarabia, R., Cameron, K.,
Wirsing, A., Thomson, J.A. and Dunphy-Daly, M.M. 2013. Apparent
resource partitioning and trophic structure of large-bodied marine
predators in a relatively pristine seagrass ecosystem. Mar Ecol Prog Ser
481: 225-237.
Heithaus, M.R., Frid, A., Wirsing, A.J., Bejder, L. and Dill, L.M. 2005.
Biology of sea turtles under risk from tiger sharks at a foraging
ground. Marine Ecology Progress Series 288: 285-294.
Helfrich, P., Ball, J., Berger, A., Bienfang, P., Cattell, S.A., Foster, M.,
Fredholm, G., Gallagher, B., Guinther, E., Krasnick, G., Rakowicx,
G. and Valencia, M. 1973. The feasibility of brine shrimp production
on Christmas Island. Sea Grant Technical Report, UNIHI-
SEAGRANT-TR-73-02. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI,
USA.
Hemminga, M.A. and Duarte, C.M. 2000. Seagrass ecology. Springer,
Cambridge, U.K., 298 p.
Henaidi, A.K. 1984. Preliminary report on drifting buoy movements
MEPA, Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization Doc.
No. GO-86/87-07.
Hendey, N.I. 1970. Some littoral diatoms of Kuwait. Nova Hedwigia,
supplement: Diatomacea II: 110-167.
Henthrone, L. 2009. Desalination — A critical element of water solutions
for the 21st century, in Förare, Jonas (ed.). Drinking water — Sources,
sanitation and safeguarding. The Swedish Research Council Formas.
Heppell, S.S., Snover, M.L. and Crowder, L.B. 2003. Sea turtle population
ecology, pp. 275-306, in Lutz, P., Musick, J. and Wyneken, J. (eds.).
The biology of sea turtles, Vol. II, CRC Press, New York.
Heron, S.F., Willis, B.L., Skirving, W.J., Eakin, C.M., Page, C.A. and Miller,
I.R. 2010. Summer hot snaps and winter conditions: Modelling
white syndrome outbreaks on Great Barrier Reef Corals. PLoS
ONE 5(8): e12210. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012210.
Heubeck, M., Camphuysen, K., Bao, R., Humple, D., Sandoval Rey, A.,
Cadiou, B., Brager, S. and Thomas, T. 2003. Assessing the impact of
major oil spills on seabird populations. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:
900-902.
Heupel, M.R., Carlson, J.K. and Simpfendorfer, C.A. 2007. Shark nursery
areas: Concepts, denition, characterization and assumptions. Marine
Ecol. Progress Series 337: 287-297.
Hibbard, E. 1975. Eyes and other sense organs of sea snakes, pp. 355-382,
in Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea snakes. University Park
Press, Baltimore.
Hidalgo-Ruz, V. and Thiel, M. 2013. Distribution and abundance of small
plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacic (Chile): A study supported
by a citizen science project. Marine Environmental Research 2013: 1-7.
Higgins, P.J. and Davies, S.J.J.F. 1996. Handbook of Australian, New
Zealand and Antarctic birds. Vol. 3: Snipe to pigeons. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Hillebrand, H., Dürselen, C.D., Kirschtel, D., Pollingher, U. and Zohary,
T. 1999. Biovolume calculation for pelagic and benthic microalgae.
Journal of Phycology 35(2): 403-424.
Hillman, K., Walker, D.I., Larkum, A.W. and McComb, A.J. 1989.
Productivity and nutrient limitation, in Larkum, A.W.D., McComb,
A.J. and Shepherd S.A. A treatise on the biology of seagrasses with
special reference to the Australian region. Elsevier, New York.
Hilton, D.J., Brady, A.K., Spaho, S.A. and Vize, P.D. 2012. Photoreception
and signal transduction in corals: Proteomic and behavioral evidence
for cytoplasmic calcium as a mediator of light responsivity. Biol.
Bulletin 223: 291-299.
Hingston Quiggin, A. 1949. A survey of primitive money, the beginnings
of currency. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.
Hinirichen, D. 1996. Living on edges: Coasts in crisis. Island Press.
Hinrichsen, D. and Wells, S.M. 1998. Creating a sea change: The WWF/
IUCN marine policy. World Conservation Union.
Hirst, J.M. and Aston, S.R. 1983. Behavior of copper, zinc, iron and
manganese during experimental resuspension and reoxidation of
polluted anoxic sediments. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 16: 549-558.
Hirth, H.F. 1997. Synopsis of the biological data on the green turtle
Chelonia mydas Linnaeus 1758. Biological Report 97. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.
Hodgson, A. 2011. Marine mammals, pp. 243-263, in Loughland, R.A.
and Al-Abdulkader, K. (eds.). Marine Atlas Western Arabian Gulf.
Saudi Aramco Environmental Protection Pubs. Dhahran, KSA.
Hodgson, A.J. (2004). Dugong behaviour and responses to human
inuences. Ph.D. Thesis, School of Tropical Environment Studies
and Geography. James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.
Hodhan, A.H. 2013. Eective evaluation of existing thermal power and
desalination plants. Proceedings of the International Desalination
Association World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse
2013/Tianjin, China, 31 p.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching and the future
of the world’s coral reefs. Mar. Freshwater Res. 50: 839-866.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bruno, J.F. 2010. The impact of climate change
on the world’s marine ecosystems. Science 328: 1523-1528.
Hoepner, T. and Lattemann, S. 2002. Chemical impact from seawater
deslination plants — A case study of the northern Red Sea.
Desalination 152: 133-140.
Homan, L. 1994. Distribution and status of intertidal blue-green algal
mats, pp. 281-296, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.).
A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental
research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill.
NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt
aM, Germany.
Homann, L. 1994. Distribution, species composition and status of the
intertidal blue-green algal mats. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg
166: 16-17.
Homann, L. 1996. Recolonisation of the intertidal ats by microbial mats
after the Gulf War oil spill, pp. 96-115, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H.
and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A Marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian
Gulf. Environmental research and conservation following the 1991
Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research
Institute, Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Hogarth, P.J. and Tigar, B.J. 2002. Ecology of sabkha arthropods, pp. 267-
282, in Barth, H.J. and Böer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems — Vol. I:
588
REFERENCES
The Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries. Tasks for vegetation
sciences, Vol. 36. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Hoolihan, J.P. 2003. Sailsh movement in the Arabian Gulf: A summary of
tagging eorts. Marine and Freshwater Research 54: 509-513.
Hoolihan, J.P., Anandh, P. and van Herwerden, L. 2006. Mitochondrial
DNA analyses of narrow-barred Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus
commerson) suggest a single genetic stock in the ROPME sea area
(Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Arabian Sea). ICES Journal of
Marine Science 63: 1066-1074.
Hoolihan, J.P. and Luo, J. 2007. Determining summer residence status and
vertical habitat use of sailsh (Istiophorus platypterus) in the Arabian
Gulf. ICES Journal of Marine Science 64: 1791-1799.
Hoolihan, J.P., Premanandh, J., D’Aloia-Palmieri, M.A. and Benzie, J.A.H.
2004. Intraspecic phylogeographic isolation of Arabian Gulf sailsh
Istiophorus platypterus inferred from mitochondrial DNA. Marine
Biology 145: 465-475.
Hoostens, K. and Mees, J. 1999. The mysid-feeding guild of demersal
shes in the brackish zone of the Westerschelde estuary. Journal of
Fish Biology 55: 704-719.
Horton, C., Cliord, M., Cole, D., Schmitz, J., Kantha, L., 1992. Operational
modeling semienclosed basin modeling at the Naval Oceanographic
Oce. Oceanography 5(1): 69-72.
Horton, C., Cliord, M., Schmitz, J. and Hester, B. 1994. SWAFS: Shallow
water analysis and forecast system: Overview and status report. Naval
Oceanographic Oshore oce, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi,
53 p.
Hosny, C.F.H. 2007. Population dynamics of Penaeus semisulcatus De
Haan, exploited by the industrial eet o Manifa, Saudi Arabia,
Arabian Gulf. Journal of King Abdulaziz University for Marine Sciences
18: 3-24.
Houbolt, J.J.H.C. 1957. Surface sediments of the Persian Gulf near the
Qatar Peninsula. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Utrecht, 113 p.
Houde, E.D., Almatar, S., Leak, J.C. and Dowd, C.E., 1986. Ichthyoplankton
abundance and diversity in the Western Arabian Gulf. Kuw. Bull. Mar.
Sci. 8: 107-393.
Howarth, R.W., Boyer, E.W., Pabich, W.J. and Galloway, J.N. 2002.
Nitrogen use in the United States from 1961-2000 and potential
future trends. Ambio 31: 88-96.
Hsü, K.J. and Siegenthaler, C. 1969. Preliminary experiments on
hydrodynamic movement induced by evaporation and their bearing
on the dolomite problem. Sedimentology, Vol. 12: 11-25.
Hsu, K.J. and Schneider, J. 1973. Progress report on dolomitization-
hydrology of Abu Dhabi sabkhas, Arabian Gulf, in Purser, B.H. (ed.).
The Persian Gulf. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York.
Heubeck, M., Camphuysen, K.C.J., Bao, R., Humple, D., Rey, A.S.,
Cadiou, B., Bräger, S. and Thomas, T. 2003. Assessing the impact of
major oil spills on seabird populations. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46(7):
900-902.
Hudson, I.R. and Wigham, B.D. 2003. In situ observations of predatory
feeding behaviour of the galatheid squat lobster Munida sarsi using
a remotely operated vehicle. Journal of the Marine Biological Association
of the United Kingdom 83(3): 463-464.
Hughes, P. and Hunter, J.R. 1979. Physical oceanography and numerical
modeling of the Kuwait action plan region. Report MARINE, 278,
UNESCO Division of Marine Sciences, 106 p.
Hughes, P. and Hunter, J.R. 1979. A Proposal for a physical oceanography
program and numerical modeling of the KAP Region. UNESCO,
Div. Mar. Sci., Paris, MARINF/27, October 16, 1979, 102 p.
Hughes, T.P., Graham, N.A., Jackson, J.B., Mumby, P.J. and Steneck, R.S.
2010. Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25: 633-642.
Hulings, N.C. 1979. The ecology, biometry and biomass of the seagrass
Halophila stipulacea along the Jordanian coast of the Gulf of Aqaba.
Botanica Marina 22: 425-430.
Hulings, N.C. and Kirkman, H. 1982. Further observations and data on
seagrasses along the Jordanian and Saudi Arabian coasts of the Gulf
of Aqaba. Tethys 10: 218-220.
Hull, L.E. 1979. Arabian Gulf demersal trawl resources. Fisheries
Development Project of Saudi Arabia. Final Report, 45 p.
Human and Environmental Risk Assessment on Ingredients of Household
Cleaning Products. 2013. LAS: Linear alkylbenzene sulphonate
(CAS No. 68411-30-3). http://www.heraproject.com/les/
HERALAS%20revised%20April%202013%20Final1.pdf.
Hume, B., Angeloa, C.D., Burtb, J., Bakerc, A.C., Riegld, B. and
Wiedenmann, J. 2013. Corals from the Persian/Arabian Gulf as
models for thermo tolerant reef builders: Prevalence of clade C3
Symbiodinium, host uorescence and ex situ temperature tolerance.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 7: 313-322.
Hunter, J.R. 1982. An appraisal of the physical oceanography of Kuwaiti
waters: Existing knowledge and future research needs. Kuwait Inst.
Sci. Res. 40.
Hunter, J.R. 1983a. A review of the residual circulation and mixing process
in the KAP region, with reference to applicable modeling techniques,
pp. 37-45, in El-Sabh, M.I. (ed.). Oceanographic Modeling of the
Kuwait Action Plan Region, UNESCO Report, Mar. Sci. 28.
Hunter, J.R. 1983b. Aspects of the dynamics of the residual circulation
of the Arabian Gulf, pp. 31-42, in Gade, H.G., Edwards, A. and
Svendsen, H. (eds.). Coastal Oceanography, Plenum, New York.
Hunter, J.R. 1984. A review of the residual circulation and mixing process
in the KAP region, with reference to applicable modeling techniques,
pp. 37-45, in El-Sabh, M.I. (ed.). Oceanographic modeling of the
Kuwait action plan region. UNESCO Report in Marine Science, Vol.
28.
Hunter, J.R. 1986. The physical oceanography of the Arabian Gulf: A
review and theoretical interpretation of previous observations, pp.
1-23, in Halwagy, R., Clayton, D. and Behbehani, M. (eds.). Marine
environment and pollution. Proc. First Arabian Gulf Conference
on Environment and Pollution, (Kuwait Foundation for the
Advancement of Science).
Hunter, J.R. 1982. The physical oceanography of the Arabian Gulf: A
review and theoretical interpretation of previous observations.
Paper presented at the First Gulf Conference on Environment and
Pollution, Kuwait. February 7-9, 1982, 23 p.
Hussain, M., 2011. Origin of water and solutes in inland and coastal
sabkhas of Eastern Saudi Arabia, M.S. Thesis, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 126 p.
Hutchings, P. 1998. Biodiversity and functioning of polychaetes in benthic
sediments. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 1133-1145.
Hyrenbach, K.D. and Veit, R.R. 2003. Ocean warming and seabird
communities of the California Current System: Response at
multiple temporal scales. Deep-Sea Research II 50(14-16): 2537-2565.
ICES (International Council for the Exploration of the Sea). 2013.
Report of the Workshop to Review and Advise on Seabird Bycatch
(WKBYCS), October 14-18, 2013, Copenhagen, Denmark. ICES
CM 2013/ACOM 77: 1-79.
ICES. 2000. Zooplankton methodology manual. Harris, R., Wiebe, P.H.,
Lenz, J., Skjoldal, H.R. and Huntley, M. (eds.). Publ. Academic Press,
684 p.
IDA Desalination Year Book. 2014-2015. Water Desalination Report.
Media Analytics Ltd., Oxford, U.K.
Ieno, E.N., Solan, M., Batty, P. and Pierce, G.J. 2006. How biodiversity
aects ecosystem functioning: Roles of infaunal species richness,
identity and density in the marine benthos. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 311, pp. 263-271.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) AR4. 2007.
Summary for policymakers, pp. 1-18, in Solomon, S. and Manning,
M. (eds.). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis.
Contributions of Working Group 1 to the 4th Assessment Report
589
REFERENCES
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press.
International Desalination Association (IDA). 2011. Desalination and the
environment blue paper, special publication, 20 p.
International Maritime Organisation (IMO). 2002. MARPOL 73/78,
consolidated edition.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2002. Climate
change and biodiversity. IPCC Technical Paper V. United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity.
IPCC. 2007. Contribution of Working Group I to the 4th assessment report
of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, Cambridge
University Press, 996 p.
IPCC. 2007. Fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and
New York.
IPCC. 2007b. Summary for Policymakers, pp. 7-22, in Climate change
2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working
Group II to the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
U.K.
IPCC. 2007a. Climate change 2007: The physical science basis, p. 996,
in Contribution of Working Group I to the 4th Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, U.K. and New York, NY.
Ismail, A.M. and El-Ghazaly, G.A. 1990. Phenological studies on
Zygophyllum qatarense Hadid from contrasting habitats. Journal of
Arid Environments 18: 195-205.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources). 2007. Species Extinction — the facts. CMS.IUCN.org/
downloads/species_extinction_ 05 _2007.pdf. Accessed September
2014.
IUCN. 2004. IUCN Evaluation of nominations of natural and mixed
properties to the World Heritage List. Report to the World Heritage
Committee 28th session June 28-July 7, 2004 — Suzhou, China
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage. WHC-04/28.COM/INF.14B.
IUCN. 1987a. The Red Sea, Saudi Arabia: An analysis of coastal and
marine habitats of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea. Report to MEPA,
Jiddah.
IUCN. 1987b. The Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia: An assessment of biotopes
and management requirements for the Saudi Arabian Gulf coastal
zone. Report to MEPA, Jiddah.
IUCN. 1988. Coral reefs of the world, Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf.
IUCN/UNEP, Vol. 2.
IUCN, 2010. IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 81.
Guidelines for Protected Areas Legislation. Barbara Lausche. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland in collaboration with the IUCN Environmental
Law Centre, Bonn, Germany.
IUCN. 2012. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Species
accounts. viewed April 2013, <http://www.iucnredlist.org>.
IUCN. 2014. Chelonia mydas. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.
UK.2004.RLTS. T4615A110 37468.en.
IUCN. 2015. Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-3. Individual
Species Accounts <www.iucnredlist.org>. Accessed April 2015.
IUCN/MEPA. 1987. Arabian Gulf. Saudi Arabia: An assessment of
biotopes and coastal zone management requirements for the Arabian
Gulf. MEPA Coastal and Marine Management Series, Report No.
5, IUCN, Gland.
IUCN/UNEP. 1985. The management and conservation of renewable
marine resources in the Indian Ocean region in the Kuwait Action
Plan Region. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 63,
63 p.
IUCN/UNEP. 1988. Coral reefs of the world. Vol. II: Indian Ocean, Red
Sea and Gulf. IUCN/UNEP.
Izumo, T., Montegut, C.D., Luo, J.J., Behera, S.K., Masson, S. and Yamagata,
T. 2008. The role of the Western Arabian Sea upwelling in Indian
monsoon rainfall variability. J. Clim. 21: 5603-5623.
Jackson, J.B.C., Cubit, J.D., Keller, B.D., Batista, V., Burns, K., Caey, H.M.,
Caldwell, R.L., Garrity, S.D., Getter, C.D., Gonzalez, C., Guzmán,
H.M., Kaufman, K.W., Knap, A.H., Levings, S.C., Marshall, M.J.,
Steger, R., Thompson, R.C. and Weil, E. 1989. Ecological eects of
a major oil spill on Panamanian coastal marine communities. Science
243: 37-44.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W.,
Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J.A.,
Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandol, J.M.,
Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J. and Warner, R.R. 2001.
Historical overshing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems.
Science 293: 629-638.
Jackson, S., Maqubela, S. and Govender, P. 2002. Investigation into the
relationship between chlorine levels in nal euents and toxic eects
in the receiving water. Proceedings of the Biennial Conference of
the Water Institute of South Africa, Durban, South Africa, May 19-
22.
Jackson, M., Eadsforth, C., Schowanek, D., Delfosse, T., Riddle, A. and
Budgen, N. 2016. Comprehensive review of several surfactants in
marine environments: Fate and ecotoxicity. Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry 35(5): 1077-1086.
Jacob, P.G. 1979. Report on chlorophylla, phytoplankton and zooplankton
investigations in the coastal waters of Kuwait. Kuwait Institute of
Scientic Research, Technical Report, 49 p.
Jacob, P.G. and Al-Muzaini, S. 1990. Marine plants of the Arabian Gulf: A
literature review: Technical report. Safat, Kuwait: Kuwait Institute for
Scientic Research.
Jacob, P.G. and Al-Muzaini, S. 1995. Marine plants of the Arabian Gulf and
eects of oil pollution. Mahasagar 28(1-2): 83-101.
Jacob, P.G., Zarba, M.A. and Anderlini, V. 1979. Hydrography, chlorophyll
and plankton of the Kuwaiti coastal waters. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 8: 150-
154.
Jacobs, R.P.W.M. and Dicks, B. 1985. Seagrasses in the Zeit Bay area and
at Ras Gharib (Egyptian Red Sea coast). Aquatic Botany 23: 137-147.
Jain, S.P. and Polman, W. 2003. A handbook for trainers on participatory
local development: The Panchayati Raj model in India. FAO
Regional Oce for Asia and the Pacic, Bangkok, Thailand.
James, A. and Little, A.L. 1994. Geotechnical aspects of sabkha at Jubail,
Saudi Arabia. Q.J. Eng. Geol. London 27: 83-121.
Jameson, S.C., McManus, J.W. and Spalding, M.D. 1995. State of the reefs:
Regional and global perspectives. International Coral Reef Initiative
Executive Secretariat Background Paper, United States Department
of State.
Jansson, B.O. 1967. The signicance of grain size and pore water content
for the interstitial fauna of sandy beaches. Oikos 18: 311-322.
Jawad, L.A. 2006. Fishing gear and methods of the lower Mesopotamian
plain with reference to shing management. Marina Mesopotamica
Online 1: 1-39.
Jeerson, T.A. and Karzemarski, L. 2001. “Sousa chinensis.” Mammalian
Species 655: 1-9.
Jereys, R.M., Wol, G.A. and Cowie, G.L. 2009. Inuence of oxygen
on heterotrophic reworking of sedimentary lipids at the Pakistan
margin. Deep-Sea Research II 56: 358-375.
Jennings, M.C. 2010. Atlas of the breeding birds of Arabia, in Büttiker, W.,
Krupp, F., Nader, I. and Schneider, W. (eds.). Fauna of Arabia, Vol. 25.
National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development,
Riyadh, Pro Entomologia, c/o National History Museum, Basle,
Switzerland and Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum Senckenberg,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Jewett, S.C., Dean, T.A, Smith, R.O. and Blanchard, A. 1999. Exxon
Valdez oil spill: Impacts and recovery in the soft-bottom benthic
community in and adjacent to eelgrass beds. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 185: 59-83.
590
REFERENCES
JICA/MEPA. 1999. Environmental assessment and monitoring of Arabian
Gulf in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Chiyoda-Dames and Moore
Co., Japan.
Johannes, R.E., Wiebe, W.J., Crossland, C.J., Rimmer, D.W. and Smith, S.V.
1983. Latitudinal limits on coral reef growth. Marine Ecol. Prog. Ser.
11: 105-111.
John, D. and George, D. 2006. The shore and shallow seas, pp. 123-131,
in Hellyer, P. and Aspinall, S. (eds.). The Emirates: A natural history.
Trident Press, Environment Agency, Abu Dhabi.
John, D.M. 2002. Macroalgae associated with Sabkha, pp. 239-245, in
Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
John, D.M. 2012. Marine algae (seaweeds) associated with coral reefs in the
Gulf, pp. 309-336, in Riegl, B.M. and Purkis, S.J. (eds.). Coral reefs
of the Gulf — Adaptation to climatic extremes. Springer, New York.
John, V., Coles, S. and Abozed, A. 1990. Seasonal cycles of temperature,
salinity and water masses of the western Arabian Gulf. Oceanologica
Acta 13(3): 273-281.
Johns, W.E, Jacob, G.A., Kindle, J.C., Murray, S.B. and Carron, M. 1999.
Arabian marginal seas and gulfs, in University of Miami RSMAS
Technical Report 2000-01, Report of a workshop held at Stennic
Space Centre, May 11-13, Mississippi, USA.
Johnsgard, P.A. 1993. Cormorants, darters, and pelicans of the World.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 445 p.
Johnson, A.U. and Babcock, R.C. 1994. Temperature and the larval
ecology of the crown-of-thorns starsh Acanthaster planci. Biological
Bulletin 187(3): 304-308.
Johnson, D.H., Kamal, M.R., Pierson, G.O. and Ramsay, J.B. 1978.
Sabkhahs of Eastern Saudi Arabia, p. 334, in Al-Sayari, S.S. and Zotl,
J.G. (eds.). Quaternary period in Saudi Arabia. Springer-Verlag, New
York.
Johnson, R.G. 1977. Vertical variation in particulate matter in the upper
20 centimeters of marine sediments. Journal of Marine Research 35:
273-282.
Johnstone, I. and Hudson, B.E.T. 1981. The dugong diet: Mouth sample
analysis. Bull Mar Sci. 31: 681-690.
Jokiel, P.L. and Coles, S.L. 1974. Eects of heated euent on hermatypic
corals at Kahe Point, Oahu. Pac. Sci. 28: 1-18.
Jokiel, P.L. and Coles, S.L. 1977. Eects of temperature on the mortality
and growth of Hawaiian reef corals. Marine Biology 43: 301-208.
Jokiel, P.L. and Maragos, J.E. 1978. Reef corals of Canton Island. Atoll Res.
Bulletin 221: 71-97.
Jones, D.A. 1986. A eld guide to the sea shores of Kuwait and the Arabian
Gulf, pp. 1-192, Blanford Press, London.
Jones, D.A. and Richmond, M.D. 1992. Intertidal and subtidal. Marine
habitat surveys, pp. 134-160, in Krupp, F. (ed.). Establishment of a
marine habitat and wildlife sanctuary for the Gulf Region, Final
report for phase 1, Jubail and Frankfurt.
Jones, D.A., Ealey, T., Baca, B., Livesey, S. and Al-Jamali, F. 2007. Gulf desert
developments encompassing a marine environment, a compensatory
solution to the loss of coastal habitats by inll and reclamation: The
case of the Pearl City Al-Khiran, Kuwait. Aquatic Ecosystem Health
and Management 10: 268-276.
Jones, D.A., Plaza, J., Watt, I. and Al Sanei, M. 1998. Long-term (1991-
1995) monitoring of the intertidal biota of Saudi Arabia after the
1991 Gulf War oil spill. Mar. Pollution Bull. 36(6): 472-489.
Jones, D.A., Price, A.R.G. and Hughes, R.N. 1978. Ecology of the high
saline lagoons Dawhat as Sayh, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Estuarine
and Coastal Marine Science 6: 253-262.
Jones, D.A., Price, A.R.G., Al-Yamani, F. and Al-Zaidan, A. 2002. Coastal
and marine ecology, pp. 65-103, in Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and
Price, A.R., (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem: Health and sustainability.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.
Jones, D.A., Watt, I., Plaza, J. and Woodhouse, T.D. 1996. Natural recovery of
the intertidal biota within the proposed marine habitat and wildlife
sanctuary for the Gulf (Saudi Arabia) after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill,
pp. 138-158, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.).
A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf environmental
research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill.
NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt,
Germany.
Jones, D.A., Watt, I., Woodhouse, T.D. and Richmond, M.D. 1994. Intertidal
recovery in the Dawhat ad-Da and Dawhat al-Musallamiya region
(Saudi Arabia) after the Gulf War oil spill. Courier Forschungsinstitut
Senckenberg 166: 27-33.
Jones, G.P., Ferrell, D.J. and Sale, P.F. 1991. Fish predation and its impact on
the invertebrates of coral reefs and adjacent sediments, pp. 156-179,
in Sale, P.F. (ed.). The ecology of shes on coral reefs. Academic Press,
San Diego, CA, USA.
Jones, H. 1932. Strabo: Geography. Loeb Classical library, Harvard.
Jones, N.S. 1950. Marine bottom communities. Biological Reviews 25: 283-
313.
Joydas, T.V., Krishnakumar, P.K., Qurban, M.A., Ali, S.A., Al-Suwailem, A.
and Al-Abdulkader, K. 2011. Status of macrobenthic community of
Manifa-Tanajib Bay System of Saudi Arabia based on a once-o
sampling event. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 1249-1260.
Joydas, T.V., Qurban, M.A., Al-Suwailem, A., Krishnakumar, P.K., Nazeer,
Z. and Cali, N.A. 2012. Macrobenthic community structure in the
northern Saudi waters of the Gulf, 14 years after the 1991 oil spill.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 64: 325-335.
Joydas, T.V., Qurban, M.A., Manikandan, K.P., Ashraf, T.T.M., Ali, S.M.,
Al-Abdulkader, K., Qasem, A. and Krishnakumar, P.K. 2015. Status
of macrobenthic communities in the hypersaline waters of the Gulf
of Salwa. Arabian Gulf. Journal of Sea Research 99: 34-46.
Juillie, Y. and Sherwood, D.E. 1986. Improvement of Sabkhas soil of the
Arabian Gulf coast, pp. 781-788.
Junemann, J.V., Lamboeuf, M., Simmonds, E.J., Scheers, W.J. and
Sivasubramaniam, K. 1981. Pelagic resources of the Gulf and Gulf of
Oman. Report to the FAO, Rome, Italy, 157 p.
Jupp, B.P., Durako, M.J., Kenworty, W.J., Thayer, G.W. and Schillak, L. 1996.
Distribution, abundance, and species composition of seagrasses at
several sites in Oman. Aquatic Botany 53: 199-213.
Kaiser, M.J., Collie, J.S., Hall, S.J., Jennings, S. and Pioner, I.R. 2002.
Modication of marine habitat by trawling activities: Prognosis and
solution. Fish and Fisheries 3: 114-136.
Kaluza, P., Kölzsch, A., Gastner, M. and Blasius, B. 2010. The complex
network of global cargo ship movements. Journal of the Royal Society
Interface7(48): 1093-1103.
Kamdan, A. 2000. Review of the marine kills events in the ROPME Sea
Area. Workshop on Harmful Algal Bloom (Red Tide) in ROPME
Sea Area. Regional Organization for the Marine Environment,
Kuwait.
Kämpf, J. and Sadrinasab, M. 2006. The circulation of the Persian Gulf: A
numerical study. Ocean Sci. 2: 27-41.
Kaniewska1, P., Campbell, P.R., Fine, M. and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 2009.
Phototropic growth in a reef at acroporid branching coral species.
J. Exp. Biol. 212: 662-667.
Kaplan, R.H., Welker, J.R., Kraus, M.G. and McCourt, S. 1975. Some
factors aecting the colonisation of a dredged channel. Marine
Biology 32: 193-204.
Karczmarski, L. 1999. Group dynamics of humpback dolphins (Sousa
chinensis) in the Algoa Bay region, South Africa. Journal of Zoology
249: 283-293.
Karczmarski, L., Cockcroft, V.G. and McLachlan, A. 2000. Habitat use and
preferences of Indo-Pacic humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis in
Algoa Bay, South Africa. Marine Mammal Science 16(1): 65-79.
Katakura, N., Jokadar, Z., Katsui, H., Lenehan, S., Plowman, M. and
Takayama, Y. 2008. Research on seagrass growth and its transplantation
in subtropical water area. Proceedings of the PIANC-COPEDEC
VII Conference, February 24-28, 2008, Paper No. 224, Dubai, UAE.
591
REFERENCES
Kay, R.C. and Alder, J. 2005. Coastal planning and management. London,
E&F Spon., 380 p.
Keck, R., Maurer, D. and Watling, L. 1973. Tidal stream development and
its eect on the distribution of the American oyster. Hydrobiology 42:
369-379.
Keith, M., Peddemors, V.M., Bester, M.N. and Ferguson, J.W.H. 2002.
Population characteristics of Indo-Pacic humpback dolphins at
Richards Bay, South Africa: Implications for incidental capture in
shark nets. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 32(2): 153-162.
Kelleher, G. and Phillips, A. 1999. Guidelines for marine protected areas.
World Commission on protected areas of IUCN. The World
Conservation Union, Switzerland.
Kemp, A.L.W. 1971. Organic carbon and nitrogen in the surface
sediments of Lake Ontario, Eric and Huron. Journal of Sediment
Petrology 4: 537-548.
Kemp, W.M., Boynton, W.R., Adoli, J.E., Boesch, D.F., Boicourt, W.C.,
Brush, G., Cornwell, J.C., Fisher, T.R., Glibert, P.M., Hagy, J.D.,
Harding, L.W., Houde, E.D., Kimmel, D.G., Miller, W.D., Newell,
R.I.E., Roman, M.R., Smith, E.M. and Stevenson, J.C. 2005.
Eutrophication of Chesapeake Bay:historical trends and ecological
interactions. Marine Ecology Progress Series 303: 1-19.
Kendall, C.G. and Skipwith, S.P. 1968. Recent algal mats of a Persian Gulf
lagoon. J. Sed. Petrology 38: 1040-1058.
Kennedy, H., Beggins, J., Duarte, C.M., Fourqurean, J.W., Holmer, M.,
Marbà, N. and Middelburg, J.J. 2010. Seagrass sediments as a global
carbon sink: Isotopic constraints. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 24,
DOI: 10.1029/2010GB003848.
Kennelly, S.J. 1995. The issue of bycatch in Australia’s demersal trawl
sheries. Review in Fish Biology and Fisheries 5: 213-234.
Kennett, D.J. and Kennett, J.P. 2007. Inuence of holocene marine
transgression and climate change on cultural evolution in southern
Mesopotamia, pp. 229-264, in Anderson, D.G., Maasch, K.A. and
Sandweiss, D.H. (eds.). Climate change and cultural dynamics: A
global perspective on mid-holocene transitions. Elsevier.
Kenny, A.J. and Rees, H.L. 1994. The eects of marine gravel extraction
on the macrobenthos: Early post dredging recolonization. Mar Poll
Bull. 28(7): 442-447.
Kenny, A.J. and Rees, H.L. 1996. The eects of marine gravel extraction
on the macrobenthos: Results, 2 Years Post-Dredging. Mar Poll Bull.
32: 615-622.
Kenworthy, W.J., Durako, M.J., Fatemy, S.M.J., Valavi, H. and Thayer, G.W.
1993. Ecology of seagrasses in northeastern Saudi Arabia one year
after the Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 213-222.
Kassler, P. 1973. The structural and geomorphic evolution of the Persian
Gulf, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf. Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg.
KFUPM/RI. 1982. Final report. Trace metals in marine sediments and
water columns in Saudi Arabian coastal areas of the Arabian Gulf.
Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by Water and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24011.
KFUPM/RI. 1983. Trace metals in marine sediments and water columns
in Saudi Arabian coastal areas of the Arabian Gulf. Prepared by the
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. 24011.
KFUPM/RI. 1984. Saudi Aramco sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies I, 1984-1990. No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1986. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. First Annual Report 1984/85. Prepared for the Arabian
American Oil Company by Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1987. Northern area biological study 1985/86. Final report
prepared for Arabian American Oil Company Environmental Unit,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. 24059.
KFUPM/RI. 1987a. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies, second annual report 1985/86. Prepared for the Arabian
Oil Company by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. 187 p. and Appendices.
KFUPM/RI. 1987b. Aramco sustaining research project: Environmental
studies, Appendices, Vol. II — Oceanography 1986/87. Third
annual report to the Arabian American Oil Company by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1987b. Currents, temperature, conductivity and salinity
data obtained at Safaniyah and temperature data from Manifa pier.
Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 1987c. Aramco sustaining research project: Environmental
studies, Vol. I — Tarut Bay biotopes investigation 1986/87. Third
annual report to the Arabian American Oil Company by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1987. Aramco sustaining research project: Environmental
studies. Vol. I — Tarut Bay biotopes investigation 1986/87. Third
annual report prepared for Arabian American Oil Company by the
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1988. MEPA/ROPME Pilot research and monitoring
program, Vol. III — Coral reef studies. Final report to the Australian
Trade Commission by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24066.
KFUPM/RI. 1988. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Third Annual Report 1986/87. Vol. I, Tarut Bay biotopes
investigation. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079, 209 p. and Appendices.
KFUPM/RI. 1988. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Third annual report 1986/87. Vol. II: Oceanographic
investigation. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia, 209 p. and Appendices.
KFUPM/RI. 1988. Marine monitoring and baseline survey, Vol.
II: Oshore benthos studies, prepared for Meteorology and
Environmental Protection Administration of Saudi Arabia and
the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine
Environment, prepared by the Center for Environment and Water,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. 24066.
KFUPM/RI. 1988. MEPA/ROPME Pilot research and monitoring
program, Vol. VI: Zooplankton and intertidal studies. Final report
to the Australian Trade Commission by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24066.
KFUPM/RI. 1988a. Marine environmental eects of the Abu Ali-Berri
Causeway Extension. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil
Company by Water Resources and Environment Division, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24108.
592
REFERENCES
KFUPM/RI. 1988a. Final report. Marine monitoring and baseline survey,
Vol. IV, Oceanographic studies. Prepared for the Australian Trade
Commission by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24066.
KFUPM/RI. 1988b. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Third annual report 1986/87. Vol. I, Tarut Bay biotopes
investigation. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079, 209 p. and Appendices.
KFUPM/RI. 1988b. MEPA/ROPME pilot research and monitoring
program, Vol. III, Coral reef studies. Final report to the Australian
Trade Commission by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24066.
KFUPM/RI. 1988c. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Third annual report 1986/87. Vol. II, Oceanographic
investigation. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1988d. Marine environmental eects of the Abu Ali-
Berri Causeway Extension. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil
Company by Water Resources and Environment Division, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24108.
KFUPM/RI. 1988d. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Third annual report 1986/87. Vol. II, Oceanographic
Investigation. Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia, 209 p. and Appendices.
KFUPM/RI. 1990b. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Environmental studies, Vol. I, Overview summary and conclusions.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990a. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. II, Tarut Bay biotopes investigation
Seagrass and sand benthos. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990b. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. III, Tarut Bay biotopes investigation
Plankton and sheries. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990c. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. IV, Tarut Bay biotopes investigation
Mangrove communities. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990a. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. V, Oceanographic investigation —
Coastal bay and oshore circulation. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990b. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. VI, Oceanographic investigation —
Coastal and oshore hydrography. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990c. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. VII, Hydrodynamic models for
wind-driven and tidal circulation in the Arabian Gulf. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990d. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Environmental studies, Vol. VIII, Simulation models of pollutant fate
and transport in the Arabian Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990e. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Environmental studies, Vol. IX, Oshore meteorology — Manifa
and Zuluf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990f. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Environmental studies, Vol. X, Oceanographic investigation — Waves
and tides. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990d. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Environmental studies, Vol. X, Oceanographic investigation Waves
and tides. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990k. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Environmental studies, Vol. XI, Biogeochemical investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1990. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies — Tarut Bay biotopes investigation: Seagrass and sand
benthos. Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 1990. Saudi Aramco sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies II, 1990-1994. No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1990g. Final report: Environmental impact assessment for
the proposed installation of the oshore Safaniyah GOSP-4 and
associated facilities, Vol. I, Text. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24129.
KFUPM/RI. 1991. Gulf oil spill 1991 — Arabian Gulf oil spill research
program. Prepared for the Meteorology and Environmental
Protection Administration by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24138.
KFUPM/RI. 1991. Aramco sustaining research project — Environmental
studies. Vol. I, Overview: summary and conclusions. Prepared for
the Arabian American Oil Company by Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24079.
KFUPM/RI. 1991a. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
593
REFERENCES
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1991b. Interim report: Gulf oil spill 1991 — Arabian
Gulf oil spill research program. Prepared for the Meteorology and
Environmental Protection Administration by the Water Resources
and Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project
No. 24138.
KFUPM/RI. 1992. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1993. Ras Tanura renery upgrade program: Marine
environmental impact assessment. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Water Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Report Project No. 24142.
KFUPM/RI. 1994. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies, Vol. II, Dredging impact investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994a. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies, Vol. II, Dredging impact investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994b. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies, Vol. III, Abu Ali Causeway Impact
Investigations. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources
and Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project
No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies. Vol. V. Coral reef investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco, by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994c. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies, Vol. VI, Outfall Investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994d. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies, Vol. VII, Platform investigations.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994e. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies, Vol. VIII, Hydrodynamic models for
tidal, Wind-driven, and density-driven circulation in the Arabian
Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994f. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies, Vol. IX, Pollutant and sediment
transport models. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources
and Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project
No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994g. Final report: Aramco sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies, Vol. X, Thermal and brine models
for the Arabian Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water
Resources and Environment Division, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report Project No. 24131.
KFUPM/RI 1994. Sustaining research project — Marine environmental
studies. Final report prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1994. Sustaining research project — Marine environmental
studies, Final Report prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW24131.
KFUPM/RI. 1996. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies. First annual report. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 1997. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies. Second annual report. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 1998. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project
— Marine environmental studies. Third annual report. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 1999. Annual progress report: Sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies. Fourth annual report. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and Environment Division,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2000. Final report. Development of Red Sea biotope
maps using Remote sensing imagery. Prepared for Saudi Aramco
Environmental Protection Department by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project
No. 24164.
KFUPM/RI. 2001. Final report: Sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies. Phase III, Vol IV, Sustaining research
investigation Biological investigations: Coral reef monitoring,
primary productivity, mangrove transplantation. Prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2001a. Final report: Sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies. Phase III, Vol I, Sustaining research
investigation — Monitoring of cooling water discharges [RT
Renery, Safaniyah GOSP-4] — Sediment Transport [Abu Ali Bay].
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2001b. Final report: Sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies. Phase III, Vol II, Sustaining research
investigation — Environmental impact assessment of oshore
produced water. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2001c. Final report: Sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies. Phase III, Vol. III, Sustaining research
investigation — Impacts of oshore drill cuttings disposal. Prepared
for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. 24154.
594
REFERENCES
KFUPM/RI. 2001d. Final report: Sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies. Phase III, Vol. IV, Sustaining research
investigation — Biological investigations: Coral reef monitoring,
primary productivity, mangrove transplantation. Prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2001e. Final report. Duba terminal permanent berth [BI-
8232] Prelimniary environmental assessment. Prepared for Lummus
Alireza Ltd. Co. by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. CEW 2224.
KFUPM/RI. 2001f. Final report. Environmental impact assessment
for Abu Safah Oshore AM producing [300 MBCD] facilities
project [BI-3028]. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project
No. CEW2236.
KFUPM/RI. 2002. Investigation of pollutant problems in Dammam
Corniche water. Prepared for the Directorate of Dammam by
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Report Project.
KFUPM/RI. 2002a. Environmental impact assessment for the master
plan for marine works and coastal reclamation in the Al Khafji joint
operations concession area. Prepared for the Environmental Health
and Safety QTP Department, Al Khafji Joint Operations, Jiddah,
Saudi Arabia by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2255.
KFUPM/RI. 2002b. Final report: Sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies. Phase IV. Vol. 1-V. Prepared for Saudi Aramco
by the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report No. 24154.
KFUPM/RI. 2003a. Final report: Coral reef survey in support of the
marine and coastal damage assessment (OSDA). Prepared for the
Presidency for Meteorology and Environment, by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No.
CEW2257.
KFUPM/RI. 2003b. Final report: Oceanographic survey in support of
the marine and coastal damage assessment OSDA). Prepared for the
Presidency for Meteorology and Environment by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No.
CEW2256.
KFUPM/RI. 2004a. Final report: Oshore MP facilities Qatif 15 KV
Cable BI-8294) Environmental impact assessment. Prepared for the
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2278.
KFUPM/RI. 2004b. Duba Marine Terminal BI-8232) — Environmental
impact assessment for the construction and removal of temporary
roads. Prepared for the Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2259.
KFUPM/RI. 2005. Final report: Environmental impact assessment for
Manifa eld development (nafd/l-001-06): Causeway construction.
Prepared for the Arabian American Oil Company by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 2005a. Environmental assessment of the breakwaters in
the Aziziyah area. Prepared for the Saad Trading and Contracting
Company, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Prepared by the Center for
Environment and Water, KFUPM/RI, July 2005. Project No.
CEW2304.
KFUPM/RI. 2005b. Final report: Environmental impact assessment
North Safaniyah articial lift [BI-10-00047]. Prepared for the
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2285.
KFUPM/RI. 2006. Environmental impact assessment for Manifa eld
development (Nafd/L-001-06): Causeway construction and
dredging. Prepared for Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 2006a. Final report: Environmental impact assessment
for Manifa eld development (NAFD/L-001-06): Causeway
construction and dredging. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report No. CEW2328.
KFUPM/RI. 2006a. Section 2: Physical oceanography. pp. 25-97.
In: Oceanographic survey in support of the marine and coastal
damage assessment (Project Number CEW2256), Final report,
Vol. 1. Prepared for Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
(Dammam, Saudi Arabia) by the Center for Environment and
Water, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. Submitted
through Saudi Company for Environmental Works Ltd. (Al-Khobar,
Saudi Arabia), Dhahran.
KFUPM/RI. 2006a. Study of Al-Khafji seawater quality and marine
habitats (Project No. CEW2293). Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 2006b. Study of Al-Khafji seawater quality and marine
habitats. Prepared for Al-Khafji joint operations by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No.
CEW2293.
KFUPM/RI. 2006a. Study of Al-Khafji seawater quality and marine
habitats. Final report prepared for Al-Khafji joint operations by
the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2293.
KFUPM/RI. 2006b. Environmental impact assessment for Manifa
eld development (NAFD/L-001-06): Causeway construction
recommended causeway conguration for engineering design
scoping (Project No. CEW2328). Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 2006b. Section 3: Chemical oceanography, pp. 98-180,
in: Oceanographic survey in support of the marine and coastal
damage assessment (Project Number CEW2256), Final report,
Vol. 1. Prepared for Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
(Dammam, Saudi Arabia) by the Center for Environment and
Water, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. Submitted
through Saudi Company for Environmental Works Ltd. (Al-Khobar,
Saudi Arabia), Dhahran.
KFUPM/RI. 2006c. Environmental risk and damage assessment of small
scale oil spill o the Al-Jubail coast, Arabian Gulf. Prepared for Saudi
Aramco Shell Renery Company SASREF) by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No.
CEW2301.
KFUPM/RI. 2006c. Section 5.3: Phytoplankton, pp. 280-343. In:
Oceanographic survey in support of the marine and coastal damage
assessment (Project No. CEW2256), Final report, Vol. 1. Prepared
for Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (Dammam, Saudi
Arabia) by the Center for Environment and Water, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals. Submitted through Saudi
Company for Environmental Works Ltd. (Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia),
Dhahran.
KFUPM/RI. 2006d. Preliminary environmental assessment of marine
595
REFERENCES
ecology at the Qurayyah seawater treatment plant. Prepared for
the SNC-Lavalin Inc. by the Center for Environment and Water,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2327.
KFUPM/RI. 2006e. Final report: Environmental baseline survey for
proposed central processing facilities at Khurais Prepared for
Saudi Company for Environmental Works Ltd. Al-Khobar by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report No. CEW2321.
KFUPM/RI. 2006f. Final report: Duba marine terminal permanent berth
(BI-8232) Marine environmental impact assessment and monitoring
study. Prepared for Saudi Company for Environmental Works Ltd.
Al-Khobar by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2259.
KFUPM/RI. 2006g. Environmental impact assessment of
decommissioning a portion of the breakwaters at Aziziyah, Arabian
Gulf. Prepared for Saad Trading and Contraction Company by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Report No. CEW2304.
KFUPM/RI. 2006h. Environmental impact assessment for the BerRI.
Causeway and associated drill site landlling. Prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2303.
KFUPM/RI 2006b. Environmental impact assessment for Manifa
Field development (NAFD/L-001-06): Causeway construction
recommended Causeway conguration for engineering design
scoping. Final report prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2328.
KFUPM/RI. 2007. Final report on “Oceanographic survey in support of
the marine and coastal damage assessment (II): Fisheries, ecosystem
analysis, databases and references.” Prepared for Presidency of
Meteorology and Environment, Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Report
Project No. CEW2256.
KFUPM/RI. 2007b. Environmental impact assessment for Manifa eld
development (NAFD/L): Causeway construction and dredging.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2338.
KFUPM/RI. 2007c. Environmental impact assessment for Manifa
eld development: platforms, pipelines and submarine cables (BI-
10-00452 and BI-10-00453). Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2338.
KFUPM/RI. 2007d. Environmental baseline survey: Manifa central
processing facilities (MCPF). Prepared for A. Al-Saihati, A. Fattani
and O. Al Othman Consulting Engineering Co., Al-Khobar, Saudi
Arabia by the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. Project No. CEW2341.
KFUPM/RI. 2007e. Environmental impact assessment for Tanajib channel
and basin dredging. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2350.
KFUPM/RI. 2007. Sustaining research project, marine environmental
studies — Phase IV, Chapter II, Arabian Gulf coral reef monitoring.
Final report prepared for Saudi Aramco, by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2233.
KFUPM/RI. 2007f. Final report: Study of Al-Khafji seawater quality and
marine habitats. Prepared for Al-Khafji Joint Operations, Al-Khafji,
Saudi Arabia by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Report No. CEW2293.
KFUPM/RI. 2007a. Final report. Environmental impact assessment for
the New Arabia-Bahrain pipeline (BI-10-01110). Prepared for
the Arabian American Oil Company by Water and Environment
Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. CEW 2331.
KFUPM/RI. 2008. Final report: Sustaining research project — Marine
environmental studies. Phase IV, Vol. I, Sustaining research
investigation — Study of water quality and eutrophication in Saudi
Gulf coastal waters. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No.
CEW2233.
KFUPM/RI. 2008. The marine capture sheries of the Saudi Arabian
Gulf. White, S.T., Al-Suwailem, A.M. and Vivekanandan, E.V. (eds.).
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
KFUPM/RI. 2008. Environmental impact assessment for Karan platforms,
power (Bi-10-00579) and pipelines (Bi-10-00580) construction.
Final report submitted to Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, by Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project Number
CEW 2357.
KFUPM/RI. 2008a. Environmental impact assessment for Karan
platforms, power (BI-1-00579) and pipelines (BI-10-00580).
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2357.
KFUPM/RI. 2008b. Final report. Saudi Aramco/KFUPM-RI sustaining
research project — Marine environmental studies — Phase IV —
Arabian Gulf coral reef monitoring. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. 2233.
KFUPM/RI. 2009a. Environmental impact study for channel dredging at
Safaniyah. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2360.
KFUPM/RI. 2009b. Environmental impact assessment for the Ras Tanura
renery expansion project — Landlling and dredging. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2370.
KFUPM/RI. 2009c. Environmental impact assessment and monitoring
for drill cutting disposal at Manifa: Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2359.
KFUPM/RI. 2009a. Environmental impact assessment for the Ras Tanura
integrated project — Dredging. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2365.
KFUPM/RI. 2009f. Environmental impact assessment for the upgrade
of crude gathering and power supply facilities phase I — Safaniyah
eld. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2373.
KFUPM/RI. 2009e. Environmental impact study for the Ras Tanura
596
REFERENCES
integrated project — Dredging: Prepared for Kellogg Brown and
Root Saudi Limited Co. by the Center for Environment and Water,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2361.
KFUPM/RI. 2009d. Development of operational marine modeling
system: Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2325.
KFUPM/RI. 2009g. Environmental impact assessment for the Ras Tanura
renery expansion project — Landlling and dredging. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2370.
KFUPM/RI. 2009h. Marine environmental monitoring of the New
Khursaniyah 30” dia. pipeline (BI-10-08022) project. Prepared for
the Environment Protection Department, Saudi Aramco, by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2336.
KFUPM/RI. 2010a. Environmental impact assessment for the Ras Tanura
renery expansion project — Dredging and landlling. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Final Report, Project No. CEW2370.
KFUPM/RI. 2010b. Marine environmental monitoring of the New
Khursaniyah 30” dia. pipeline (B1-10-08022) project. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Final Report, Project No. CEW2336.
KFUPM/RI. 2010c. Marine environmental monitoring of the Manifa
causeway. Final report. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2342.
KFUPM/RI. 2010d. Environmental impact assessment for the upgrade
of crude gathering and power supply facilities phase 1 — Safaniyah
eld. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Final Report, Project No.
CEW2373.
KFUPM/RI. 2010e. Environmental impact assessment for upgrade of
the re protection system, Ju’aymah oshore platform. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2381.
KFUPM/RI. 2010f. Environmental impact assessment for environmental
impact assessment for Arabiyah-Hasbah platforms, power (BI-10-
00916) and subsea pipelines (BI-10-00917). Prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2382.
KFUPM/RI. 2010e. Environmental impact assessment for installing
instrument scrapping facilities at Zuluf and Marjan oil elds.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2379.
KFUPM/RI. 2010g. Environmental impact assessment for environmental
impact assessment for Arabiyah-Hasbah platforms, power (BI-10-
00916) and subsea pipelines (BI-10-00917). Prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2382.
KFUPM/RI. 2011. Environmental impact assessment for Arabiyah-
Hasbah platforms, power (BI-10-00916) and subsea pipelines (BI-
10-00917). Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Water Resources and
Environment Division, Research Institute, King Fahd University
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No.
CEW02382.
KFUPM/RI. 2012. Environmental assessment for the Tarut Bay pipelines
and structural support system. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2390.
KFUPM/RI. 2013. Final report. Saudi Aramco/KFUPM-RI sustaining
research project — Marine environmental studies — Phase V —
Arabian Gulf coral reef monitoring. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. 2244.
KFUPM/RI. 2013b. Final report — Environmental impact assessment for
the expansion of two drill sites on the BerRI Causeway. Prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2400.
KFUPM/RI. 2013c. Final report — Environmental impact assessment
for dredging (category III) for upgrade of electrical power supply
to Abu Ali plants. Prepared for Zuhair Fayez Partnership by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2399.
KFUPM/RI. 2013e. Final report — Environmental impact assessment for
maintenance dredging to the existing Ras Tanura West pier basin and
channel. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2411.
KFUPM/RI. 2013f. First annual report — Monitoring and assessing
the marine environment in the vicinity of Saudi Aramco oshore
facilities in the Arabian Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2416.
KFUPM/RI. 2013g. Final report. Saudi Aramco/KFUPM-RI. sustaining
research project — Marine environmental studies — Phase V —
Arabian Gulf coral reef monitoring. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by
the Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. 2244.
KFUPM/RI. 2013a. Monitoring and assessing the marine environment
in the vicinity of Saudi Aramco oshore facilities in the Arabian
Gulf. Final report prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2416.
KFUPM/RI. 2013a. Final report — Oshore environmental baseline
survey in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia sector for the Dorra oil eld
development. Prepared for WorleyParsons Europe Ltd. Middlesex,
United Kingdom by the Center for Environment and Water,
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2398.
KFUPM/RI. 2014a. Second annual report — Monitoring and assessing
the marine environment in the vicinity of Saudi Aramco oshore
facilities in the Arabian Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the
Center for Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Project No. CEW2416.
KFUPM/RI. 2014b. Final report — Environmental impact assessment
for the new replacement Safaniyah Trunklines Tl-12 and Tl-13.
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2414.
597
REFERENCES
KFUPM/RI. 2014b. Status assessment and monitoring of the Saudi
Arabian waters of the Arabian Gulf. Final Report prepared for
Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2416.
KFUPM/RI. 2014. Sustaining research project marine environmental
studies. Final report prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No.
CEW2344.
KFUPM/RI. 2014. Aramco sustaining research project — environmental
studies. Fifth Final Report. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by Center for
Environment and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Unpublished.
KFUPM/RI. 2015. Sustaining research project: Marine environmental
studies, phase V. Final report submitted to the Arabian American Oil
Company by the Marine Studies Section, Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report Project No. 2344.
KFUPM/RI. 2015. Marine environmental monitoring of the Manifa
Causeway — Post-construction. Annual report prepared for Saudi
Aramco by the Center for Environment and Water, Research
Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2410.
KFUPM/RI. 2015a. Final report: Sustaining research project —
Marine environmental studies. Phase V. Investigations on marine
environmental conditions in Saudi Arabian waters of the Arabian
Gulf. Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Report No. 2344.
KFUPM/RI. 2015b. Final Report. Environmental Impact Assessment
for the Hasbah oshore gas facilities increment II (BI-10-01902).
Prepared for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment and
Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2429.
KFUPM/RI. 2016. Fisheries program — Assessment and management
of essential sh habitats in Saudi Arabian waters. Draft nal report
under preparation for Saudi Aramco by the Center for Environment
and Water, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Project No. CEW2375.
Khalaf, E., Literathy, P. and Anderlini, V. 1981. Vanadium as a tracer of
chronic oil pollution in the sediments of Kuwait. Proceedings of the
2nd International Symposium on Interaction between Sediment and
Freshwater, June 14-18, 1981, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
Khaleghi Ghadiri, M. and Gorki, A. 2004. Natural remedies for impotence
in medieval Persia. International Journal of Impotence Research 16: 80-83.
Khan, M.A. and Al-Homaid, N.A. 2003. Remote sensing study on
mangrove depletion Tarut Bay, Saudi Arabia, pp. 227-233, in Alsharan,
A.S., Wood, W.W., Goudie, A.S., Fowler, A.R. and Abdellatif, E.M.
(eds.). Desertication in the 3rd Millenium. A.A. Balkema: Rotterdam.
Khan, M.A. and Kumar, A. 2009. Impact of “urban development” on
mangrove forests along the West Coast of the Arabian Gulf. Earth
Science India 2: 159-173.
Khan, M.A., Boer, B., Kust, G.A. and Barth, H-J. 2006. Sabkha ecosystems.
Vol. II: West and Central Asia. Springer, 259 p.
Khan, M.A., Böer, B., Öztürkm M., Al-Abdessalam, T.Z., Clusener-
Godt, M. and Gul, B. 2014. Sabkha ecosystems: Vol. IV: Cash crop
halophyte and biodiversity conservation. Tasks for Vegetation Science
47: 339, Springer.
Khan, N.N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R. 2002. The Gulf ecosystem:
Health and sustainability. Backhuys.
Khan, N.Y. 2007. Multiple stressors and ecosystem-based management in
the Gulf. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 103: 259-267.
Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. 2002. Environmental trends
and integrated management of the Gulf, pp. 483-494, in Khan, N.Y.,
Munwar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem: Health
and sustainability. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
Kiani, M.S., Iqbal, P., Siddiqui, P.J.A. and Moazzam, M. 2013. First
records of the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) and rough-
toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) in Pakistani waters: a review
of occurrence and conservation status in the Indian Ocean. Pakistan
Journal of Zoology 45(4): 1113-1123.
Kikuchi, T. and Peres, J.M. 1977. Consumer ecology of seagrass beds,
pp. 147-193, in McRoy, C.P. and Helerich, C. (eds.). Seagrass
ecosystems. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
Killick, R. and Moon, J. (eds.). 2005. The early dilmun settlement at Saar.
Archaeology International in association with London-Bahrain
Archaeological Expedition, Ludlow.
Kimor, B. 1973. Plankton relationships of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and
Arabian Sea, pp. 221-232, in Zeirtzschel, B. (ed.). Ecological studies,
analysis and synthesis. Vol. 3. Biology of the Indian Ocean. Springer
Verlag, Berlin.
King, H. 2004. Communal behaviour of Socotra cormorant, Bahrain.
Phoenix 20: 25-28.
Kinsey, D.W. 1991. The coral reef: An owner-built, high density, fully
serviced, self-sucient, housing estate in the desert: Or is it? Symbiosis
10: 1-22.
Kinsman, D.J. 1964. Recent carbonate sedimentation near Abu Dhabi,
Trucial Coast, Persian Gulf, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. London.
Kinsman, D.J. 1967. Huntite from a carbonate-evaporite environment.
Amer. Mineralogist 52: 1332-1340.
Kinsman, D.J. 1969. Modes of formation, sedimentary associations, and
diagnostic features of shallow-water and supratidal evaporites. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists Bull. 53: 830-840.
Kinsman, D.J.J. 1964. Reef coral tolerance of high temperatures and
salinities. Nature 202: 1280-1282.
Kinunen, W. and Walczak, P. 1970. Persion Gulf sea turtle nesting surveys.
Report of the sport sheries and marine biology Persian Gulf sea
turtles job completion report.
Kinzie, R.A. and Hunter, T. 1987. Eect of light quality on photosynthesis
of the reef coral Montipora verrucosa. Marine Biology 94: 95-109.
Kinzie, R.A., Jokiel, P.L. and York, R. 1984. Eects of light of altered
spectral composition on coral zooxanthellae associations and on
zooxanthellae in vitro. Marine Biology 78: 239-248.
Kiorbe, T., Mohlenberg, F. and Nohr, O. 1981. Eect of suspended bottom
material on growth and energetics in Mytilus edulis. Marine Biology
61: 283-288.
KISR. 1985. Mar ine Monitoring Research Programs in the State of Kuwait.
Proc. ROPME Symposium on Regional Marine Monitoring and
Research Programs, UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates.
Kuwait Institute for Scientic Research.
Kiszka, J. 2012. Bycatch assessment of vulnerable megafauna in coastal
artisanal sheries in the southwest Indian Ocean. Final report to
South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Project (SWIOFP), 113 p.
Koch, E.W. 2001. Beyond light: Physical, geological and geochemical
parameters as possible submersed aquatic vegetation habitat
requirements. Estuaries 24: 1-17.
Koch, E.W. and Gust, G. 1999. Water ow in tide and wave dominated
beds of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 184: 63-72.
Koch, M.S., Schopmeyer, S.A., Kyhn-Hansen, C., Madden, C.J. and Peters,
J.S. 2007. Tropical seagrass species tolerance to hypersalinity stress.
Aquatic Botany 86: 14-24.
Kock, D. and Nader, I.A. 1996. Terrestrial mammals of the Jubail marine
wildlife sanctuary, pp. 421-437, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and
Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Konyuhov, A.I. and Maleki, B. 2006. The Persian Gulf basin: Geological
598
REFERENCES
history, sedimentary formations, and petroleum potential. Lithology
and Mineral Resources 41(4): 344-361.
Kott, P. 1981. The ascidians of the reef ats of Fiji. Proceedings of the Linnaean
Society, New South Wales 105: 147-212.
Kovalev, A.V. 1988. Structure of zooplankton communities and its changes
in the oshore Atlantic and in the Mediteranean basin. Diss. of
Doctor of Biol. Sciences. Sevestopol: 1-454 (in Russian).
Krishnakumar, P.K., Miller, J.D. and Ashraf, T.T. Chapter 2. The physical
environment of the Arabian Gulf, in Al-Abdulkader, K., Loughland,
R.A. and Qurban, M.A. (eds.). Ecosystems of the Western Arabian
Gulf: 40 years of marine research — A book for managers, planners
and researchers. Environmental Protection Department, Saudi
Aramco.
Krishnakumar, P.K., Qurban, M.A., Lindo, R., Joydas, T.V., Lin, J.Y., Al-
Abdulkader, K., McCain, J.C. and Roa-Ureta, R. (unpublished). The
present status of coral reefs in the Western Arabian Gulf. (Manuscript
under preparation.)
Kropach, C. 1975. The yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis, in the eastern
Pacic, pp. 185-213, in Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea snakes.
University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, USA.
Krupp, F. 2002. Marine protected areas, pp. 447-473, in Khan, N.,
Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem: Health
and sustainability, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.
Krupp, F. and Jones, D.A. 1993. The creation of a marine sanctuary after
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 315-323.
Krupp, F. and Müller, T. 1994. The status of sh populations in the northern
Arabian Gulf two years after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. Courier
Forschungsinst Senckenb 166: 67-75.
Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). 1996. A Marine
wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf — Environmental research
and conservation following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. National
Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development/
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Riyadh/Frankfurt,
502 p., plus appendices.
Krupp, F., Al-Muftah, A., Jones, D.A. and Hoolihan, J. 2006. Marine
and coastal ecosystem management requirements in the Arabian
Peninsula with special regard to water resources, pp. 73-87, in
Amer, K.M., Böer, B., Brook, M.C., Adeel, Z., Clüsener-Godt, M.
and Saleh, W. (eds.). Policy perspectives for ecosystem and water
management in the Arabian Peninsula. United Nations University,
Ontario, Canada.
Kuo, J. and den Hartog, C. 2006. Seagrass morphology, anatomy, and
ultrastructure, pp. 51-87, in Larkum, A.W.D., Orth, R.J. and Duarte,
C.M. (eds.). Seagrasses: Biology, ecology and their conservation.
Springer, London.
Kuronuma, K. 1974. Arabian Gulf shery — oceanographic survey by the
Umitaka Maru, training research vessel, Tokyo University of Fisheries
with collaboration of Kuwait Institute for Scientic Research.
Kwan, D. 2002. Toward a sustainable indigenous shery for dugongs in
Torres Strait: A contribution of empirical data and process. Ph.D.
Thesis, School of Tropical Environment Studies and Geography.
James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.
Lai, H.C., Lim, K-H. and Lim, C.P. 1984. Eects of oil on mangroves in
eld conditions, pp. 123-138, in Lai, H.C. and Feng, M.C. (eds.).
Fate and eects of oil in the mangrove environment. Univ. Sains
Malaysia, Penang.
Laist, D.W. 1997. Impacts of marine debris: Entanglement of marine life
in marine debris including a comprehensive list of species with
entanglement and ingestion records, pp. 99-139, in Coe, J.M. and
Rogers, D.B. (eds.). Marine debris sources, impacts and solutions.
Springer-Verlag, New York.
Lal, A., Arthur, R., Marbà, N., Lill A. and Alcoverro, T. 2010. Implications
of conserving an ecosystem modier: Increasing green turtle
Chelonia mydas densities substantially alters seagrass meadows.
Biological Conservation 143: 2730-2738.
Lambeck, K. 1996. Shoreline reconstructions for the Persian Gulf since the
last glacial maximum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142: 43-57.
Lambert, G. 2001. A global overview of ascidian introductions and their
possible impact on the endemic fauna, pp. 249-257, in Sawada, H.,
Yokosawa, H. and Lambert, C.C. (eds.). The biology of ascidians.
Springer-Verlag, Tokyo.
Lambert, G. 2005. Ecology and natural history of the protochordates.
Canadian Journal of Zoology 83: 34-50.
Lancaster, W. 1986. Preliminary reports, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 1983-1986
(unpublished).
Langman, O.C., Hale, J.A., Cormack, C.D., Risk, M.J. and Madon, S.P.
2012. Developing multimetric indices for monitoring ecological
restoration progress in salt marshes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64: 820-
835.
Lanyon, J.M. 1991. The nutritional ecology of the dugong Dugong dugon
in tropical north Queensland. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis dissertation,
Monash University, Victoria, Australia, 337 p.
Lanyon, J.M., Limpus, C.J. and March, H. 1989. Dugongs and turtles:
Grazers in the seagrass system, pp. 610-634, in Larkum, A.W.,
McComb, A.J. and Shepherd, S.A. (eds.). Biology of seagrasses.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Lardner R.W., Lehr, W.J., Fraga, R.J. and Sarhan, M.A. 1988. A model of
residual currents and pollution transport in the Arabian Gulf. Applied
Mathematical Modelling 12: 379-390.
Lardner, R.W., Belen, M.S. and Cekige, H.M. 1982. Finite dierence
model for tidal ows in the Arabian Gulf. Comp. Maths. Appls. 8(6):
425-444.
Lattemann, S. 2005. Seawater desalination — Environmental impact.
http://www.paua.de/ Impacts.htm#cleaning.
Lattemann, S. 2010. Development of environmental impact assessment
and decision support system for seawater desalination plants. Ph.D.
Dissertation, CRC Press/Balkema, 276 p.
Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. 2008. Environmental impact and impact
assessment of seawater desalination. Desalination 220: 1-15.
Laurans, Y., Pascal, N., Binet, T., Brander, L., Clua, E., David, G., Rojat, D.
and Seidl, A. 2013. Economic valuation of ecosystem services from
coral reefs in the South Pacic: Taking stock of recent experience.
Journal of Environmental Management 116: 135-144.
Layman, C.A., Allgeier, J.E., Yeager, L.A. and Stoner, E.W. 2013. Thresholds
of ecosystem response to nutrient enrichment from sh aggregations.
Ecology 94: 530-536.
Le Provost, C. 1983. Models for tides in the KAP region, pp. 37-45, in
El-Sabh, M.I. (ed.). Oceanographic modelling of the Kuwait action
plan region. UNESCO Reports in Marine Sciences, Vol. 28.
Lee Long, W.J., Mellors, J.E. and Coles, R.G. 1993. Seagrasses between
Cape York and Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia. Aust. J. Mar.
Freshw. Res 44: 19-31.
Lee, K-S. and Dunton, K.H. 1996. Production and carbon reserve
dynamics of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum in Corpus Christi Bay,
Texas, USA. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 143: 201-210.
Lee, R.F., Sauerheber, A. and Dobbs, G.H. 1972. Uptake, metabolism and
discharge of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by marine sh. Mar.
Biol. 17: 201-208.
Lehr, W.J. 1983. A brief survey of oceanographic modeling and oil spill
studies in the region. Symposium/Workshop on iceanographic
modeling of the Kuwait action plan region, King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, October 15-17,
1983.
Lehr, W.J. 1984. A brief survey of oceanographic modeling and oil
spill studies in the KAP region, pp. 4-11, in El-Sabh, M.I. (ed.).
Oceanographic modeling of the Kuwait action plan region.
UNESCO Reports in Marine Sciences, Paris.
Lenz, J. 2000. Introduction, in Harris, R.P., Wiebe, P.H., Lenz, J., Skjoldal,
H.R. and Huntley, M. (eds.). ICES Zooplankton methodology
manual. Academic Press, London.
599
REFERENCES
Les, D.H., Cleland, M.A. and Waycott, M. 1997. Phylogenetic studies in
the Alismatidae, II: Evolution of the marine angiosperms (seagrasses)
and hydrophily. Systematic Botany 22: 443-463.
Leslie, H.M. and McLeod, K.L. 2007. Confronting the challenges of
implementing marine ecosystem-based management. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment 5: 540-548.
Leviton, A.E., Anderson, S.C., Adler, K. and Minton, S.A. 1992. Handbook
to Middle East amphibians and reptiles. Society for the study of
Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca, New York, USA, 252 p.
Limpus, C. 2006. Impacts of climate change on marine turtles: A case
study, pp. 34-40, in Vagg, R. and Hepworth, H. (eds.). Migratory
species and climate change: Impacts of a changing environment on
wild animals. UNEP/CMS Convention on Migratory Species and
DEFRA, Bonn, Germany.
Limpus, C.J. and Nicholls, N. 1988. The southern oscillation regulates the
annual numbers of green turtles Chelonia mydas breeding around
northern Australia. Aust. J. Wildlife Research 15: 157-161.
Limpus, C.J., Cooper, P.J. and Read, M. 1994a. The green turtle, Chelonia
mydas, in Queensland: Population structure in a warm temperate
feeding area. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 35: 139-154.
Limpus, C.J., Cooper, P.J. and Read, M. 1994b. The loggerhead turtle,
Caretta caretta, in Queensland: Population structure in a warm
temperate feeding area. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 37: 195-
204.
Limpus, C.J., Miller, J.D., Parmenter, C.J., Reimer, D., McLachlan, N. and
Webb, R. 1992. Migration of green Chelonia mydas and loggerhead
Caretta caretta turtles to and from Australian rookeries. Wildlife
Research 19: 347-358.
Linden, O., Abdulraheem, M.Y., Gerges, M.A., Alam, I.M., Behbehani, M.,
Borhan, A. and Al-Kassab, F. 1990. State of the marine environment
in the ROPME Sea Area. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies
No. 112, Rev. 1, UNEP.
Lindén, O., Jernelöv, A. and Egerup, J. 2004. The environmental impacts
of the Gulf War 1991. Interim Report IR-04-019. International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 94 p.
Lipkin, Y. 1975. Food of the Red Sea Dugong (Mamrnalia: Sirenia) from
Sinai. Isr J Zoo1 24: 81-98.
Lirman, D. and Cropper Jr., W.P. 2003. The inuence of salinity on seagrass
growth, survivorship, and distribution within Biscayne Bay, Florida:
Field, experimental, and modeling studies. Estuaries 26: 131-141.
Literathy, P. 1993. Considerations for the assessment of environmental
consequences of the 1991 Gulf War. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27:
349-356.
Literathy, P., Khan, N.Y. and Linden, O. 2002. Oil and petroleum industry,
pp. 127-156, in Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.).
The Gulf ecosystem: Health and sustainability. Ecovision World
Monograph Series. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.
Livett, B.G., Gayler, K.R. and Khalil, Z. 2004. Drugs from the sea:
Conopeptides as potential therapeutics. Current Medicinal Chemistry
11: 1715-1723.
Lohmann, K.J., Witherington, B.E., Lohmann M.F. and Salmon, M. 1997.
Orientation, navigation, and natal beach homing in sea turtles, pp.
107-135, in Lutz, P. and Musick, J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles.
CRC Press, New York.
Lokiec, F. 2013. Sustainable desalination: Environmental approaches.
Proceedings of the International Desalination Association Congress
on Desalination and Water Reuse — Tianjin, China, 16 p.
Lombard, P. 1999. The last centuries of Dilmun, pp. 130-133, in Bahrain,
the civilization of the two seas: From Dilmun to Tylos. Institut du
Monde Arabe, Paris.
Longsta, B.J. and Dennison, W.C. 1999. Seagrass survival during pulsed
turbidity events: The eects of light deprivation on the seagrasses
Halodule pinifolia and Halophila ovalis. Aquat. Bot. 65: 105-121.
Loop, K.A., Miller, J.D. and Limpus, C.J. 1995. Nesting by the hawksbill
turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) on Milman Island, Great Barrier
Reef, Australia. Wildlife Research 22(2): 241-251.
Lorenzen, C.J. 1966. A method for the continuous measurement of in vivo
chlorophyll concentration. Deep-Sea Res. 13: 223-227.
Lough, J.M. 2000. 1997-98: Unprecedented thermal stress to coral reefs?
Geophys Res Lett 27: 3901-3904.
Lough, J.M. and Barnes, D.J. 2000. Environmental controls on growth of
the massive coral Porites. J Exp Marine Biology Ecol 245: 225-243.
Lough, J.M., Devereux, M.J. and Barnes, D.J. 2003. Porites coral growth
records from the Arabian Gulf. Australian Institute of Marine
Science, Townsville, Australia, pp. 1-55.
Loughland, R.A., Al-Abdulkader, K., Wyllie, A. and Burwell, B. 2012.
Anthropogenic induced geomorphological change along the
western Arabian Gulf coast. 10.5772/28330.
Loughland, R.A. and Miller, J. 2003. Beach temperatures and the potential
impact of global warming on marine turtle nesting in the United
Arab Emirates. Poster presented at 26th Annual Conference on Sea
Turtle Conservation and Biology, April 2006, Crete, Greece.
Loughland, R.A. and Cunningham, P.L. 2002. Vertebrate fauna of Sabkhat
from the Arabian Peninsula: A review of mammalia, reptilia and
amphibia, pp. 255-266, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha
ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Loughland, R.A. and Saenger, P. 2001. Report to the Public Works
Department of Abu Dhabi on the methods for the development
of mangrove plantations in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Department of
Environmental Research, Emirates Heritage Authority, Abu Dhabi,
UAE.
Loughland, R.A. and Saji, B. 2007. Remote sensing: A tool for managing
marine pollution in the Gulf, in Barth, H-J. and Böer, B. (eds.). Gulf
ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 131-145.
Loughland, R.A., Al-Abdulkader, K.A., Wyllie, A. and Burwell, B.O.
2012. Anthropogenic induced geomorphological change along
the western Arabian Gulf coast, pp. 191-218, in Piacentini, T. (ed.).
Studies on environmental and applied geomorphology. InTech
Europe, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
Loughland, R.A. and Abdukader, K.A. (eds.). 2011. Marine Atlas: Western
Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco Environmental Publication, 2nd edition.
Loughland, R.A., Qasem, A.M., Burwell, B. and Prihartato, P.K. 2016.
Coastal Sabkha (Salt Flats) of southern and western Arabian Gulf, in
Finlayson, C.M., Milton, R., Prentice, C. and Davidson, N.C. (eds.).
The Wetland book, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_185-3.
Loughland, R.A., Wyllie, A. and Al-Abdulkader, K. 2011. Anthropogenic
induced changes along the Gulf coast of KSA from 1967-2010, p.
333, Piacentinj, T. (ed.). Geomorphology Intech, Croatia.
Lowe, C.G., Wetherbee, B.M., Crow, G.L. and Tester, A.L. 1996.
Ontogenetic dietary shifts and feeding behavior of the tiger shark,
Galeocerdo cuvier, in Hawaiian waters. Environmental Biology of
Fishes 47: 203-211.
Lukoschek, V., Beger, M., Ceccarelli, D., Richards, Z. and Pratchett, M.
2013. Enigmatic declines of Australia’s sea snakes from a biodiversity
hotspot. Biological Conservation 166: 191-202.
Lutcavage, M.E., Plotkin, P., Witherington, B. and Lutz, P.L. 1997. Human
impacts on sea turtle survival, pp. 387-410, in Lutz, P. and Musick.
J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles, Vol. I. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, USA.
Lutz, P.L. and Musick, J.A. (eds.). 1997. The biology of sea turtles, Vol. I.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 448 p.
Lutz, P.L., Musick, J.A. and Wyneken, J. (eds.). 2003. The biology of sea
turtles, Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 455 p.
Macauley, J.M., Clark, J.R. and Price, W.A. 1988. Seasonal changes in
the standing crop and chlorophyll content of Thalassia testudinum
Banks ex König and its epiphytes in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Aquat. Bot. 31: 277-287.
Madhi, W. 2009. Saudi “slow to act on climate change.” The National, Apr il
1, 2009.
600
REFERENCES
Madhupratap, M., Kumar, S.P., Bhattathiri, P.M.A., Kumar, M.D.,
Raghukumar, S., Nair, K.K.C. and Ramaiah, N. 1996. Mechanism
of the biological response to winter cooling in the northeastern
Arabian Sea. Letters to Nature 384: 549-552.
Madon, S.P. 2008. Fish community responses to ecosystem stressors
in coastal estuarine wetlands: A functional basis for wetlands
management and restoration. Wetlands Ecol Manage 16: 219-236.
Madon, S.P., Williams, G.D., West, J.M. and Zedler, J.D. 2001. The
importance of marsh access to growth of the California killish,
F. parvipinnis, evaluated through bioenergetics modeling. Ecol.
Modeling 135: 149-165.
Madsen, J.D., Chambers, P.A., James, W.F., Koch, E.W. and Westlake, D.F.
2001. The interaction between water movement, sediment dynamics
and submersed macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 444: 71-84.
Maghsoudlou, A., Araghi, P.E., Wilson, S., Taylor, O. and Medio, D. 2008.
Status of coral reefs in the ROPME sea area (The Persian Gulf, Gulf
of Oman, and Arabian Sea), pp. 79-90, in Wilkinson, C. (ed.). Status
of coral reefs of the world Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
and Reef and Rainforest Research Center, Townsville, Australia.
Mahasneh, I.A., Al-Thani, R.F. and Brown, G. 2006. The micro-organisms
of sabkhat in Qatar, pp. 89-97, in Khan, M.A., Boer, B., Kust, G.A.
and Barth, H-J. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Vol. II: West and Central
Asia, Springer.
Mahmoodur Rahman, M., Al-Sulami, S., Al-Muaili, F. and Kither, N. 2009.
Carbohydrazide vs. Hydrazine: A comparative study. Proceedings of
the International Desalination Association Congress on Desalination
and Water Reuse, Dubai, UAE, November 7-12, 15 p.
Mahmoodur Rahman, M., Dalvi, A.G., Rabbani, A., Al-Sulami, S.,
Mandilli, F., Al-Khaledi, H. and Al-Jowdi, B. 2012. Application of
fuel additives to reduce corrosion and stack emissions in Saline Water
Conversion Corporation’s boilers. Power Plant Chemistry 14(1): 20-
32.
Malik, A.U. and Mayan-Kutty, P.C. 1992. Corrosion and material selection
in desalination plants. Proceedings of the Seminar on Operation and
Maintenance of Desalination Plants, SWCC, April 27-29, pp. 274-
307.
Mandeville, J.P. 1990. Flora of eastern Saudi Arabia. London, Kegan Paul
International Ltd. and Riyadh, NCWCD, 482 p.
Mangi, S.C., Davis, C.E., Payne, L.A., Austen, M.C., Simmonds, D.,
Beaumont, N.J. and Smyth, T. 2011. Valuing the regulatory services
provided by marine ecosystems. Envirometrics 22: 686-698.
Mann, J. and Smuts, B.B. 1998. Natal attraction: Allomaternal care and
mother-infant separations in wild bottlenose dolphins. Animal
Behaviour 55: 1097-1113.
Mann, J., Connor, R.C., Barre, L.M. and Heithaus, M.R. 2000. Female
reproductive success in wild bottlenose dolphins (Turiops sp.): Life
history, habitat, provisioning, and group size eects. Behavioral Ecology
11: 210-219.
Mannino, M.A. and Thomas, K.D. 2002. Depletion of a resource?
The impact of prehistoric human foraging on intertidal mollusc
communities and its signicance for human settlement, mobility and
dispersal. World Archaeology 33(3): 452-474.
Maragos, J.E. 1979. Environmental surveys ve years after oshore marine
sand mining operations at Keauhou Bay, Hawaii. International
Report of US Army Engineer Division, Pacic Ocean, Fort Shafter,
Hawaii.
Marbà, N. and Duarte, C.M. 1998. Rhizome elongation and seagrass
clonal growth. Marine Ecology Progress Series 174: 269-280.
Marcus. J. and Thorhaug, A. 1981. Pacic vs. Atlantic responses of the
subtropical hermatypic coral Porites spp. to temperature and salinity
eects. Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium 2: 15-
20.
Mare, M.F. 1942. A study of a marine benthic community with special
reference to the micro organisms. Journal of the Marine Biological
Association of the United Kingdom 25: 517-554.
Margalef, R. 1978. Life forms of phytoplankton as survival alternatives in
an unstable environment. Oceanologica acta 1(4): 493-509.
Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center. 2008. Pearl Jubilee, 1978-2008.
Márquez, M.R. 1990. Sea turtles of the world. An annotated and illustrated
catalogue of sea turtle species known to date FAO species catalogue.
FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125(11): 81.
Márquez, M.R., Villanueva, A. and Peñaores, C. 1976. Sinopsis de datos
biologicos sobre La tortuga golna, turtle Lepdochelys olivacea
(Eschscholtz, 1829) en Mexico. Ciencia Pesquera Instituto Nacional
de la Pesca. INP S/2, pp. 1-61.
Marsh, H. 1980. Age determination of the Dugong (Dugong dugon
(Muller)) in northern Australia and its biological implication. Report
of the International Whaling Commission Special Issue 3: 181-201.
Marsh, H. 1995. The life history, pattern of breeding and population
dynamics of the Dugong, pp. 75-83, in O’Shea, T.J., Ackermann, B.B.
and Percival, H.F. (eds.). Population biology of the Florida manatee.
U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service,
Information and Technology Report.
Marsh, H., Corkerton, P., Lawler, I.R., Preen, A. and Lanyon, J. 1996. The
status of the dugong in the Southern Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park.
Marsh, H. 1999. Reproduction in sirenians, pp. 243-256, in Reynolds
III, J.E. and Twiss, J. (eds.). Reproduction in marine mammals.
Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institute Press, pp. 243-256.
Marsh, H. 2008. Dugong dugon. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2008: e.T6909A12812709. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/
IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS. T6909A12812709.en. Downloaded on
April 11, 2015.
Marsh, H., Chanells, P.W., Heinsohn, G.E. and Morrissey, J. 1982. Analysis
of stomach contents of dugongs from Queensland. Aust. Wildl. Res
9: 55-67.
Marsh, H., Heinsohn, G.E. and Marsh, L.M. 1984. Breeding cycle, life
history and population dynamics of the Dugong, (Dugong dugon)
(Sirenia: Dugongidae). Australian Journal of Zoology 32: 767-788.
Marsh, H., Penrose, H., Eros, C. and Hugues, J. 2002. Dugong status report
and actions plans for countries and territories. UNEP Early Warning
and Assessment Report Series, Kenya.
Martens, H. 1996. A preliminary survey of the terrestrial reptiles and
sea snakes in the Jubail marine wildlife sanctuary, pp. 360-373, in
Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife
sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf South environmental research and
conservation following the 1991 Gulf war oil spill. (NCWCD,
Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute), Frankfurt, Germany.
Mártiz, P. and Artal, V. 2013. Impact of the discharge of brine on benthic
communities: A case study in Chile. Proceedings of the International
Desalination Association World Congress on Desalination and Water
Reuse 2013/Tianjin, China, 13 p.
Masini, R.J., Anderson, P.K. and McComb, A.J. 2001. A Halodule
dominated community in a subtropical embayment: Physical
environment, productivity, biomass, and impact of dugong grazing.
Aquatic Botany 71: 179-197.
Masry, A.H. 1997. Prehistory in Northeastern Arabia. The problem of
interregional interaction. Kegan Paul, London.
Massoud, M., Al-Abdali, F. and Al-Ghadban, A. 1998. The status of oil
pollution in the Arabian Gulf by the end of 1993. Environment
International 24: 11-22.
Massoud, M.S., Al-Abdali, F., Al-Ghadban, A.N. and Al-Sarawi, M. 1996.
Bottom sediments of the Arabian Gulf-II. TPH and TOC contents
as indicators of oil pollution and implications for the eect and fate
of the Kuwait oil slick. Environmental Pollution 93(3): 271-284.
Matsuike, K., Morinaga, T. and Hiraoka, T. 1986. Turbidity distribution in
Tokyo bay and movement of the turbid water. Journ. Tokyo Univ. Fish.
73(2): 97-114.
Matsuyama, M., Kitade, Y., Senjyu, T., Koike, Y. and Ishimaru, T. 1998.
Ver tical structure of current and density front in the Strait of Hormuz,
601
REFERENCES
pp. 23-34, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M.
(eds.). Oshore environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the
war-related oil spill. Terra Scientic Publishing Co. TERRAPUB,
Tokyo, Japan.
Mauchline, J. 1980. The biology of Mysids and Euphauaiids, pp. 373-595,
in Blaxter, J.H.S., Russell, F.S. and Yonge, M. (eds.). Advances in
marine biology, Vol. 18. Academic Press, London.
Mayer, A.G. 1914. The eects of temperature upon tropical marine
animals. Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Maynard, J.A., Anthony, K.R.N., Marshall, P.A. and Masiri, I. 2008. Major
bleaching events can lead to increased thermal tolerance in corals.
Marine Biology 155(2): 173-182.
McCain, J.C. 1984a. Marine ecology of Saudi Arabia. The intertidal
infauna of the sand beaches in the northern area, Arabian Gulf,
Saudi Arabia, pp. 53-78, in Buttiker, A. and Krupp, F. (eds.). Fauna
of Saudi Arabia. Pro Entomologia, Natural History Museum, Base
(Switzerland). Vol. 6.
McCain, J.C. 1984b. Marine ecology of Saudi Arabia. The intertidal
infauna of the sand beaches in the northern area, Arabian Gulf, Saudi
Arabia. Fauna Saudi Arabia 6: 53-78.
McCain, J.C. 1993. Illustrated keys to the ora and fauna of the Arabian
Gulf, pp. 1-526, prepared for Arabian American Oil Company,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
McCain, J.C. 1984. Marine ecology of Saudi Arabia, in Buttiker, A.,
Krupp, F. (eds.). The near shore soft-bottom benthic communities
of the Northern Area, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Fauna of Saudi
Arabia. Pro Entomologia 6: 79-101. Natural History Museum, Basle,
Switzerland.
McCain, J.C., Tarr, A.B., Carpenter, K.E. and Coles, S.L. 1984. Marine
ecology of Saudi Arabia: A survey of coral reefs and reef shes in
the northern area, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia
6: 102-126.
McCauley, J.E., Parr, R.A. and Hancock, D.R. 1977. Benthic infauna and
maintenance dredging. A case study. Water Res. 11: 233-242.
McClanahan, T.R. and Kurtis, J.D. 1991. Population regulation of the
rock-boring sea urchin Echinometra mathaei (de Blainville). Journal
of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 147: 121-146.
McClanahan, T.R. and Muthiga, N.A. 2001. The ecology of echinometra,
pp. 225-243, in Lawrence, J.M. (ed.). Developments in aquaculture
and sheries science. Elsevier.
McClanahan, T.R., Kamukuru, A.T., Muthiga, N.A., Yebio, M.G. and
Obura, D. 1996. Eect of sea urchin reductions on algae, coral, and
sh populations. Conserv. Biol. 10: 136-154.
McClanahan, T.R., Nugues, M. and Mwachireya, S. 1994. Fish and sea
urchin herbivory and competition in Kenyan coral reef lagoons: The
role of reef management. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology 184: 237-254.
McClanahan, T.R., Sala, E. and Mumby, P. 2004. Phosphorus and nitrogen
enrichment do not enhance brown frondose “macroalgae.” Marine
Pollution Bulletin 48: 196-199.
McClenachan, L., Jackson, J.B.C. and Newman, M.J.H. 2006. Conservation
implications of historic sea turtle nesting beach loss. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment 4(6): 290-296.
McClure, H.A. and Al Shaikh, N. 1993. Palaeogeography of an ’Ubaid
archaeological site, Saudi Arabia. Arab. Archaeol. Epigr. 4: 107-125.
McClure, H.A. and Vita-Finzi, C. 1982. Holocene shorelines and tectonic
movements in eastern Saudi Arabia. Tectonophysics 85: T37-T43.
McCook, L.J., Jompa, J. and Diaz-Pulido, G. 2001. Competition between
corals and algae on coral reefs: A review of evidence and mechanisms.
Coral Reefs 19(4): 400-417.
McCosker, J.E. 1975. Feeding behavior of Indo-Australian Hydrophiidae,
pp. 217-232, in Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea snakes.
University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, USA.
McGlade, J.M. and Price, A.R.G. 1993. Multidisciplinary modeling: An
overview and practical implications for the governance of the Gulf
region. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 361-375.
McIntyre, A.D. 1969. Ecology of marine meiobenthos. Biological Review
44: 245-290.
McIvor, A.L., Möller, I., Spencer, T. and Spalding, M. 2012. Reduction of
wind and swell waves by mangroves. Natural coastal protection series:
Report 1. Cambridge Coastal Research Unit Working Paper 40. The
Nature Conservancy and Wetlands International, Cambridge, 27 p.
McIvor, A.L., Spencer, T., Möller, I. and Spalding, M. 2013. The response
of mangrove soil surface elevation to sea level rise. Natural coastal
protection series: Report 3. Cambridge Coastal Research Unit
Working Paper 42. Published by The Nature Conservancy and
Wetlands International, 59 p.
McIvor, C.C. and Odum, W.E. 1988. Food, predation risk, and microhabitat
selection in a marsh sh assemblage. Ecology 69(5): 1341-1351.
McKenzie, J.A., Hsü, K.J. and Schneider, J.F. 1980. Movement of subsurface
waters under the sabkha, Abu Dhabi, UAE, and its relation to
evaporative dolomite genesis. SEPM Special Publication 28, pp. 11-
30.
McManus, J.W. and Wenno, J.J. 1981. Coral communities of outer Ambon
Bay: A general assessment survey. Bulletin of Marine Science 31(3): 574-
580.
McMullon, C. 2008. The importance of salt marshes for biodiversity, pp.
19-22, in Inder, A. and Ansell, K. (eds.). What future for the solent’s
salt marshes? Solent Protection Society, Beaulieu.
McNeill, S.E. 1994. The selection and design of marine protected areas:
Australia as a case study. Biodiversity & Conservation, 3(7): 586.
Meakins, R.H. and Al-Mohanna, S.Y. 2000. Sea turtles in Kuwait after the
Gulf War. Mar ine Turtle Newsletter 88: 7-8.
Meakins, R.H. and Al-Mohanna, S.Y. 2003. Some problems and the
importance of reptile biodiversity in Kuwait. Journal of Arid
Environments 54(1): 209-217.
Medio, D. 2006. Umm el Quwain (UAE), Preliminary environmental
report on Khor Beidah. Report to Anonymous Client, Halcrow
Group, 65 p.
Menden-Deuer, S. and Lessard, E.J. 2000. Carbon to volume relationships
for dinoagellates, diatoms, and other protist plankton. Limnology and
Oceanography 45(3): 569-579.
MEPA (Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration).
1991. Coastal surveys summary report. Unpublished report.
Méry, S., Charpentier, V. and Beech, M. 2008. First evidence of shell sh-
hook technology in the Gulf. Arab. Archaeol. Epigr. 19: 15-21.
Meshal, A.H. 1987. Hydrography of a hypersaline coastal lagoon in the
Red Sea. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 24: 167-175.
MESL. 2004. Impacts of overboard screening and associated benthic
biological community structure in relation to marine aggregate
extraction. Prepared by the Marine Ecological Surveys Limited
(MESL) for the Oce of Deputy Prime Minister and Minerals
Industry Research Organization, U.K.
Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi
Arabia). 2012. National Ambient Water Quality Standards of 2012.
Metoce. 2013. Saudi Arabia. (metoce.gov.uk/media/pdf/j/m/Saudi_
Arabia.pdf). Accessed: October 2013.
Meylan, A. 1985. The role of sponge collagens in the diet of the hawksbill
turtle Eretmochelys imbricate, pp. 191-196, in Barrati, A. and
Garrone, R. (eds.). Biology of invertebrate and lower vertebrate
collagens. Plenum Publishing Corporation.
Meylan, A. 1988. Spongivory in hawksbill turtles: A diet of glass. Science
239: 393-396.
Meylan, A.B., Bowen, B.W. and Avise, J.A. 1990. A genetic test of natal
homing verses social facilitation models for green turtle migrations.
Science 248: 724-727.
Michel, H.B., Behbehani, M. and Herring, D. 1986a. Zooplankton
diversity, distribution and abundance in Kuwait waters. Kuwait
Bulletin of Marine Science 8: 37-105.
602
REFERENCES
Michel, H.B., Behbehani, M. and Herring, D. 1986b. Zooplankton of the
Western Arabian Gulf south of Kuwait Waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. 8: 1-36.
Michel, H.B., Behbehani, M., Herring, D., Arar, M., Shoushani, M.
and Brakoniecki, T. 1981. Diversity, distribution and biomass of
zooplankton in Kuwaiti waters. Report to Division of Food
Resources, Mariculture and Fisheries Department. Kuwait Institute
for Scientic Research.
Michel, J. and Rutherford, N. 2014. Impacts, recovery rates, and treatment
options for spilled oil in marshes. Mar. Poll. Bull. 82(1-2): 19-25.
Michel, J., Hayes, M.O., Keenan, R.S., Sauer, T.C., Jensen, J.R. and
Narumalani, S. 1993. Contamination of nearshore subtidal sediments
of Saudi Arabia from the Gulf war oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin
27: 109-116.
Michel, J., Hayes, M.O., Montello, T.M. and Sauer, T.C. 1994. ROPME
sea oil spill nearshore geochemical processes study: Distribution and
weathering of oil in intertidal sediments for year 2 (1993). Prepared
by Research Planning Inc. Marine Spill Response Corporation,
Washington, D.C. MSRC Technical Report Series 94-009, 140 p.
Micheli, F. 1999. Eutrophication, sheries, and consumer-resource
dynamics in marine pelagic ecosystems. Science 285(5432): 1396-
1398.
Michels, T. 1992. Recent achievements of low temperature multiple eect
desalination in the western areas of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Proceedings of
the Desal 92 Arabian Gulf Regional Water Desalination Symposium,
Al-Ain, UAE.
Middle East Desalination Research Center (MEDRC), Sultanate of
Oman. 2010. Environmental planning, prediction and management
of brine discharge from desalination plants. MEDRC Series of
R&D Reports, Project: 07-AS-003.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005. Ecosystems and human well-
being: Wetlands and water synthesis. World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C.
Miller, J.D. 1989. Marine turtles. Vol. I: An assessment of the conservation
status of marine turtles in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. M.E.P.A.
Coastal and Marine Management Series, Technical Report #9, 209
p.
Miller, J.D. 1989b. Biology, distribution, and impacts on marine turtles
in Saudi Arabia, in Proceedings of workshop I: On the ecological
imperatives for sustainable development in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and
Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Water and Meteorological
and Environmental Protection Agency, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Miller, J.D. 1995. Nesting biology of sea turtles, pp. 573-575, in Bjorndal,
K.A. (ed.). Biology and conservation of sea turtles [revised edition.]
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Miller, J.D. 1997. Reproduction in sea turtles, pp. 51-81, in Lutz, P. and
Musick, J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, New York,
USA.
Miller, J.D. 2011a. Marine and coastal reptiles, pp. 264-295, in Loughland,
R.A. and Al-Abdulkader, K. (eds.). Marine atlas Western Arabian
Gulf. Saudi Aramco Environmental Protection Pubs. Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia.
Miller, J.D. 2011b. The coastal and oshore island ecosystems, pp. 158-
185, in Loughland, R.A. and Al-Abdulkader, K. (eds.). Marine Atlas
Western Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco Environmental Protection
Pubs. Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Miller, J.D. and Abdulqader, E.A.A. 2009. Marine turtles and sea snakes
of Bahrain, pp. 263-287, in Loughland, R.A. and Zainal, A.J.M.
(eds.). Marine Atlas of Bahrain. (GEOMATEC), Bahrain Center for
Studies and Research, Kingdom of Bahrain.
Miller, J.D., Preen, A., Loughland, R.A., Youssif, A. and Darwish, A. 2004.
Marine turtles and sea snakes in Abu Dhabi Emirate, pp. 184-201, in
Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F., Fadel, S., Almehdi, A. and Hellyer,
P. (eds.). Marine atlas of Abu Dhabi. (Emirates Heritage Club, Abu
Dhabi, UAE.
Mills, S.C., Peyrot-Clausade, M. and Fontaine, M.F. 2000. Ingestion and
transformation of algal turf by Echinometra mathaei on Tiahura
fringing reef (French Polynesia). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 254: 71-84.
Minello, T.J., Able, K.W., Weinstein, M.P. and Hays, C.G. 2003. Salt marshes
as nurseries for nekton: Testing hypotheses on density, growth and
survival through meta-analysis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 39-
59.
Misra, B.M., Paradip, K. and Bhattacharjee, B. 1999. Futuristic trends
in hybrid system for desalination. Proceedings of the IDA World
Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, San Diego, CA, USA,
pp. 311-320.
Mobaraki, A. 2004a. Nesting of the hawksbill turtle in Shidvar Island,
Hormozgan Province, Iran. Marine Turtle Newsletter 103: 13.
Mobaraki, A. 2004b. Marine turtles in Iran: Results from 2002. Marine
Turtle Newsletter 104: 13-14.
Mobaraki, A. 2011. Sea turtle situation, studies and conservation in the
Islamic Republic of Iran, IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU http://www.
ioseaturtles.org.
Moberg, F. and Ronnback, P. 2003. Ecosystem services of the tropical
seascape: Interactions, substitutions and restoration. Ocean and Coastal
Management 46: 27-46.
Moberg, F. and Folke, C. 1999. Ecological goods and services of coral reef
ecosystems. Ecological Economics 29: 215-233.
Mohammad, M.M. 1972. Polychaetous annelids collected by “Umitaka-
Maru” from the Arabian Gulf. Hydrobiologia 40(4): 553-560.
Mohammed, H.M.A., Bishop, J.M. and Xu, X. 1996. Population
characteristics of green tiger prawns, Penaeus semisulcatus, in Kuwait
waters prior to the Gulf war. Hydrobiologia 337: 37-47.
Mohammed, M. 2009. Turkey lets more water out of dams to Iraq: MP.
Reuters, May 23, 2009.
Moller, I. and Spencer, T. 2002. Wave dissipation over macro-tidal salt
marshes: Eects of marsh edge typology and vegetation change.
Journal of Coastal Research I 36: 506-521.
Molvaer, J., Knutzen, J., Magnusson, J., Rygg, B., Skei, J. and Sørensen, J.
1997. Classication of environmental quality in fjords and coastal
waters: A guide. Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority
(SFT) publication 97: 03, Oslo, Norway, 36 p. in Norwegian.
Monniot, C. and Monniot, F. 1985. Ascidies littorales de Guadeloupe. IX:
Caractéristiques des populations, écologie, rapports avec la faune
mondiale. Tethys 11: 203-213.
Monniot, C. and Monniot, F. 1987. Les ascidies de Polynésie française.
Mémoires du Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris (A) 136:
1-155.
Monniot, C. and Monniot, F. 1997. Records of ascidians from Bahrain,
Arabian Gulf with three new species. Journal of Natural History
31(11): 1623-1643.
Monniot, F. and Monniot, C. 2001. Ascidians from the tropical western
Pacic. Zoosystema 23: 201-383.
Monniot, F. and Monniot, C. 2003. Ascidians from the outer slope and
bathyal western Pacic. Zoosystema 25: 681-749.
Montague, C.L. 1980. A natural history of temperate western Atlantic
ddler crabs (Genus Uca) with reference to their impact on the salt
marsh. Contr. Mar. Sci. 23: 25-55.
Moore, A.B.M. 2012. Elasmobranchs of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf:
Ecology, human aspects and research priorities for their improved
management. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 22: 35-61.
Moore, A.B.M., Ward, R.D. and Peirce, R. 2012. Sharks of the Persian
(Arabian) Gulf: A rst annotated checklist (Chondrichthyes:
Elasmobranchii). Zootaxa 3167: 1-16.
Moreira, F. 1995. Diet of black-headed gull Larus ridibunduss on emerged
intertidal areas in the Tagus estuary (Portugal): Predation or grazing?
Journal of Avian Biology 26: 277-282.
Morgan, G. 2006. Country review: Saudi Arabia, in De Yoyng, C. (ed.).
Review of the state of world marine capture sheries management:
Indian Ocean. FAO, Rome, Fisheries Technical Paper 488.
603
REFERENCES
Mortimer, J.A. 1995. Factors inuencing beach selection by nesting sea
turtles, pp. 45-51, in Bjorndal, K.A. (ed.). Biology and conservation
of sea turtles. Revised Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
Mortimer, J.A. 1981. The feeding ecology of the West Caribbean green
turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Nicaragua. Biotropica 13: 49-58.
Morton, B. 1996. The subsidiary impacts of dredging 9 and trawling on
a subtidal benthic molluscan community in the southern waters of
Hong Kong. Mar Poll Bull. 32(10): 701-710.
Moss, S. 1977. Feeding mechanisms in sharks. American Zoologist 17: 355-
364.
Mrosovsky, N. and Provancha, J. 1989. Sex ratio of loggerhead sea turtles
hatching on a Florida beach. Can. J. Zool. 67: 2533-2539.
Mumby, P.J., Edwards, A.J., Arias-Gonzalez, J.E., Lindeman, K.C.,
Blackwell, P.G., Gall, A., Gorczynska, M.I., Harborne, A.R.,
Pescod, C.L., Renken, H., Wabnitz, C.C.C. and Llewellyn, G. 2004.
Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef sh communities in
the Caribbean. Nature 427: 533-536.
Munawar, M., Price, A.R.G., Munawar, I.F., Carou, S., Niblock, H. and
Lorimer, J. 2002. Aquatic ecosystem health of the Arabian Gulf: Status
and research needs, pp. 303-326, in Khan, N.Y., Munawar, M. and
Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem, health and sustainability.
Backhuys Pub., Leiden, the Netherlands.
Munday, P.L., Crawley, N.E. and Nilsson, G.E. 2009. Interacting eects
of elevated temperature and ocean acidication on the aerobic
performance of coral reef shes. Mar Ecol Progr Ser 388: 235-242.
Murano, M.M. 1998. Mysidae (Crustacea: Mysidacea) collected from the
western Arabian Gulf. Plankton Biology and Ecology 45: 45-54.
Murty, T.S. and El-Sabh, M.I. 1983. Storm tracks, storm surges and sea
state in the Arabian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman,
pp. 12-24, in El-Sabh, M.I. (ed.). Oceanographic modelling of the
Kuwait action plan region. UNESCO Reports in Marine Sciences.
Musick, J.A. and Limpus, C.J. 1997. Habitat utilization and migration in
juvenile sea turtles, pp. 137-163, in Lutz, P. and Musick, J. (eds.). The
biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, New York, USA.
Muthu, M.S. 1978. Larval development: Specic identity of penaeid
postlarvae found in brackishwater areas, in Kartha, K.N.K.
(ed.). Coastal aquaculture: Marine prawn culture. Part 1: Larval
development of Indian penaeid prawns. CMFRI Bulletin 28: 86-90.
Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. 2005. Extinction, survival or recovery of large
predatory shes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 360:
13-20.
Nada, N. 2010. Dierence in salinity and thermal discharges between
SWRO and thermal plants. International Desalination Association
(IDA): Desalination and the Gulf “The relationship between the
environment and meeting the region’s needs,” December 6-7, 2010,
Manama, Bahrain.
Nagelkerken, I., Roberts, C.M., van der Velde, G., Dorenbosch, M., van
Riel, M.C., Cocheret de la Morinière, E. and Nienhuis, P.H. 2002.
How important are mangroves and seagrass beds for coral reef sh?
The nursery hypothesis tested on an island scale. Marine Ecology
Progress Series 244: 299-305.
Naji, A.J. 1993. Trade relations between Bahrain and Iraq in the Middle
Ages: A commercial and political outline, pp. 423-443, in Al Khalifa,
A.K. and Rice, M. (eds.). Bahrain through the ages, the history.
Kegan Paul, London.
Naser, H. 2014. Marine ecosystem diversity in the Arabian Gulf: Threats
and conservation, pp. 297-328, in Grillo, Oscar (ed.). Biodiversity —
The dynamic balance of the planet. InTech Publishing.
Naser, H.A. 2013. Assessment and management of heavy metal pollution
in the marine environment of the Arabian Gulf: A review. Marine
Pollution Bulletin 72: 6-13.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Marine Debris
Program. 2014. Report on the Entanglement of Marine Species in
Marine Debris with an Emphasis on Species in the United States.
Silver Spring, MD, USA, 28 p.
NCWCD. 1990. A system plan for protected areas for wildlife conservation
and sustainable rural development in Saudi Arabia. NCWCD/
IUCN, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
NCWCD. 2005. National Strategy for conservation of Biodiversity in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National commission for Wildlife
conservation and Development
Neelamani, S., Al-Salem, K. and Rakha, K. 2007. Extreme waves for
Kuwaiti territorial waters. Ocean Engineering 34: 1496-1504.
Neelamani, S., Al-Salem, K. and Rakha, K. 2009. Extreme gravity waves in
the Arabian Gulf. The J. Eng. Res. 6: 21-36.
Ne, J.M. 1990. Composition and fate of petroleum hydrocarbons and
spill treating agents in the marine environment, pp: 1-32, in Geraci,
J.R. and St. Aubin, D.J. (eds.). Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the
risks. Academic Press.
Negoro, M., Shioji, N., Miyamoto, K. and Miura, Y. 1991. Growth of
microalgae in high CO2 gas and eects of Sox and Nox. Appl.
Biochem. Biotechnol. 28-9: 877-886.
Nellen, W. 1973. Fischlarven des Indischen Ozean. Ergebnisse der
Fischbrutuntersuchungen waehrend der ersten Expedition
des Forschungsschis “Meteor” in den Indischen Ozean und
den Persischen Golf, Oktober 1964 bis April 1965. Meteor
Forschungsergebnisse, R. D Biol. 1-66.
Nellen, W. 1973. Kinds and abundance of sh larvae in the Arabian Sea
and the Persian Gulf, pp. 415-430, in Zeirtzschel, B. (ed.). Ecological
studies, analysis and synthesis. Vol. 3: Biology of the Indian Ocean.
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Nelson Smith, A. 1972. Oil pollution and marine ecology. Elek Scientic
Books, London.
Nelson, J.S. 2006. Fishes of the world. 4th edition. Hoboken (New Jersey,
USA): John Wiley & Sons, 601 p.
Newell, R.C. and Seiderer, L.J. 1997. Benthic ecology of lowestoft:
Dredging application area 454. Report prepared for Oakwood
Environmental by Marine Ecological Surveys. Ref SCS/454/l.
Newell, R.C., Seiderer, L.J. and Hitchcock, D.R. 1998. The impact of
dredging works in coastal waters: A review of the sensitivity to
disturbance and subsequent recovery of biological resources on the
seabed. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 36: 127-
178.
Newson, S.E., Mendes, S., Crick, H.Q.P., Dulvy, N.K., Houghton, J.D.R.,
Hays, G.C., Hutson, A.M., MacLeod, CD, Pierce, G.J. and Robinson,
R.A. 2008. Indicators of the impact of climate change on migratory
species. Endangered Species Research 7(2): 10-13.
Newton, I. 2008. The migration ecology of birds. Academic Press, Elsevier
Ltd.
Newton, L. 1955a. The marine algae of Kuwait, pp. 100-102, in Dickson,
V. (ed.). The wild owers Kuwait and Bahrain. Allen and Unwin,
London.
Newton, L. 1955b. The marine algae of Bahrain, in the wild owers
Kuwait and Bahrain. Dickson, London, Allen and Unwin, V. (ed.):
141-144.
Newton, S.F. and Symens, P. 1994. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in Evans,
M.I. (compiler). Important bird areas of the Middle East. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 2, BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.
Newton, I. 2011. BOU Proceedings — The ecology & conservation of
migratory birds. http://www.bou.org.uk/bouproc-net/migratory-
birds/newton.pdf.
Nielsen, V. 1958. Famed for its many pearls. KUML 1958: 157-163.
Niera, F.J. 2005. Summer and winter plankton sh assemblages around
oshore oil and gas platforms in southeastern Australia. Estuar. Coast.
Shelf Sci. 63: 589-604.
Nishiwaki, M. and Marsh, H. 1985. Dugong. Dugong dugon (Muller,
1776), pp. l-31, in Ridgway, S.H. and Harrison, R.J. (eds.). Handbook
of Marine Mammals. Academic Press, London.
604
REFERENCES
Nishiwaki, M., Kasuya, T., Miyazaki, N., Tobayama, T. and Kataoka, T. 1979.
Present distribution of the dugong in the world. Scientic Reports of
the Whales Research Institute 31: 133-141.
Nithyanandan, M. 2012. New and rare nudibranch records from Kuwait,
Arabian Gulf (Mollusca: Opisthobranchia). Marine Biodiversity Records
5: e115. DOI: 10.1017/S1755267212000954.
Njinkoué, J.M., Barnathan, G., Kornprobst, J.M., Al-Easa, H.S.S., Al-
Muftah, A. and Vacelet, J. 2006. Phospholipid fatty acids compositions
of sponges from Qatar. I — Haplosclerida. Qatar University Science
Journal 26: 31-38.
NOAA. 2014. Entanglement of marine species in marine debris with
an emphasis on species in the United States. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration Marine Debris Program. Silver Spring,
MD, USA, 28 p.
Nogales, M., Martın, A., Tershy B.R., Donlan, C.J., Veitch, D., Puerta, N.,
Wood, B. and Alonso, J. 2004. A review of feral cat eradication on
islands. Conservation Biology, 18, 310-319.
Norse, E.A. 1994. Capsizing the cradle of life. Glob. Biodivers 4: 4-7.
Nour El-Din, N.M. and Ghobashy, A.F.A. 1999. Distribution and
numerical abundance of copepods community along the coastal
waters of Qatar, RSA. Bull. Inst. Oceanogr. and Fisher. A.R.E. 25: 203-
221.
Noy, M.I. 1975. Stability of grazing systems — An application of predator-
prey graphs. Journal of Ecology 63(2): 459-481.
NRC (National Research Council). 1990. The decline of the sea turtles.
National Academy of Science Press, Washington, D.C., 259 p.
NRC (National Research Council). 2010. Assessment of sea turtle status
and trends. National Academy of Science Press, Washington, D.C.,
162 p.
Oates, J., Davidson, T.E., Kamilli, D. and McKerrel, H. 1977. Seafaring
merchants of Ur? Antiquity 51: 221-223.
Ober, H.K. 2010. Eects of oil spills on marine and coastal wildlife.
Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. University of
Florida. www.wec.u.edu/Eects%20of%20oil%20spills%20on%20
wildlife.pdf.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Oldeld, J.W. 2003. Survey of material usage in MSF plants over the past
25 years. Proceedings of the International Desalination Association
Conference, Bahamas.
Olsen, J.L., Rouzé, P., Verhelst, B., Lin, Y-C., Bayer, T., Collen, J., Dattolo,
E., De Paoli, E., Dittami, S., Maumus, F., Michel, G., Kersting,
A., Lauritano, C., Lohaus, R., Töpel, M., Tonon, T., Vanneste, K.,
Amirebrahimi, M., Brakel, J., Boström, C., Chovatia, M., Grimwood,
J., Jenkins, J.W., Jüterbock, A., Mraz, A., Stam, W.T., Tice, H.,
Bornberg-Bauer, E., Green, P.J., Pearson, G.A., Procaccini, G.,
Duarte, C.M., Schmutz, J., Reusch, T.B.H. and Van de Peer, Y. 2015.
The genome of the seagrass Zostera marina reveals angiosperm
adaptation to the sea. Nature 530, 331-335.
Olsgard, F., Brattegard, T. and Holthe, T. 2003. Polychaetes as surrogates
for marine biodiversity: Lower taxonomic resolution and indicator
groups. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 1033-1049.
Omar, S.A.S., Misak, R.F. and Shahid, S.A. 2002. Sabkhat and halophytes
in Kuwait, pp. 71-81, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha
ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ormond, R., Bradbury, R., Bainbridge, S., Fabricius, K., Keesing, J.,
De Vantier, L., Medley, P. and Steven, A. 1990. Test of a model of
regulation of crown-of-thorns starsh by sh predators. Lecture Notes
in Biomathematics 88: 189-207.
Ormond, R.F.G., Price, A.R.G. and Dawson-Shepherd, A.R. 1988. The
distribution and character of mangroves in the Red Sea, Arabian
Gulf and Southern Arabia. Proceedings of the UNDP/UNESCO
Regional Mangrove Project, Colombo, November 11-14, 1986, pp.
125-130.
Orth, R.J., Carruthers, T.J., Dennison, W.C., Duarte, C.M., Fourqurean,
J.W., Heck, K.L., Hughes, A.R., Kendrick, G.A., Kenworthy,
W.J., Olyarnik, S. and Short, F.T., 2006. A global crisis for seagrass
ecosystems. BioScience 56: 987-996.
Orth, R.J. 1992. A perspective on plant-animal interactions in seagrasses:
Physical and biological determinants inuencing plant and animal
abundance, pp. 147-164, in John, D.M, Hawkins, S.J. and Price,
J.H. (eds.). Plant-animal interactions in the marine benthos. The
Systematics Association Special, Vol. 46.
Orth, R.J. and Moore, K.A. 1986. Seasonal and year-to-year variations in
the growth of Zostera marina L. (eelgrass) in the lower Chesapeake
Bay. Aquat. Bot. 24: 335-341.
Osborne, P.E., Norton, J.A. and Aspinall, S.J. 1996. Desert birds of Abu
Dhabi, pp. 98-123, in Osborne, P.E. (ed.). Desert ecology of Abu
Dhabi. Pisces Publications, Newbury.
Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M. 1998. Oshore
environment of the ROPME Sea Area after the war-related oil spill,
pp. 1-22, in Otsuki, A., Abdulraheem, M.Y. and Reynolds, R.M.
(eds.). Terra Scientic Publishing Co. TERRAPUB, Tokyo, Japan.
Paerl, H.W. 1997. Coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms:
Importance of atmospheric deposition and groundwater as “new”
Nitrogen and other nutrient sources. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1154-
1165.
Pagliai, A.M.B., Varriale, A.M.C., Creama, R., Galletti, M.C. and Zunarelli,
R.V. 1985. Environmental impact of extensive dredging in a coastal
marine area. Mar Poll Bull. 16(12): 483-488.
Palgrave, W.G. 1866. Narrative of a year’s journey through Central and
Eastern Arabia (1862-1863). Macmillan, London.
Papageorgiou, N., Arvanitidis, C. and Eleftheriou, A. 2006. Multicausal
environmental severity: A exible framework for microtidal sandy
beaches and the role of polychaetes as an indicator taxon. Estuarine
Coastal and Shelf Science 70: 643-653.
Papathanasopoulou, N. 2009. Endangered sea turtles nesting on Kuwait
Islands. Biodiversity East. www.bio-e.org/lib/endangered-seaturtles-
nesting-kuwait-islands.
Parente, V., Ferreira, D., Moutinho dos Santos, E. and Luczynski, E. 2006.
Oshore decommissioning issues: Deductibility and transferability.
Energy Policy 34: 1992-2001.
Park, J.K. and Jong, M.H. 2003. Application of hybrid technology to the
largest desalination plant, Fujairah, UAE. Proceedings of the IDA
World Congress on Desalination, Bahamas.
Parra, G.J., Corkeron, P.J. and Marsh, H. 2006a. Population sizes, site
delity and residence patterns of Australian snubn and Indo-
Pacic humpback dolphins: Implications for conservation. Biological
Conservation 129(2): 167-180.
Parra, G.J., Corkeron, P.J. and Marsh, H. 2004. The Indo-Pacic humpback
dolphin, Sousa Chinensis (Osbeck, 1765), in Australian waters: A
summary of current knowledge. Aquatic Mammals 30(1): 197-206.
Parra, G.J., Schick, R. and Corkeron, P.J. 2006b. Spatial distribution and
environmental correlates of Australian snubn and Indo-Pacic
humpback dolphins. Ecography 29(3): 396-406.
Parry, J. 2013. The pearl emporium of Al Zubarah. Saudi AramcoWorld
64(6): 33-39.
Parry, M.L., Rosenzweig, C., Iglesias, A., Livermore, M. and Fischer, G.
2004. Eects of climate change on global food production under
SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environmental
Change 14: 53-67.
Pastorok, R.A. and Bilyard, G.R. 1985. Eects of sewage pollution on
coral reef communities. Marine Ecology Progress Series 21: 175-189.
Patterson, R.J. and Kinsman, D.J.J. 1977. Marine and continental
groundwater sources in a Persian Gulf coastal sabkha. Studies in
Geology 4: 381-397.
Patterson, R.J. and Kinsman, D.J.J. 1981. Hydrologic framework of a
sabkha along Arabian Gulf. AAPG Bulletin 65: 1457-1475.
Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Guénette, S., Pitcher, T.J., Sumaila, U.R., Walters,
C.J. and Zeller, D. 2002. Toward sustainability in world sheries.
Nature 418(6898): 689.
605
REFERENCES
Pauly, D. 1979. Theory and management of tropical multi-species stocks:
A review, with emphasis on the Southeast Asian demersal sheries.
ICLARM. Studies and Reviews 1: 35 p.
Pauly, D., Trites, A.W., Capuli, E. and Christensen, V. 1998. Diet composition
and trophic levels of marine mammals. ICES Journal of Marine Science
55: 467-481.
Pawson, D.L. 2007. Phylum Echinodermata. Zootaxa 1668: 749-764.
Pearce-Higgins, J.W. and Green, R.E. 2014. Birds and climate change:
Impacts and conservation responses. Cambridge University Press,
New York, 477 p.
Pearson, T. and Rosenberg, R. 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation
to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine environment.
Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 16: 229-311.
Perez-Hurtado, A., Goss-Custard, J. and Garcia, F. 1997. The diet of
wintering waders in Cadiza Bay, Southwest Spain. Bird Study 44:
45-52.
Perillo, G.M.E. 2009. Tidal courses: Classication, origin, and functionality,
pp. 165-210, in Perillo, G.M.E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D.R. and
Brinson, M.M. (eds.). Coastal wetlands: An integrated ecosystem
approach. Elsevier B.V., 939 p.
Pernetta, J.C. 1993. Mangrove forests, climate change and sea level rise:
Hydrological inuences on community structure and survival, with
examples from the Indo-west Pacic. A Marine Conservation and
Development Report. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 44 p.
Perrone, T.J. 1981. Winter Shamal in the Persian Gulf. Naval Environmental
Prediction Research Facility. Technical Report, Monterey, CA, pp.
79-86.
Perry A.L., Low, P.J., Ellis, J.R. and Reynolds, J.D. 2005. Climate change
and distribution shifts in marine sheries. Science 308: 1912-5.
Pesta, O. 1911. Acartia pietschmanni, nov. species aus dem Golf von
Persien. Verhandlungen der Zoologischbotanischen Gesellschaft in Wien.
61: 112. [In German].
Pesta, O. 1912. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach
Mesopotamien. Crustaceen. I. Teil: Copepoden aus dem Golf von
Persien. Annalen des Naturhistorisches Museum Wien. 26: 39-62. [In
German].
Peterson, C.G.J. 1913. Valuation of the sea. II. The animal communities
of the sea bottom and their importance for marine zoogeography.
Report of the Danish Biological Station 21: 1-44.
Peterson, C.H. 2001. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska: Acute, indirect
and chronic eects on the ecosystem. Advances in Marine Biology 39:
1-103.
Pethick, J.S. 1992. Salt marsh geomorphology, pp. 41-62, in Allen, J.L.R.
and Pye, K. (eds.). Salt marshes morphodynamics, conservation and
engineering signicance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Peyrot-Clausade, M., Chabanet, P., Conand, C., Fontaine, M.F., Letourneur,
Y. and Harmelin-Vivien, M. 2000. Sea urchin and sh bioerosion on
La Reunion and Moorea reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci. 66: 477-485.
Pezzey, J.C.V., Roberts, C.M. and Urdal, B. 2000. A simple bioeconomic
model of a marine reserve. Ecological Economics 33(1): 77-91.
Ptzenmeyer, H.T. 1970. Gross physical and biological eects of overboard
spoil disposal in Upper Chesapeake Bay. N.R.I. Special Report No.
3: 26-35. Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Maryland,
USA. Control No. 397.
Phillips, D.C. 1988. Wildowers of Bahrain. A eld guide to herbs, shrubs,
and trees, 1st edition.
Phillips, R., Loughland, R.A. and Youssef, A. 2004. Seagrasses of Abu
Dhabi Emirate, UAE (Arabian Gulf), pp. 124-139, in Loughland,
R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S., Fadel, S.S., Al Mehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P.
(eds.). Marine atlas of Abu Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu
Dhabi, UAE.
Phillips, R.C. 2002. A short review on seagrasses of the Arabian Peninsula
region with particular reference to mineralization in sabkhat, pp.
299-302, in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems.
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Phillips, R.C. 2003. The seagrasses of the Arabian Gulf and Arabian region.
Chapter 6, pp. 74-81, in Green, E.P. and Short, F.T. (eds.). World Atlas
of Seagrasses. Prepared by UNEP-WCMC. University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA, USA.
Phillips, R.C., Loughland, R.A. and Youssef, A.M. 2002. Seagrasses of Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Arabian Gulf: A review. Tribulus 15,
21-24.
Phillips, R.C., McMillan, C. and Bridges, K.W. 1983. Phenology of
eelgrass, Zostera marina L., along latitudinal gradients in North
America. Aquat. Bot. 15: 145-156.
Phleger, F.B. 1969. A modern evaporite deposit in Mexico [with
discussion]. AAPG Bull. 53: 824-829.
PIANC. 2010. Dredging and port construction around coral reefs.
The World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure
(PIANC), Report No. 108. Brussels.
Piatt, J.F., Sydeman, W.J. and Wiese, F. 2007. Introduction: A modern role
for seabirds as indicators. Ma.(?) Ecol. Prog. Ser. 352: 199-204.
Pichon, M., Benzoni, F., Chaîneau, C.H. and Dutrieux, E. 2010. Field
guide to the hard corals of the southern coast of Yemen. BIOTOPE
Parthenope, Paris, 256 p.
Pickett, S.T.A. and Cadenasso, M.L. 2002. The Ecosystem as an
multidimensional concept: Meaning, model, and metaphor.
Ecosystems 5: 1-10.
Piesinger, C. 1983. Legacy of Dilmun: The roots of ancient maritime trade
in Eastern Castal Arabia in the fourth/third millennium B.C. (Ph.D.
Thesis). University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA.
Pilcher, N.J. 2000. The Green turtle Chelonia mydas in the Arabian Gulf.
Chelonian Cons. Biol. 3(4): 730-735.
Pilcher, C.W.T. and Sexton, D.B. 1993. Eects of the Gulf War oil spills
and wellhead res on the avifauna and environment of Kuwait.
Sandgrouse 15: 6-17.
Pilcher, N.J. 1999. The hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata in the
Arabian Gulf. Chelonian Cons. Biol. 32: 312-317.
Pilcher, N.J. 2003. Marine turtles and dugongs in the Arabian Sea grass
pastures, pp. 74-81, in Green, F.P. and Short, F.T. (eds.). World Atlas of
Seagrasses. UNEP, WCMC. University of California Press, Berkeley,
USA.
Pilcher, N.J., Al-Maslamani, I., Williams, J., Gasang, R. and Chikhi, A. 2015.
Population structure of marine turtles in coastal waters of Qatar.
Endangered Species Research 28(2): 163-174.
Pilcher, N.J., Antonopoulou, M., Perry, L., Abdel-Moati, M.A., Al
Abdessalaam, T.Z., Albeldawi, M., Al Ansi, M., Al-Mohannadi, S.F.,
Al Zahlawi, N., Baldwin, R., Chikhi, A., Das, H.S., Hamza, S., Kerr,
O.J., Al Kiyumi, A., Mobaraki, A., Al Suwaidi, H.S., Al Suwaidi, A.S.,
Sawaf, S., Tourenq, C., Williams, J. and Willson, A. 2014. Identication
of important sea turtle areas (ITAs) for hawksbill turtles in the
Arabian region. Jour. of Exper. Marine Bio. and Ecol. 460: 89-99.
Pilkey, O.H. and Noble, D. 1966. Carbonate and clay mineralogy of the
Persian Gulf. Deep Sea Research 13: 1-16.
Pitcher, T.J., 2001. Fisheries managed to rebuild ecosystems? Reconstructing
the past to salvage the future. Ecological Applications 11(2): 601-617.
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Ecological Society of America
Pizzolon, M., Cenci, E. and Mazzoldi, C. 2008. The onset of sh
colonization in a coastal defense structure (Chioggia, Northern
Adriatic Sea). Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 78: 166e178.
Plotkin, P. 2003. Adult migrations and habitat use, pp. 225-241, in Lutz, P.,
Musick, J. and Wyneken, J. (eds.). The biology of sea turtles, Vol. II.
CRC Press, New York.
PME (Presidency of Meteorology and Environment). 2007. Environmental
protection standards.
Pocklington, P. and Wells, P.G. 1992. Polychaetes: Key taxa for marine
environmental quality monitoring. Marine Pollution Bulletin 24: 593-
598.
Pohle, W.G. and Thomas, L.H.M. 2001. Monitoring protocol for marine
benthos: Intertidal and subtidal macrofauna. A report by the Marine
606
REFERENCES
Biodiversity Monitoring Committee (Atlantic Maritime Ecological
Science Cooperative, Huntsman Marine Science Centre) to the
Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network of Environment
Canada.
Poiner, I.R. and Kennedy, R. 1984. Complex patterns of change in the
macrobenthos of a large sandbank following dredging. Marine
Biology 78: 335-352.
Poloczanska, E.S., Limpus, C.J. and Hayes, G.C. 2009. Vulnerability of
marine turtles to climate change. Chapter 2. Advances in Marine
Biology 56: 151-211.
Poonian, C. 2003. The eects of the 1991 Gulf War on the marine and
coastal environment of the Arabian Gulf: Impact, recovery and future
prospects. Management 44.
Pope, M. 2013. Observation Records: Tarut Bay terrestrial survey
(including Rahima, and Saihat) conducted on January 15, 2013;
Abu Ali Island Terrestrial Survey conducted on January 16, 2013.
Unpublished data.
Porter, J.W., Lewis, S.K. and Porter, K.G. 1999. The eect of multiple
stressors on the Florida Keys coral reef ecosystem: A landscape
hypothesis and a physiological test. Limnol. Oceanogr. 44(3 part 2):
941-949.
Porter, R. and Aspinal, S. 2010. Birds of the Middle East. C. Helm Publisher,
London.
Pörtner, H.O. 2010. Oxygen and capacity limitation of thermal tolerance:
A matrix for integrating climate-related stressor eects in marine
ecosystems. The Journal of Experimental Biology 213: 881-893.
Pörtner, H.O. and Knust, R. 2007. Climate change aects marine
shes through the oxygen limitation of thermal tolerance. Science
315(5808): 95-97.
Post, J.C. and Lundin, C.G. 1996. Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone
Management. Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies
and Monographs Series No. 9, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.,
16 p.
Potts, D.T. 1983. Thaj in the light of recent research. Atlal 7: 86-101.
Potts, D.T. 1984. Thaj and the location of Gerrha, pp. 87-91, in Proceedings
of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. Presented at the Seminar for
Arabian Studies, Archaeopress, London.
Potts, D.T. 1989. Miscellania Hasaitica. Museum Tusculanum Press,
Copenhagen.
Potts, D.T. 1990. The Arabian Gulf in antiquity. Vol. I: From prehistory to
the fall of the Achaemenid Empire. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Potts, D.T. 1993. The late prehistoric, protohistoric and early historic
periods in Eastern Arabia (ca. 5000-1200 B.C.). J. World Prehistor y 7:
163-212.
Potts, D.T. 2001. Before the Emirates: An archaeological and historical
account of developments in the region c. 5000 BC to 676 AD, pp.
28-69, in United Arab Emirates: A new perspective. Trident Press,
London.
Potts, D.T. 2008. An Umm-an-Nar-type compartmented soft-stone vessel
from Gonur Depe, Turkmenistan. Arab. Archaeol. Epigr. 18: 167-180.
Potts, D.T. 2009. The archaeology and early history of the Persian Gulf,
in Potter, L. (ed.). The Persian Gulf in history. Palgrave Macmillan,
New York.
Pous, S., Carton X. and Lazure, P. 2013. A process study of the wind-
induced circulation in the Arabian Gulf. Open Journal of Marine
Science 3: 1-11.
Powers, R.W., Ramirez, L.F., Redmond, C.D. and Elberg Jr., E.L. 1966.
Geology of the Arabian Peninsula, sedimentary geology of Saudi
Arabia. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 560-D, 147 p.
Preen, A. 1995. Impacts of dugong foraging on seagrass habitats:
Observational and experimental evidence for cultivation grazing.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 124: 201-213.
Preen, A. 1989. Technical Report, Dugongs, Vol. 1: The status and
conservation of dugongs in the Arabian Region. MEPA coastal and
marine management series, Saudi Arabia.
Preen, A. 1998. Marine protected areas and Dugong conservation along
Australia’s Indian Ocean Coast. Environmental Management 22: 173-
181.
Preen, A.R., Marsh, H.D. and Heinsohn, G.E. 1989. Recommendations for
the conservation and management of dugong in the Arabian region.
M.E.P.A. Coastal & Marine Management Series (Meteorological
& Environmental Protection Administration, Saudi Arabia), Report
No. 10.
Preen, A. 2004. Distribution, abundance and conservation status of
dugongs and dolphins in the southern and western Arabian Gulf.
Biological Conservation 118: 205-218.
Preen, A. and Marsh, H. 1995. Response of dugongs to large-scale loss of
seagrass from Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia. Wildlife Research 22:
507-519.
Preen, A., Das, H., Al-Rumaidh, M. and Hodgson, A. 2012. Dugongs
in Arabia, in Himes, E., Reynolds III, J., Aragones, L., Mignucci-
Giannoni, A. and Marmontel, M. (eds.). Sirenian conservation: Issues
and strategies in developing countries. University Press of Florida,
Gainesville, USA.
Prena, J. 1996. The status of the intertidal soft-bottom macrofauna
six months after the Gulf War oil spill, pp. 128-137, in Krupp, F.,
Abuzinada, A. and Nader, I. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the
Arabian Gulf: Environmental research and conservation following
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Price, A.R., Chings, T.W., Atkinson, M.A. and Wrathall, T.J. 1987.
Appraisal of resources in the Saudi Arabian Gulf, pp. 1031-1045, in
Coastal Zone.
Price, A.R.G. 1979. Temporal variations in abundance of Penaeid shrimp
larvae and oceanographic conditions o Ras Tanura, Western
Arabian Gulf. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 4: 451-465.
Price, A.R.G. 1981. Studies on the echinoderm fauna of the western
Arabian Gulf. Journal of Natural History 15(1): 1-15.
Price, A.R.G. 1982. Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
II. Marine. IUCN/MEPA document prepared for the Expert
Meeting on the Gulf Coordinating Council to review environmental
issues, 24 p.
Price, A.R.G. 1982a. Echinoderms of Saudi Arabia: Comparison between
echinoderm faunas of Arabian Gulf, SE Arabia, Red Sea and Gulfs
of Aqaba and Suez. Fauna Saudi Arabia 4: 3-21.
Price, A.R.G. 1982b. Western Arabian Gulf Echinoderms in high salinity
waters and the occurrence of dwarsm. Journal of Natural History
16(4): 519-527.
Price, A.R.G. 1993. The Gulf: Human impacts and management initiatives.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 17-27.
Price, A.R.G. 1998. Impact of the 1991 Gulf War on the coastal
environment and ecosystems: Current status and future prospects.
Environment International 24: 91-96.
Price, A.R.G. and Robinson, J.H. (eds.). 1993. The 1991 Gulf War: Coastal
and marine environmental consequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin
27: 1-380.
Price, A.R.G. 1990. Rapid assessment of coastal zone management
requirements: A case study from the Arabian Gulf. J. Ocean. Shoreline
Management 13: 1-19.
Price, A.R.G. and Coles, S.L. 1992. Aspects of seagrass ecology along the
western Arabian Gulf coast. Hydrobiologia 234: 129-141.
Price, A.R.G. and Jones, D.A. 1975. Commercial and biological aspects
of the Saudi Arabian Gulf shrimp shery. Bulletin of Marine Research
Center of Saudi Arabia 6: 1-24.
Price, A.R.G., Downing, N., Flower, S.W., Hardy, J.T., Le Tissier, M.,
Mathews, C.P., McGlade, J.M., Medley, P.A.H., Oregioni, B.,
Readman, J.W., Roberts, C.M. and Wrathall, T.J. 1994. The I991
Gulf war environmental assessment of IUCN and collaborators, 48
p. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland in collaboration with WWF, IAEA and
IOC.
607
REFERENCES
Price, A.R.G., Mathews, C.P., Ingle, R.W. and Al-Rasheed, K. 1993.
Abundance of zooplankton and penaeid shrimp larvae in the
Western Gulf: Analysis of pre-war (1991) and post-war data. Mar.
Pollut. Bull. 27: 273-278.
Price, A.R.G., Medley, P.A.H., McDowall, R.J., Dawson-Shepherd, A.R.,
Hogarth, P.J. and Ormond, R.F.G. 1987. Aspects of mangal ecology
along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. J. Nat. Hist. 21: 449-464.
Price, A.R.G., Sheppard, C.R.C. and Roberts, C.M. 1993. The Gulf — Its
biological setting. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 9-15.
Price, A.R.G., Vousden D.H.P. and Ormond, R.F.G. 1983. Ecological study
of sites on the coast of Bahrain, with special reference to the shrimp
shery and possible impact from the Saudi-Bahrain Causeway under
construction. IUCN report to the UNEP regional seas program,
Geneva.
Price, A.R.G., Vousden, D.H.P. and Ormond, R.F.G. 1984. An ecological
study of sites on the coast of Bahrain, with special reference to the
shrimp shery and possible impact from the Saudi-Bahrain Causeway
under construction. Report of IUCN to UNEP Regional Seas
Program, Geneva.
Price, R. and Haberbeck, A. 1986. The Maritime Laws of the Arabian Gulf
Cooperations Council States. London: Graham & Trotman.
Prieto, C.G. and Harrison, E. 2012. Report on the 2011 green turtle
program at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Submitted to Sea Turtle
Conservancy (Formerly Caribbean Conservation Corporation) and
the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications of
Costa Rica, April 19, 2012.
Primo, C. and Vazquez, E. 2004. Zoogeography of the southern African
ascidian fauna. Journal of Biogeography 31: 1987-2009.
Pritchard, P.C.H. 1971. The leatherback or leathery turtle, Dermochelys
coriacea. IUCN Monograph 1, 42 p.
Pritchard, P.C.H. and Mortimer, J. 1999. Taxonomy, external morphology,
and species identication, pp. 21-38, in Eckert, K., Bjorndal,
K., Abreu-Grobois, F. and Donnelly, M. (eds.). Research and
management techniques for the conservation of sea turtles. IUCN/
SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4.
Privett, D.W. 1959. Monthly charts of evaporation from North Indian
Ocean, including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Quart. Journ.
Royal Meteorol. Soc. London 85: 424-428.
Punay, E.Y. 1975. Commercial sea snake sheries in the Philippines.
Chapter 21, pp. 489-502, in Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea
snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, USA.
Purkis, S.J., Renegar, D.A. and Riegl, B.M. 2011. The most temperature-
adapted corals have an Achilles’ Heel. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62:
246-250.
Purser, B.H. and Siebold, A. 1973. The principal environmental factors
inuencing Holocene sedimentation and diagenesis in the Persian
Gulf, pp. 1-9, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf. Springer-Verlag,
New York.
Qurban, M.A., Krishnakumar, P.K., Joydas, T.V., Mohamed Ashraf, T.T.,
Manikandan, K.P., Abdulkader, K.A. and Loughland, R.A. 2011.
Over review of Saudi Arabia’s Gulf marine habitats, pp. 17-32, in
Abdulkader, K.A. and Loughland, R.A. (eds.). Marine Atlas of
the Saudi Arabian Waters of the Arabian Gulf. Published by Saudi
Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Rabaoui, L., Yu-Jia Lin, Qurban, M.A., Maneja, R.H., Franco, J., Joydas,
T.V., Panickan, P., Al-Abdulkader, K. and Roa-Ureta, R.H. 2015.
Patchwork of oil and gas facilities in Saudi waters of the Arabian
Gulf has the potential to enhance local sheries production. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 72(8): 2398-2408.
Rabaoui, L., Lin, Y.J., Maneja, R.H., Qurban, M.A., Abdurahiman, P.,
Premlal, P., Al-Abdulkader, K. and Roa-Ureta, R.H. 2017. Nursery
habitats and life history traits of the green tiger shrimp Penaeus
semisulcatus (De Haan, 1844) in the Saudi waters of the Arabian
Gulf. Fisheries Research 195: 1-11.
Raaelli, D.G., Emmerson, M.C, Solan, M., Biles, C.L. and Paterson, D.M.
2003. Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in shallow coastal waters:
An experimental approach. Journal of Sea Research 49: 133-141.
Ragab, R. and Prudhomme, C. 2002. Climate change and water resources
management in arid and semi-arid regions: Prospective and
challenges for the 21st century. Biosystems Engineering 81(1): 3-34,
DOI: 10.1006/bioe.2001.0013, available online at http://www.
idealibrary.com on.
RAMSAR. Online database, www.ramsar.org, accessed May 15, 2014.
Randall, J.E. 1986. Sharks of Arabia. Immel Publishing, London, 148 p.
Randall, J.E. 1995. Coastal shes of Oman. Crawford House, Bathurst,
439 p.
Randall, J.E. 1992. Review of the biology of the tiger shark (Galeocerdo
cuvier). Marine and Freshwater Research 43: 21-31.
Rao, G.P., Hatwar, H.R., Al-Sulaiti, M.H. and Al-Mulla, A.H. 2003.
Summer Shamals over the Arabian Gulf. Weather 58: 471-478.
Rasmussen, A.R. 1989. An analysis of hydrophis ornatus Gray, H. lamberti
Smith and H. inornatus Gray Hydrophiidae, Serpentes based
on samples from various localities, with remarks on feeding and
breeding biology of H. ornatus. Amphibia-Reptilia 10: 397-417.
Raven, P.H. and Johnson, G.B. 2002. Biology (6th edition). McGraw-Hill
Higher Education. Online textbook. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.
com/sites/0073031208/.
Rayner, N.A., Parker, D.E., Horton, E.B., Folland, C.K., Alexander, L.V.,
Rowell, D.P., Kent, E.C. and Kaplan, A. 2003. Global analyses of sea
surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since
the late 19th century. J Geophys Res 108: 4407.
Razzaq, S.A.A. 1991. The Ostracoda community in hypersaline channels
in Al-Khiran, Arabian Gulf. Journal of Micropaleontology 10: 17-21.
Read, A., Drinker, P. and Northridge, S. 2006. Bycatch of Marine Mammals
in U.S. and Global Fisheries. Conservation Biology 20(1): 163-169.
Readman, J.W., Bartocci, J., Tolosa, I., Fowler, S.W., Oregioni, B. and
Abdulraheem, M.Y. 1996. Recovery of the coastal marine
environment in the Gulf following the 1991 war-related oil spills.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 32: 493-498.
Readman, J.W., Fowler, S.W., Valonouvr, J.P., Cattini, C., Oregioni, B. and
Mee, L.D. 1992. Oil and combustion product contamination of Gulf
marine environment following the war. Nature 358: 662-665.
Redeld, A.C. 1972. Ontogeny of a salt marsh estuary. Science 147(3653):
50-55.
Redeld, J.A., Holmes, J.C. and Holmes, R.D. 1978. Sea snakes of the
eastern Gulf of Carpentaria. Aust. J Mar. Freshwat. Res. 29: 325-334.
Reed, D.C., Schroeter, S.C., Huang, D., Anderson, T.W. and Ambrose, R.F.
2006. Quantitative assessment of dierence articial reef designs in
mitigating losses to kelp forest shes. Bulletin of Marine Science 78:
133e150.
Reeler, C. and Al Shaikh, N.Y. 2010. The tomb of Thaj, pp. 392-397, in
Roads of Arabia: Archaeology and history of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Reeler, C.N. and Al Shaikh, N.Y. 2011. Human use of the coastal and
marine resources, pp: 42-77, in Loughland, R.A. and Al-Abdulkader,
K. (eds.). Marine Atlas of the Western Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco
Environmental Protection Pubs. Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Rees, A.F. and Baker, S.L. 2006. Hawksbill and Olive Ridley nesting
on Masirah Island, Sultanate of Oman: An Update. Marine Turtle
Newsletter 113: 2-5.
Rehman, S. 2010. Temperature and rainfall variation over Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia (1970-2006). Int. J. Climatol. 30: 445-449.
Reid, H.A. 1975. Epidemiology and clinical aspects of sea snake bites.
Chapter 19, pp. 417-462, in Dunson, W.A. (ed.). The biology of sea
snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, USA.
Research Planning Inc. (RPI). 2003. Oiled shoreline survey in support
of the marine and coastal damage assessment. Columbia, South
Carolina, Research Planning, Inc. Publication, RPI 055/2003/008,
387 p.
Reynolds, R.M. 1993. Physical oceanography of the Gulf, Strait of
608
REFERENCES
Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman — Results from the Mt. Mitchell
expedition. Mar. Pollution Bull. 27: 35-59.
Reynolds, R.M. 2002a. Meteorology and climate, section 1: The Gulf
ecosystem: Biogeophysical setting, pp. 41-52, in Khan, N.Y.,
Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem health
and sustainability. Backhhuys Publishers, the Netherlands, 510 p.
Reynolds, R.M. 2002b. Oceanography, pp. 53-64, in Khan, N.Y.,
Munawar, M. and Price, A.R.G. (eds.). The Gulf ecosystem: Health
and sustainability. Backhuys, Leiden, the Netherlands.
Rezaie-Atagholipour, M. and Barmoodeh, M. 2012. Recent records of the
leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, from the Iranian coastline
of the Gulf of Oman. Marine Turtle Newsletter 132: 5-6.
Rezaie-Atagholipour, M., Riyahi-Bakhtiari, A. and Sajjadi, M. 2012.
Feeding habits of the annulated sea snake, hydrophis cyanocinctus, in
the Persian Gulf. Journal of Herpetology 472: 328-330.
Richer, R. 2008. Conservation in Qatar: Impacts of increasing
industrialization. Center for International and Regional Studies,
Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar, Doha,
Qatar, 33 p.
Richmond, M.D. 1994. Ecological status of the marine subtidal habitats
and the eects of the 1991 oil spill, with special reference to soft
substrata communities. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 166: 55-
60.
Richmond, M.D. 2001. The marine biodiversity of the western Indian
Ocean and its biogeography: How much do we know? pp. 241-
261, in Richmond, M.D. and Francis, J. (eds.). Marine science
development in Tanzania and eastern Africa. Proceedings of the
20th Anniversary Conference on Advances in Marine Science in
Tanzania (IMS/WIOMSA).
Richter, C. and Abdu-Hilal, A. 2005. Seas of the Arabian region (29,S), pp.
1373-1412, in Robinson, A.R. and Brink, K.H. (eds.). The Seas, Vol.
14. The president and fellow of the Harward College.
Ricketts, E.F., Calvin, J., Hedgpeth, J.W. and Phillips, D.W. 1985. Between
Pacic tides, 5th edition. Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press, 652 p.
Ridley, A.P. and Seeley, M.W. 1979. Evidence for recent coastal uplift near
Jubail, Saudi Arabia. Tectonophysics 52: 319-327.
Riegl, B. 2002. Eects of the 1996 and 1998 positive sea surface
temperature anomalies on corals, coral diseases and sh in the
Arabian Gulf, Dubai, UAE. Marine Biology 140: 29-40.
Riegl, B. 2003. Climate change and coral reefs: Dierent eects in two
high-latitude areas, Arabian Gulf, South Africa. Coral Reefs 22(4):
433-446.
Riegl, B.M. and Purkis, S.J. 2012. Coral reefs of the Gulf — Adaptation to
climatic extremes. Springer, New York, pp. 1-379.
Rignot, E. and Kanagaratnam, P. 2006. Changes in the velocity structure
of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Science 311: 986-990.
Roa-Ureta, R.H. 2015. Stock assessment of the Spanish mackerel
(Scomberomorus commerson) in Saudi waters of the Arabian Gulf
with generalized depletion models under data-limited conditions.
Fisheries Research 171: 68-77.
Roberts, D., Johnston, E. and Knott, N. 2010. Impacts of desalination
plant discharges on the marine environment: A critical review of
published studies. Water Research 44: 5117-5128.
Roberts, H.H. 1985. Carbonate platforms forming in a strong tidal current
setting: Southern Gulf of Suez. Proceedings of the 5th International
Coral Reef Congress 6: 335-341.
Roberts, C.M. and Hawkins, J.P. 1997. How small can a marine reserve
be and still be eective? Coral Reefs 16: 150.
Roberts, C.M. 1998a. Permanent no-take zones: A minimum standard
for eective marine protected areas, pp. 96-100, in Hatziolos,
M.E., Hooten, A.J. and Fodor, M. (eds.). Coral reefs. challenges
and opportunities for sustainable development. The World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
Roberts, C.M. 1998b. Sources, sinks and the design of marine reserve
networks. Fisheries 23: 16-19.
Robineau, D. 1998. The cetaceans of the Arabo-Persian Gulf: A review.
Paper SC/50/SM1 presented to the IWC Scientic Committee,
April 1998 (unpublished), 15 p.
Robineau, D. and Fiquet, P. 1996. The Cetacea of the Jubail Marine Wildlife
Sanctuary, Saudi Arabia, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, H. and Nader, I.A.
(eds.). Environmental research and conservation following the 1991
Gulf War oil spill. A Marine Wildlife Sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt,
Germany.
Robinson, D.P., Jaidah, M.Y., Jabado, R.W., Lee-Brooks, K., El-Din,
N.M.N., Al Malki, A.A., Elmeer, K., McCormick, P.A., Henderson,
A.C., Pierce, S.J. and Ormond, R.F.H. 2013. Whale sharks,
Rhincodon typus, aggregate around oshore platforms in Qatari
waters of the Arabian Gulf to feed on sh spawn. Plos One8, e58255.
Roesler, C.S., Perry, M.J. and Carder, K.L. 1989. Modeling in situ
phytoplankton absorption from total absorption spectra in productive
inland marine waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34: 1510-1523.
Rogers, C.S. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to
sedimentation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62: 185-202.
Rogers, R.W. 1989. The inuence of sea turtles on the terrestrial vegetation
of Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland 100: 67-70.
Rönnbäck, P. 1999. The ecological basis for economic value of seafood
production supported by mangrove ecosystems. Ecological Economics
29: 235-252.
Roper, C.F.E., Sweeney, M.J. and Nauen, C.E. 1984. FAO 1984 Species
Catalogue, Vol. 3. Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and
illustrated catalogue of species of interest to sheries. FAO Fish
Synop. 3(125): 277 p.
ROPME. 2004. State of the marine environment report 2003. Regional
Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment.
ROPME. 2012. ROPME Oceanographic Cruise-Winter 2006. Technical
Report No. 4, Spatial distribution of chlorophyll-a in the ROPME
Sea Area. Report to ROPME, Safat, Kuwait, 59 p.
Rosen, B.R. 1971. The distribution of reef coral in the Indian Ocean.
Symp. Zool. Soc. London 28: 263-299.
Ross, G.J.B. 2002. Humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis, S. plumbea and S.
teuszi, pp. 122-128, in Perrin, W.F., Wursig, B. and Thewissen, J.G.M.
(eds.). Encyclopedia of marine mammals. San Diego, California,
Academic Press.
Ross, J.P. 1979. Sea turtles in the Sultanate of Oman. World Wildlife Fund
Project 1320.
Ross, J.P. and Banwari, M.A. 1982. Review of sea turtles in the Arabian
area, pp. 373-383, in Bjorndal, K.A. (ed.). Biology and conservation
of sea turtles. Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, D.C.
Round, F.E. 2002. Diatoms of the sabkha, pp. 247-253, in Barth, H-J. and
Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Rouse, G.W. and Pleijel, F. 2001. Polychaetes. Oxford University Press,
London.
Rouse, G.W. and Pleijel, F. 2006. Annelida. Zootaxa 1668: 245-264.
Rouse, G.W. and Pleijel, F. 2007. Annelid phylogeny and systematics, pp.
3-21, in Rouse, G.W. and Pleijel, F. (eds.). Reproductive biology
and phylogeny of Annelida. Science Publishers Inc., Eneld, New
Hampshire.
RPI (Research Planning Inc.). 2003. Oiled shoreline survey in support
of the marine and coastal damage assessment. Columbia, South
Carolina, Research Planning Inc. Publication, RPI 055/2003/008:
387 p.
Rubino, I. and Kropach, C. 1970. Dierential reactions of Atlantic and
Pacic predators to sea snakes. Nature 228: 1288-1290.
Ruddiman, W.F. 2001. Earth’s climate: Past and future. WH Freeman, New
York.
609
REFERENCES
Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S. and Barnes, R.D. 2004. Invertebrate zoology (7th
edition). Brooks/Cole, pp. 367-403.
Saad, M.A.H. 1978. Seasonal variations of some physico-chemical
conditions of Shatt Al-Arab estuary, Iraq. Estuarine Coastal Mar. Sci.
6: 503-513.
Saba, V.S., Stock, C.A., Spotila, J.R., Paladino, F.V. and Tomillo, P.S. 2012.
Projected response of an endangered marine turtle population to
climate change. Nature Climate Change 2(11): 814-820.
Sabtan, A.A. and Shehata, W.M. 2002. Problematic sabkha is a potential
source of freshwater. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment
61: 153-159.
Sabtan, A.A. and Shehata, W.M. 2003. Hydrogeology of Al-Lith Sabkha,
Saudi Arabia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 21: 423-429.
Sabtan, A.A., Shehata, W.M. and El-Mahdy, O.R. 1997. Assessment of
economic potentialities of sabkhah brines, Western Region, Saudi
Arabia. Technical Report submitted to King Abdulaziz University,
Project Number 415/138, 221 p.
Sadiq, M. and McCain, J.C. 1993. The Gulf War aftermath: An
environmental tragedy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA.
Sadiq, M. and Zaidi, T.H. 1985. Metals concentrations in the sediments
from the Arabian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Bulletin of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology 34: 565-571.
Sadiq, M. and Zaidi, T.H. 1994. Sediment composition and metal
concentrations in mangrove leaves from the Saudi coast of the
Arabian Gulf. Science of the Total Environment 155: 1-8.
Sadiq, M., Zaidi, T.H. and Mian, A.A. 1982. Heavy metal concentrations
in shrimp, crab, and sediment obtained from Ad-Dammam sewage
outfall area. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
29(3): 313-319.
Saeed, M.O., Al-Khamis, S.I. and Ozair, G. 2007. Association of source
water quality and high silt density index in pretreated feed water for
a seawater reverse osmosis plant. Proceedings of the International
Desalination Association Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse
— Maspalamas, Gran Canaria, Spain, October 21-26, 16 p.
Saeed, M.O., Al-Otaibi, G.F., Ozair, G. and Jamaluddin, A.T.M. 2005.
Beachwells prove best intake for Red Sea plant. International
Desalination and Water Reuse Quarterly 15(1): 34-37.
Saeed, M.O. and Al-Nomazi, M.A. 2013. Toxic eects of brine discharge
from the SWCC’s Jubail desalination and power plants on selected
marine organisms. Proceedings of the International Desalination
Association World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse,
Tianjin, China, 12 p.
Saeed, M.O., Jamaluddin, A.T., Tisan, I.A., Lawrence, D.A., Al-Amri, M.M.
and Chida, K. 2000. Biofouling in a seawater reverse osmosis plant
on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. Desalination 128: 177-190.
Saeed, M.O., Teng, W.L., Al-Tisan, I.A. and Nomazi, M.A. 2013.
Characterization of biolm bacteria isolated from two distinct
seawater reverse osmosis systems in Saudi Arabia. Desalination and
Water Reuse 51: 1855-1860.
Saenger, P. 1993. Management of mangroves in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia. Report prepared for the Saline Water Conversion
Corporation & Ministry for Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.
Saenger, P. 2002. Mangrove ecology, silviculture and conservation. Kluwer
Academic, Dordrecht.
Saenger, P. 2011. Mangroves, p. 455, in Loughland, R.A. and Al-Abdulkader,
K. (eds.). Marine Atlas of the Western Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Saenger, P. 2011. Mangroves and salt marshes, pp. 80-111, in Loughland,
R.A. and Abdulkader, K.A. (eds.). Marine atlas of the Saudi Arabian
waters of the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Saenger, P. and Snedaker, S.C. 1993. Pantropical trends in mangrove
aboveground biomass and annual litter fall. Oecologia 96: 293-299.
Saenger, P., Blasco, F., Youssef, A. and Loughland, R.A. 2004. Mangroves
of the United Arab Emirates with particular emphasis on those of
Abu Dhabi Emirate, pp. 58-69, in Loughland, R.A., Al Muhairi, F.S.,
Fadel, S.S., Al Mehdi, A.M. and Hellyer, P. (eds.). Marine Atlas of Abu
Dhabi. Emirates Heritage Club, Abu Dhabi.
Saifullah, S.M., Khafaji, A.K. and Mandura, A.S. 1989. Litter production in
a mangrove stand of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast. Aquatic Botany
36: 79-86.
Sakurai, T. 1998. Fisheries of Saudi Arabia. Report of Japan International
Co-operation Agency (JICA) and Ministry of Agriculture and Water,
Department of Marine Fisheries, 48 p.
Sale, P.F., Feary, D.A., Burt, J.A., Bauman, A.G., Cavalcante, G.H.,
Drouillard, K.G., Kjerfve, B., Marquis, E., Trick, C.G., Usseglio, P. and
Van Lavieren, H. 2010. The growing need for sustainable ecological
management of marine communities of the Persian Gulf. Ambio 40:
4-17.
Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC), Saudi Arabia. 2015.
Design capacity of SWCC plants, in SWCC Annual Report/2015.
Salm, R.V. and Clark, J.R. 1989. Marine and coastal protected areas: A
guide for planners and managers. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Samiullah, Y. 1985. Biological eects of marine oil pollution. Oil and
Petrochemical Pollution 2(4): 235-264.
Sanchirico, J.N. and Emerson, P.M. 2002. Marine protected areas: Economic
and social implications. Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.
Sanders, H.L. 1958. Benthic studies in Buzzards Bay. I. Animal sediment
relationships. Limnology and Oceanography 3: 245-258.
Sanford, W.E. and Wood, W.W. 2001. Hydrology of the coastal sabkhas of
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Hydrogeology Journal 9(9): 358-
366.
Santos, A.J.B., Freire, E.M.X., Bellini, C. and Corso, G. 2010. Body mass
and the energy budget of gravid hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys
imbricata) during the nesting season. Journal of Herpetology 44(3):
352-359.
SATTL. 1982. Northern area marine environmental baseline and impact
assessment. Vol. I-III. Prepared by Saudi Arabian Tetra Techn. Ltd. for
the Arabian American Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
SATTL. 1982. A survey of infaunal communities of the western Arabian
Gulf. Report prepared for Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia by Saudi
Arabian Tetra Techn. pp. 57-128.
SATTL. 1984. Final draft environmental report. Environmental analysis
Qatif home ownership project. Prepared for Consulting and Design
Engineering by Saudi Arabian Tetra Techn Inc.
Saudi Electric Company. 2003. The Plant Bulletin, In-House News Letter
Issue No. 20: June 2003.
Saudi Ports Authority. 2013. Introduction top authority. Retrieved
October 15, 2013, from Saudi Ports Authority: http://www.ports.
gov.sa/English/Aboutus/Pages/ Introduction.aspx.
Sauer, T.C., Brown, J.S., Boehm, P.D., Aurand, D.V., Michel, J. and Hayes,
M.O. 1993. Hydrocarbon source identication and weathering
characterization of intertidal and subtidal sediments along the Saudi
Arabian coast after the Gulf War oil spill. Mar. Poll. Bull. 27: 117-134.
Saul, M. 2004. Money in colonial transition: Cowries and francs in West
Africa. American Anthropologist 106(1): 71-84.
Saunders, J.E., Al-Zahed, K.M. and Paterson, D.M. 2007. The impact of
organic pollution on the macrobenthic fauna of Dubai Creek, UAE.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 54: 1715-1723.
Saunders, M.I., Leon, J.X., Callaghan, D.P., Roelfsema, C.M., Hamylton,
S., Brown, C.J., Baldock, T., Golshani, A. and Phinn, S.R. 2014.
Interdependency of tropical marine ecosystems response to climate
change. Nature Climate Change 4(8): 724-729.
Scanlan, C., Foden, J., Wells, E. and Best, M. 2007. The monitoring of
opportunistic macroalgal blooms for the water framework directive.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 55(1): 162-171.
Scarcella, G., Grati, F. and Fabi, G. 2011. Temporal and spatial variation of
the sh assemblage around a gas platform in the Northern Adriatic
Sea, Italy. Turkish J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 11: 433-444.
610
REFERENCES
Schiedek, D., Sundelin, B., Readman, J.W.R. and MacDonald, R.W. 2007.
Interactions between climate change and contaminants. Marine
Pollution Bulletin 54: 1845-1856.
Schile, L.M., Kauman, J.B., Crooks, S., Fourqurean, J.W., Glavan, J.
and Megonigal, J.P. 2016. Limits on carbon sequestration in arid
blue carbon ecosystems. Ecological Applications 27: 859-874. DOI:
10.1002/eap.1489.
Schluessel, V., Bennett, M.B. and Collin, S.P. 2010. Diet and reproduction
in the white-spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari from Queensland,
Australia and the Penghu Islands, Taiwan. Marine and Freshwater
Research 61: 1278-1289.
Schott, G. 1918. Ozeanographie und klimatologie des Persischen Golfes
und des Golfes von Oman. Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen
Meteorologie 46: 1-46.
Schreiber, E.A. and Burger, J. (eds.). 2001. Biology of marine birds. CRC
Marine Biology Series.
Schumann, N., Arnould, J.P.Y., Gales, N. and Harcourt, R. 2012. Marine
mammals, in Poloczans, E.S., Hobday, A.J. and Richardson, A.J.
(eds.) Marine climate change impacts and adaptation report card for
Australia 2012. <http://www.oceanclimatechange.org.au>. ISBN:
978-0-643-10928-5.
Scon, T.P. 1979. The trapping and binding of subtidal carbonate
sediments by marine vegetation in Bimini Lagoon, Bahamas. Journ.
Sedimentary Petrology 40: 249-273.
Secor, D.H. 2004. Fish migration and the unit stock: Three formative
debates, pp. 17-44, in Cardin, S.X., Friedland, K.D. and Waldman,
J.R. (eds.). Stock identication methods. Elsevier Inc., Burlington.
Sell, D., Conway, L., Clark, T., Picken, G.B., Baker, J.M., Dunnet, G.M.,
McIntyre, A.D. and Clark, R.B. 1995. Scientic criteria to optimize
oil spill clean-up, pp. 595-611, in Proceedings of the 1995 Oil Spill
Conference. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Serventy, D.L. 1956. Additional observations on the biology on the
northern bluen tuna, Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker) in Australia.
Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 7: 44-63.
Setchell, W.A. 1929. Morphological and phenological notes on Zostera
marina L. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 14: 389-452.
Sharaf, G.M. and Al-Ghais, S.M. 1997. Distribution of zooplankton in
oshore waters of the West Coast of the United Arab Emirates.
Kuwait Journal of Science and Engineering 24(1): 131-144.
Shearman, D.J. 1970. Recent halite rock, Baja California, Mexico. Trans.
Inst. Min. Metall. B. 75: 208-215.
Sheehy III, C.M., Pfaller, J.B., Lillywhite, H.B. and Heatwole, H.F. 2011.
Pelamis platura yellow-bellied seasnake predation. Herpetological
Review 42: 443.
Shenkar, N. and Swalla, B.J. 2011. Global diversity of Ascidacea. PLOS one
6(6): e20657.
Shepherd, S.A., McComb, A.J., Bulthuis, D.A., Neverauskas, V., Steensen,
D.A. and West, R. 1989. Decline of seagrasses, pp. 346-387, in
Larkum, A.W.D., McComb, A.J. and Shepherd, S.A. (eds.). Seagrasses:
A treatise on the biology of seagrasses with special reference to the
Australian region. Elsevier, North Holland.
Sheppard, C. 2000. Commentary. Coral reefs: Beyond mortality? The
Scientic World 1: 7-9.
Sheppard, C. 2003. Predicted recurrences of mass coral mortality in the
Indian Ocean. Nature 425: 294-297.
Sheppard, C. and Borowitzka, M.A. 2012. Chapter 5: Subtidal habitat, pp.
119-135, in Loughland, R.A. and Abdulkader, K.A. (eds.). Marine
atlas of western Arabian Gulf. A Saudi Aramco Environmental
Protection Publication, Saudi Arabia.
Sheppard, C. and Loughland, R.A. 2002. Coral mortality and recovery in
response to increasing temperature in the southern Arabian Gulf.
Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 5(4): 1-8.
Sheppard, C., Al-Hussani, M., Al-Jamali, F., Al-Yamani, F., Baldwin, R.,
Bishop, J., Benzoni, F., Dutrieux, E., Dulvy, N., Durvasula, S., Jones,
D., Loughland, R.A., Medio, D., Nithyanandan, M., Pilling, G.,
Polikarpov, I., Price, A., Purkis, S., Riegl, B., Saburova, M., Namin,
K., Taylor, O., Wilson, S. and Zainal, K. 2010. The Gulf: A young sea
in decline. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60: 13-38.
Sheppard, C. and Price, A. 1991. Will marine life survive in the Gulf. New
Scientist 1759: 36-40.
Sheppard, C. and Rioja-Nieto, R. 2005. Sea surface temperature 1871-
2099 in 38 cells in the Caribbean region. Marine Environmental
Research 60: 389-396.
Sheppard, C. and Borowitzka, M. 2011. Subtidal habitats, pp. 117-135, in
Loughland, R.A. and Abdulkader, K.A. (eds.). Marine Atlas of the
Saudi Arabian Waters of the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia.
Sheppard, C., Price, A.R.G. and Roberts, C. 1992. Marine ecology of
the Arabian region: Patterns and processes in extreme tropical
environments. Academic Press, London.
Sheppard, C.R.C. 1988. Similar trends, dierent causes: Responses of
corals to stressed environments in Arabian seas. Proceedings of the
6th International Coral Reef Symposium 3: 297-302.
Sheppard, C.R.C. 1993. Physical environment of the gulf relevant of
marine pollution: An over view. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 27: 3-8.
Sheppard, C.R.C. and Wells, S.M. 1988. Coral reefs of the world,
Vol. 2, Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. IUCN/UNEP,
Copenhagen, 389 p.
Sheppard, C.R.C. and Sheppard, A.L.S. 1991. Coral and coral communities
of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 12: 3-10.
Sheppard, C.R.C. and Rayner, N.A. 2002. Utility of the Hadley Centre
sea ice and sea surface temperature data set (HadISST1) in two
widely contrasting coral reef areas. Mar Pollut Bull 44: 303-308.
Sheppard, C.R.C., Price, A.R.G. and Roberts, C.M. 1992. Marine Ecology
of the Arabian Region. Patterns and processes in an extreme tropical
environment. Academic Press, London, 359 p.
Shigenaka, G. (ed.). 2003. Oil and sea turtles: Biology, planning, and
response. Oce of Response and Restoration, NOAA Ocean
Service, Seattle, WA, 111 p.
Shinn, E.A. 1966. Coral growth rate, an environmental indicator. Journal of
Paleontol. 40(2): 233-241.
Shinn, E.A. 1973. Sedimentary accretion along the Leeward, SE coast of
Qatar peninsula, Persian Gulf, pp. 199-210, in Purser, B.H. (ed.). The
Persian Gulf. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Shinn, E.A. 1976. Coral reef recovery in Florida and the Persian Gulf. Env.
Geol. 1: 241-254.
Shobrak, M. 2011. Bird yways and stopover conservation sites in the
Arabian Peninsula. Zoology in the Middle East, Supplementum 3: 27-30.
Short, F.T. and Neckles, H.A. 1998. The eects of global climate change
on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 63: 169-196.
Short, F.T. and Wyllie-Echeverria, S. 1996. Natural and human-induced
disturbance of seagrasses. Environmental Conservation 23: 17-27.
Short, F.T., Polidoro, B., Livingstone, S.R., Carpenter, K.E., Bandeira,
S., Bujang, J.S., Calumpong, H.P., Carruthers, T.J.B., Coles, R.G.,
Dennison, W.C., Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Fortes, M.D., Freeman, A.S.,
Jagtap, T.G., Kamal, A.M., Kendrick, G.A., Kenworthy, W.J., La Nae,
Y.A., Nasution, I.M., Orth, R.J., Prathep, A., Sanciangco, J.C., van
Tussenbroek, B., Vergara, S.G., Waycott, M. and Zieman, J.C. 2011.
Extinction risk assessment of the world’s seagrass species. Biological
Conservation 144: 1961-1971.
Short, M. 2011. Pacic adventurer oil spill: big birds, sea snakes and a
couple of turtles. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings:
March 2011, (1): abs207.
Shriadah, M.M.A. 1999. Heavy metals in mangrove sediments of the
United Arab Emirates shoreline, Arabian Gulf. Water, Air and Soil
Pollution 116: 523-534.
Shuntov, V.P. 1971. Sea snakes of the North Australian shelf. Ekologiya 2:
65-72. [In Russian. Translation into English by Consultants’ Bureau,
1972.]
Siddeek, M.S.M. 1995. Review of sheries biology of Scomberomorus
611
REFERENCES
and Acanthocybium species in the Western Indian Ocean, FAO Area
51. Working Paper No. 95/2 to the Working Group on Pelagics.
Gulfs Committee for Fisheries Management and Development.
Siddeek, M.S.M., Fouda, M.M. and Hermousa, G.V. 1999. Demersal
sheries of the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Gulf.
Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Science 49(Sup A): 87-97.
Silva, P.C., Basson, P.W. and Moe, R.L. 1996. Catalogue of the benthic
marine algae of the Indian Ocean 79. Univ. of California Press.
Simmonds, M.P. and Isaac, S.J. 2007. The impacts of climate change on
marine mammals: Early signs of signicant problems. Oryx 41(1):
19-26.
Simpson, A.W. and Watling, L. 2006. An investigation of the cumulative
impact of shrimp trawling on mud-bottom shing grounds in the
Gulf of Maine: Eects on habitat and macrofaunal community
structure. ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 63: 1616-1630.
Sivasubramaniam, K. and Ibrahim, M.A. 1982. Common shes of Qatar.
University of Qatar, Doha.
Smallwood, B.J., Wol, G.A., Bett, B.J., Smith, C.R., Hoover, D., Gage, J.D.
and Patience, A. 1999. Megafauna can control the quality of organic
matter in marine sediments. Naturwissenschaften 86(7): 320-324.
Smith, G.B. and Saleh, M.A. 1987. Abundance and bathymetric distr ibution
of Bahrain (Persian Gulf) reef ichthyofaunas. Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science 24: 425-431.
Smith, R., Purnama, A. and Al-Barwani, H. 2007. Sensitivity of hypersaline
Arabian Gulf to seawater desalination plants. Applied Mathematical
Modelling 31: 2347-2354.
Smith, S.V. and Jokiel, P.L. 1978. Water composition and biogeochemical
gradients in the Canton Atoll lagoon. Atoll Res. Bulletin 221: 15-54.
Smith, S.V. and Buddemeier, R.W. 1992. Global change and coral reef
ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 89-118.
Smythe, K.R. 1972. Marine mollusca from Bahrain island, Persian Gulf.
Journal of Conchology 27: 491-496.
Snelgrove, P., Blackburn, T.H., Hutchings, P.A., Alongi, D.M., Grassle,
J.F., Hummel, H., King, G., Koike, I., Lambshead, P.J.D., Ramsing,
N.B. and Solis-Weiss, V. 1997. The importance of marine sediment
biodiversity in ecosystem processes. Ambio 26: 578-583.
Snelgrove, P.V.R. 1998. The biodiversity of macrofaunal organisms in
marine sediments. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 1123-1132.
Solan, M., Batty, P., Bulling, M.T. and Godbold, J.A. 2008. How biodiversity
aects ecosystem processes: Implications for ecological revolutions
and benthic ecosystem function. Aquatic Biology 2: 289-301.
Somero, G.N. 2002. Thermal physiology and vertical zonation of intertidal
animals: Optima, limits, and cost of living. Integrative and Comparative
Biology 42: 780-789.
Sommariva, C. 2001. Matching power and desalination by combining
thermal and membrane processes: The alternative to improve
exibility and performance. Proceedings of the IDA World Congress
on Desalination and Water Reuse. Manama, Bahrain.
Sommariva, C. and Syambabu, V.S.N. 2001. Increase in water production
in UAE. Desalination 138: 173-179.
Sommariva, C., Hogg, H. and Callister, K. 2001. Forty-year design life: The
next target material selection — Conditions in thermal desalination
plants. Desalination 136: 169-176.
Spalding, M., Kainuma, M. and Collins, L. 2010. World atlas of mangroves.
Earthscan, London.
Springer, V.G. and Gold, J.P. 1989. Sharks in question. The Smithsonian
answer book. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 71 p.
Squire, J.L. 1987. Striped Marlin, Tefrapfurus audax, migration patterns and
rates in the Northeast Pacic Ocean as determined by a cooperative
tagging program: Its relation to resource management. Mar. Fish. Rev.
49: 26-43.
Stanley, D.R. and Wilson, C.A. 1997. Seasonal and spatial variation in the
abundance and size distribution of shes associated with a petroleum
platform in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54:
1166-1176.
Stegeman, J.J. 1977. Fate and eects of oil in marine animals. Oceanus 20:
59-66.
Stern, E.M. and Stickle, W.B. 1978. Eects of turbidity and suspended
material in aquatic environments: Literature review. U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Tech
Report D-78-21.
Stevens, J.D., Bonl, R., Dulvy, K. and Walker, P.A. 2000. The eects of
shing on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the
implications for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Science
57: 476-494.
Strong, W.R., Snelson, F.F. and Gruber, S.H. 1990. Hammerhead shark
predation on stingrays: An observation of prey handling by Sphyrna
mokarran. Copeia 1990: 836-840.
Subba Rao, D.V. and Al-Yamani, F. 1998. Phytoplankton ecology in the
waters between Shatt Al-Arab and Straits of Hormuz, Arabian Gulf:
A review. Plankton Biology and Ecology 45(2): 106-116.
Sugden, W. 1963. The hydrography of the Persian Gulf and its signicance
in respect to evaporative deposition. American Journal of Science 261:
741-755.
Sukhdev, P. 2008. The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity. European
Communities 3. Brussels.
Sumner, J., Webb, J.K., Shine, R. and Keogh, J.S. 2010. Molecular and
morphological assessment of Australia’s most endangered snake,
Hoplocephalus bungaroides, reveals two evolutionarily signicant
units for conservation. Conservation Genetics 11: 747-758.
SUSRIS (Saudi-US Relations Information Service). 2008. Saudi Arabia
— Country analysis brief. http://www.Saudi-US-Relations.org.
Suter, G.W., Efroympson, R.A., Sample, B.E. and Jones, D.S. 2000.
Ecological risk assessment for contaminated sites. Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Swift, S.A. and Bower, A.S. 2003. Formation and circulation of dense
water in the Persian/Arabian Gulf. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (C1), 3004,
DOI: 10.1029/2002JC001360.
Symens, P. and Alsuhaibany, A.H. 1996. Status of the breeding populations
of terns (Sternidae) along the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia following
the 1991 Gulf War, pp. 404-420, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and
Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Symens, P. and Alsuhaibany, A.H. 1996a. The ornithological importance
of the Jubail marine wildlife sanctuary, pp. 374-389, in Krupp, F.,
Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary
for the Arabian Gulf. Environmental research and conservation
following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and
Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Symens, P. and Al-Suhaibany, A.H. 1996b. Status of the breeding populations
of terns (Sternidae) along the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia following
the 1991 Gulf War, pp. 404-420, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and
Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf.
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg Research Institute,
Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Symens, P. and Werner, M. 1996. Status the Socotra cormorant in the
Arabian Gulf after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill, with and outline of a
standardized census technique, pp. 390-403, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada,
A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the
Arabian Gulf. Environmental research and conservation following
the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh and Senckenberg
Research Institute, Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Symens, P. and Al Salamah, M.I. 1993. The impact of the Gulf War oil
spills on wetlands and waterfowl in the Arabian Gulf. IWEB special
publication 25: 24-28.
Tabugo, S.R.M., Pattuinan, J.O., Sespene, N.J.J. and Jamasali, A.J. 2013.
Some economically important bivalves and gastropods found in the
612
REFERENCES
Island of Hadji Panglima Tahil, in the province of Sulu, Philippines.
International Research Journal of Biological Sciences 2(7): 30-36.
Talbot, F. and Wilkinson, C., 2001. Coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses:
A sourcebook for managers, pp. 85-91. Science Communication,
Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Tarawneh, Q. 2013. Quantication of drought in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources and Arid Environments
2(3): 125-133.
Tawq, N. and Olsen, D.A. 1993. Saudi Arabia’s response to the 1991 Gulf
oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27: 333-345.
Tayab, M.R. and Quiton, P. 2003. Marine turtle conservation initiatives
at Ras Laan Industrial City, Qatar Arabian Gulf. Marine Turtle
Newsletter 99: 14-15.
Taylor, P.M. and Saloman, C.H. 1968. Some eects of dredging and coastal
development in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, United States, Fish and
Wildlife Service. Fishery Bulletin 67(2): 213-241.
Te, F.T. 1991. Eects of two petroleum products on Pocillopora damicornis
planulae. Pacic Science 45(3): 290-298.
Tehranifard, A. and Dastan, K. 2011. General morphological characteristics
of the Sepia pharaonis (Cephalopoda) from Persian Gulf, Bushehr
region. International Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Technology
11: 120-126.
Teller, J.T., Glennie, K.W., Lancaster, N. and Singhvi, K. 2000. Calcareous
dunes of the United Arab Emirates and Noah’s ood: The post glacial
reooding of the Persian (Arabian Gulf). Quat. Int. 68-71: 297-308.
Terrados, J., Duarte, C.M., Kamp-Nielsen, L., Agawin, N.S.R., Gacia, E.,
Lacap, D., Fortes, M.D., Borum, J., Lubanski, M. and Greve, T. 1999.
Are seagrass growth and survival aected by reducing conditions in
the sediment? Aquatic Botany 65: 175-197.
Tharwat, A.A. 2005. Stock assessment of orange-spotted grouper
Epinephelus coioides inhabiting the Arabian Gulf at Saudi Arabia.
Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 12: 81-89.
Tharwat, A.A. and Al-Gaber, A.L. 2006. Fishery traps (Gargours) in Saudi
territorial waters of the Arabian Gulf. JKAU: Marine Sci. 17: 13-31.
Thayer, G.W., Bjorndal, K.A., Ogden, J.C., Williams, S.L. and Zieman, J.C.
1984. Role of larger herbivores in seagrass communities. Estuaries
74: 351-376.
Thayer, G.W., Engel, D.W. and Bjorndal, K.A. 1982. Evidence for short-
circuiting of the detritus cycle of seagrass beds by the green turtle,
Chelonia mydas L. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 62: 173-183.
Thom, R.M. 1990. Spatial and temporal patterns in plant standing stock
and primary production in a temperate seagrass system. Bot. Mar. 33:
497-510.
Thompson, P. and Ollason, J. 2001. Lagged eects of ocean climate change
on fulmar population dynamics. Nature 413: 417-420.
Thoppil, P.G. and Hogan, P.J. 2010. Persian Gulf response to a wintertime
shamal wind event. Deep Sea Research I 57: 946-995.
Thoppil, P.G. and Hogan, P.J. 2010. A modeling study of circulation and
Eddies in the Persian Gulf. Journal of Physical Oceanography 40: 2122-
2134.
Thorne, L.T. and Nickless, G. 1981. The relation between heavy metals
and particles size fraction within the severn Estuary (U.K.) inter-
tidial sediments. Science of the Total Environment 19: 207-213.
Thrush, S.F. and Dayton, P.K. 2002. Disturbance to marine benthic habitats
by trawling and dredging: Implications for marine biodiversity. Annu.
Rev. Ecol. Syst. 33: 449-473.
TMRU. 1982. Management requirements for natural habitats and
biological resources on the Arabian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia.
IUCN Report to MEPA prepared by Coral Reef and Tropical
Marine Research Unit. University of York.
Tomasko, D.A., Corbett, C.A., Greening, H.S. and Raulerson, G.E. 2005.
Spatial and temporal variation in seagrass coverage in southwest
Florida: Assessing the relative eects of anthropogenic nutrient load
reductions and rainfall in four contiguous estuaries. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 50: 797-805.
Townsend, D.W. and Cammen, L.M. 1988. Potential importance of the
timing of spring phytoplankton blooms to benthic pelagic coupling
and recruitment of demersal shes. Biological Oceanography 5: 215-
229.
Trites, A.W. 2001. Marine mammal trophic levels and interactions,
pp. 1628-1633, in Steele, J., Thorpe, S. and Turekian, K. (eds.).
Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, London.
Tutin, T.G. 1942. Zostera. Journal of Ecology 30: 217-266.
Twilley, R., Kemp, W., Staver, K., Stevenson, J.C. and Boynton, W. 1985.
Nutrient enrichment of estuarine submersed vascular plant
communities. 1. Algal growth and eects on production of plants and
associated communities. Marine ecology progress series. Oldendorf
23(2): 179-191.
U.S. Hydrographic Oce. 1978. Co-tidal chart of the Arabian Gulf. HO
5091. U.S. Hydrographic Oce, Washington, D.C.
Uddin, S. 2014. Environmental impacts of desalination activities in the
Arabian Gulf. International Journal of Environmental Science and
Development 5: 114.
UNCTAD. 2012. Review of maritime transport. United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, New York and Geneva.
UNEP. 1994. Assessment and monitoring of climatic change impacts on
mangrove ecosystems. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies
No. 154, pp. 1-62.
UNEP. 2002. Global Environment Outlook 3. United Nations. United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD. (2012).
Review of maritime transport. New York and Geneva: UNCTAD
secretariat.
UNEP. 2002. Dugong: Status report and action plans for countries and
territories. UNEP/DEWA/RS.02-1, ISBN 92-807-2130-5.
UNEP/CMS. 2007. Memorandum of Understanding on the conservation
and management of Dugongs (Dugong dugong) and their habitats
throughout their range. Report of the Technical Workshop and
Meeting to sign the Dugong MoU. Abu Dhabi, UAE.
UNESCO. 1968. Zooplankton sampling. Monograph on oceanographic
methodology, No. 2, UNESCO, Paris.
Ungar, I.A. 1991. Ecophysiology of vascular halophytes. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, USA.
Unsworth, R.K., Cullen, L.C., Pretty, J.N., Smith, D.J. and Bell, J.J. 2010.
Economic and subsistence values of the standing stocks of seagrass
sheries: Potential benets of no shing marine protected area
management. Ocean & Coastal Management 53: 218-224.
Unsworth, R.K.F. and Cullen, L.C. 2010. Recognizing the necessity for
Indo-Pacic seagrass conservation. Conservation Letters 3: 63-73.
Unsworth, R.K.F., Collier, C.J., Henderson, G.M. and McKenzie, L.J.
2012. Tropical seagrass meadows modify seawater carbon chemistry:
Implications for coral reefs impacted by ocean acidication.
Environmental Research Letters 7(2): 024-026.
Urban, E.K., Fry, C.H. and Keith, S. 1986. The birds of Africa, Vol. II.
Academic Press, London.
Uthicke, S., Schaelke, B. and Byrne, M. 2009. A boom-bust phylum?
Ecological and evolutionary consequences of density variations in
echinoderms. Ecol. Monogr. 79: 3-24.
Valentine, J.F., Kenneth, L., Heck, K.L. and Cinkovish, A.M. 2002. Impacts
of seagrass food webs on marine ecosystems: A need for a broader
perspective. Bulletin of Marine Science 7: 1361-1368.
van Buskirk, J. and Crowder, L.B. 1994. Life-history variation in marine
turtles. Copeia 1994(1): 66-81.
van Dam, R.L., Eustice, B.P., Hyndman, D.W., Wood, W.W. and Simmons,
C.T. 2014. Electrical imaging and uid modeling of convective
ngering in a shallow water-table aquifer. Water Resour. Res. 50: 954-
968. DOI: 10.1002/2013WR013673.
van Gils, A.G. 2010. Classes of chemicals used in desalination (short
vs. long-life), usage levels and relative priority and impact. IDA
Environmental Symposium, “Desalination and the Gulf: The
613
REFERENCES
relationship between the environment and meeting the region’s
water needs.” December 6-7, 2010, Manama, Bahrain.
van Lavieren, H., Burt, J., Feary, D.A., Cavalcante, G., Marquis, E., Benedetti,
L., Trick, C., Kjerfve, B. and Sale, P.F. 2011. Managing the growing
impacts of development on fragile coastal and marine ecosystems:
Lessons from the Gulf. A policy report. UNU-INWEH, Hamilton,
ON, Canada.
van Moorsel, G.W.N.M. 1994. The Klaver Bank (North Sea),
geomorphology, macrobenthic ecology and the eect of gravel
extraction. Rapport Bureau Waardenburg and North Sea Directorate
(DNS). Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management,
the Netherlands.
van Name, W.G. 1945. The North and South American ascidians. Bulletin
of the American Museum of Natural History 84: 1-476.
van Oostrum, R.W. and Vroege, P. 1994. Turbidity and contaminant release
during dredging of contaminated sediments. Proc. of the Second
International Conference on Dredging and Dredge Material
Placement, Dredging ‘94.
Vandermeulen, J.H. and Singh, J.G. 1994. Arrow oil spill, 1970-90:
Persistence of 20 year weathered bunker C fuel oil. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 51: 845-855.
Vasquez, M.A., Allen, K.W. and Kattan, Y.M. 2000. Long-term eects of
the 1991 Gulf War on the hydrocarbon levels in clams at selected
areas of the Saudi Arabian Gulf coastline. Mar. Poll. Bull. 40: 440-448.
Vaudo, J.J. and Heithaus, M.R. 2009. Spatiotemporal variability in a sand
at elasmobranch fauna in Shark Bay, Australia. Marine Biology 156:
2579-2590.
Veit, R.R., McGowan, J.A., Ainley, D.G., Wahls, T.R. and Pyle, P. 1997.
Apex marine predator declines ninety percent in association with
changing climate. Global Change Biol 3: 23-28.
Venkat, K., Anil, A.C. and Wagh, A.B. 1997. Macrofouling community
development at tropical coastal environment (New Mangalore Port,
West Coast of India). Proceedings of the U.S. Pacic Rim Workshop
on Emerging Nonmetallic Materials for the Marine Environment,
Honolulu, Hawaii, March 1997, pp. 40-52.
Verdonschot, P.F.M. 2006. Beyond masses and blooms: The indicative
value of oligochaetes. Hydrobiologia 564: 127-142.
Vermaat, J.E., Hootsmans, M.J.M. and Nienhuis, P.H. 1987. Seasonal
dynamics and leaf growth of Zostera noltii Hornem, a perennial
intertidal seagrass. Aquat. Bot. 28: 287-299.
Vermey, J.W. and Berand, D. 2001. Breakthrough of MED technology in
very large-scale applications, Al-Taweelah case. Proceedings of the
IDA Conference. Manama, Bahrain.
Veron, J.E.N. 2000. Corals of the world, 3 vols. Australian Institute of
Marine Science, Townsville, Australia, pp. 463, 429, 490.
Vincent, C., Heinrich, H., Edwards, A., Nygaard, K. and Haythornthwaite,
J. 2002. Guidance on typology, classication and reference conditions
for transitional and coastal waters. Commission Européenne. CIS
WG 2.4 (COAST), 119 p.
Viskovich, P.G., Gordon, H.F. and Walker, S.J. 2013. Light at the end of
the tunnel: A benthic community perspective. Proceedings of
the International Desalination Association World Congress on
Desalination and Water Reuse 2013/Tianjin, China, 17 p.
Vita-Finzi, C. 1982. Recent coastal deformation near the Straits of
Hormuz. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A382: 441-457.
Vogt, H. 1996. Investigations on coral reefs in the Jubail marine wildlife
sanctuary using under water video recordings and digital image
analysis, pp. 302-326, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader,
I.A. (eds.). A marine wildlife sanctuary for the Arabian Gulf:
Environmental research and conservation following the 1991 Gulf
War oil spill. European Commission, National Commission for
Wildlife Conservation and Development, and Forschungsinstitut
Senckenberg.
Vogt, P. 1995. Coral reefs in Saudi Arabia: 3.5 years after the Gulf War oil
spill. Coral Reefs 14: 271-273.
Volsoe, H. 1939. The Sea snakes of the Iranian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman
with a summary of the biology of Sea snakes, pp. 9-45, in Jessen, J.
and Sparck, R. (eds.). Danish scientic investigations in Iran. Einar
Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
Von Trepke, L. 1968. Investigations of the tides in the Persian Gulf by
means of a hydrodynamic-numerical model, Proc. of the Symp. on
Mathematical-Hydrodynamical Investigations of Physical Processes
in the Sea, No. l0, Inst. fur Meers. Univ. Hamburg, pp. 59-63.
Voris, H.K. 1966. Fish eggs as the apparent sole food item for a genus of
sea snake, Emydocedphalus Kret. Ecology 47: 152-154.
Voris, H.K. and Jayne, B.C. 1979. Growth, reproduction and population
structure of a marine snake, Enhydrina schistosa Hydrophiidae.
Copeia 1979: 307-318.
Voris, H.K. and Voris, H.H. 1983. Feeding strategies in marine snakes: An
analysis of evolutionary, morphological and ecological relationships.
American Zoologist 23: 411-425.
Voris, H.K., Voris, H.H. and Liat, L.B. 1978. The food and feeding behavior
of a marine snake, Enhydrina schistosa Hydrophiidae. Copeia 1978:
134-146.
Vousden, D.H. 1988. The Bahrain marine habitat survey: A study of the
marine environment of Bahrain using remote sensing as a rapid
assessment methodology. Proc. ROPME Workshop on Coastal Area
Development, UNEP Reg. Seas Report Study, Vol. 90: 1-33.
Wade, N.M. and Fletcher, R.S. 1995. Energy allocation and other factors
inuencing water costs in desalination and dual purpose Power/
Water plants. Proceedings of the IDA Congress on Desalination and
Water Reuse, 1995/Abu Dhabi, UAE, November 18-24.
WCC’93, 1994. Preparing to meet the coastal challenges of the 21st
century. Report of the World Coast Conference, Noordwijk, the
Netherlands, November 1-5, 1993. Ministry of Transport, Public
Works and Water Management, The Hague, the Netherlands, 49 p.
plus apps.
Wagner, C.W. and van der Togt, C. 1973. Holocene sediment types and
their distribution on the southern Persian Gulf, pp. 123-156, in
Purser, B.H. (ed.). The Persian Gulf. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Walker, D.G. and Pittaway, A.R. 1987. Insects of Eastern Arabia. Macmillan,
London.
Walker, D.I., Kendrick, G.A. and McComb, A.J. 2006. Decline and recovery
of seagrass ecosystems the dynamics of change, in Larkum, A.W.D.,
Orth, R.J. and Duarte, C.M. (eds.). Seagrasses: Biology, ecology and
conservation. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
Walker, N.D., Roberts, H.H., Rouse, L.R. and Huh, O.K. 1982. Thermal
history of reef associated environments during a record cold air
outbreak event. Coral Reefs 1: 83-87.
Walker, P. and Wood, E. 2005. Life in the Sea: The open ocean. Infobase
Publishing.
Wallace, C.C. 1999. Staghorn corals of the world. A revision of the genus
Acropora. CSIRO Publications, Collingwood, 421 p.
Walther, G-R., Post, E., Convey, P., Menzel, A., Parmesank, C., Beebee,
T.J.C., Fromentin, J-M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bairlein, F. 2002.
Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 416: 389-395.
Wang, Y.C. 1980. Early Chinese coinage. Sanford J. Durst Numismatic
Publications, New York.
Ward, T.M. 1996a. Sea snake by-catch of sh trawlers on the Northern
Australian Continental Shelf. Marine and Freshwater Research 47: 625-
630.
Ward, T.M. 1996b. Sea snake bycatch of prawn trawlers on the Northern
Australian Continental Shelf. Marine and Freshwater Research 47: 631-
635.
Ward, T.M. 2000. Factors aecting the catch rates and relative abundance
of sea snakes in the by-catch of trawlers targeting tiger and endeavour
prawns on the northern Australian continental shelf. Marine and
Freshwater Research 51: 155-164.
Wardrop, J.A., Butler, A.J. and Johnson, J.E. 1987. A eld study of the
614
REFERENCES
toxicity of two oils and a dispersant to the mangrove Avicennia
marina. Marine Biology 96: 151-156.
Warnken, J. 1996. Salt marshes and intertidal habitats of the Jubail marine
wildlife sanctuary: Extent of oil impacted areas and estimated losses
of aboveground plant biomass following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill,
pp. 177-185, in Krupp, F., Abuzinada, A.H. and Nader, I.A. (eds.). A
marine wildlife sanctuary for the Gulf. Environmental research and
conservation following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. NCWCD, Riyadh
and Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt aM, Germany.
Warren, J.K. 2006. Evaporites: Sediments, resources and hydrocarbons.
Springer, 1036 p.
Warshay, B., Pan, J. and Sgouridis, S. 2011. Aviation industry’s quest for
a sustainable fuel: Considerations of scale and modal opportunity
carbon benet. Biofuels 2: 33-58.
Wassenberg, T.J., Salini, J.P., Heatwole, H. and Kerr, J.D. 1994. Incidental
capture of sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) by prawn trawlers in the Gulf
of Carpentaria, Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research 45: 429-43.
Water Technology and Customer Insight. 2015. Ras Al-Khair desalination
plant, Saudi Arabia. http://www.water-technology.net/-ras-al-
khair-desalination-plant/.
Water Technology Net. 2009. Shoaiba Desalination Plant, Saudi Arabia.
http://www.water-technology.net/projects/shuaiba/.
Water man, T.H. and Chace, F.A. 1960. General crustacean biology, pp. 1-33,
in Waterman, T.H. (ed.). The physiology of Crustacea: Metabolism
and growth. Academic Press, New York.
Watling, L. and Norse, E.A. 1998. Disturbance of the seabed by mobile
shing gear: A comparison to forest clearcutting. Conservation Biology
12: 1180-1197.
Watt, I., Woodhouse, T. and Jones, D.A. 1993. Intertidal clean-up activities
and natural regeneration on the Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia from
1991 to 1992 after the 1991 Gulf oil spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin
27: 325-331.
Waycott, M., Duarte, C.M., Carruthers, T.J.B., Orth, R.J., Dennison, W.C.,
Olyarnik, S., Calladine, A., Fourqurean, J.W., Heck Jr., K.L., Hughes,
A.R., et al. 2009. Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe
threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the USA 106: 12377-12381.
Wehe, T. and Fiege, D. 2002. Annotated checklist of the polychaete species
of the seas surrounding the Arabian Peninsula: Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden, Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Gulf. Fauna of Arabia 19:
7-238.
Weigmann, R. 1970. Zur Okologie und Ernahrungsbiologie der
Euphausiaceen (Crustacea) in Arabischen Meer. “METEOR”
Forschungscrgebnisse. Reihe D.5: 11-52.
Weimerskirch, H., Chastel, O., Barbraud, C. and Tostain, O. 2003.
Frigatebirds ride high on thermals. Nature 421: 333-334.
Weisburg, S.B. and Lotrich, V.A. 1982. The importance of an infrequently
ooded intertidal marsh surface as an energy source for the
mummichog Fundulus heteroclitus: An experimental approach.
Marine Biology 66: 307-310.
Weishampel, J.F., Bagley, D.A., Ehrhart, L.M. and Weishampel, A.C. 2010.
Nesting phenologies of two sympatric sea turtle species related to sea
surface temperatures. Endangered Species Research 12: 41-47.
Weldon, P.J. 1988. Feeding responses of Pacic snappers genus Lutjanus
to the yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus. Zoological Science 5:
443-448.
Wells, R.S. and Scott, M.D. 2002. Bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus
and T. aduncus, pp. 122-128, in Perrin, W.F., Wursig, B. and
Thewissen, J.G.M. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. San
Diego, California, Academic Press.
Wells, R.S., Scott, M.D. and Irvine, A.B. 1987. The social structure of free-
ranging bottlenose dolphins, pp. 247-305, in Genoways, H. (ed.).
Current mammology, Vol 1. Plenum Press, New York.
Western, A.R. 1989. The ora of the United Arab Emirates. An
introduction. Al Ain, United Arab Emirates University.
Whanpetch, N., Nakaoka, M., Mukai, H., Suzuki, T., Nojima, S., Kawai, T.
and Aryuthaka, C. 2010. Temporal changes in benthic communities
of seagrass beds impacted by a tsunami in the Andaman Sea, Thailand.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 87: 246-252.
Whilekamp, R.H., Romand, R. and Scheel, J.J. 1986. Cyprinodontidae,
in Daget, J., Gosse, J-P. and Thys van den Audenaerde, D.F.E. (eds.).
Checklist of the freshwater shes of Africa (CLOFFA), Vol. 2. ISNB,
Brussels, MRAC; Tervuren; and ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 165-276.
White, A.T. 1990. Coral reefs: Valuable resources of Southeast Asia.
ICLARM Education Ser. 1. International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management, Manila, the Philippines, 35 p.
White, H.K., Hsing, P.Y., Cho, W., Shank, T.M., Cordes, E.E., Quattrini,
A.M., Nelson, R.K., Camilli, R., Demopoulos, A.WJ., German,
C.R., Brooks, J.M., Roberts, H.H., Shedd, W., Reddy, C.M. and
Fisher, C.R. 2012. Impact of the deepwater horizon oil spill on a
deepwater coral community in the Gulf of Mexico. PNAS 109:
20303-20308.
White, W.T. and Potter, I.C. 2004. Habitat partitioning among four
elasmobranch species in nearshore, shallow waters of a subtropical
embayment in Western Australia. Marine Biology 145: 1023-1032.
Whitehead, P.J.P. 1985. FAO species catalogue, Vol. 7. Clupeoid shes
of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of herrings,
sardines, pilchards, sprats, shads, anchovies and wolf-herrings. Part I
— Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae. FAO Fish. Synop.
7(125) Pt. I, Rome.
Wibbels, T. 2003. Critical approaches to sex determination in sea turtles,
pp. 103-134, in Lutz, P., Musick, J. and Wyneken, J. (eds.). The biology
of sea turtles. Vol. II CRC Press, New York.
Widdows, J. and Brinsley, M. 2002. Impact of biotic and abiotic processes
on sediment dynamics and the consequences to the structure and
functioning of the intertidal zone. Journal of Sea Research 48: 143-156.
Wijsman, J.W.M. and Riegl, B. 2001. Fact nding mission and ecological
survey. Al Taweelah Report National Coral Reef Institute. Nova
Southeastern University, Florida, USA, pp. 1-21.
Wilen, J.E., Cancino, J. and Uchida, H. 2012. The economics of territorial
use rights sheries, or TURFs. Review of Environmental Economics and
Policy 6: 237-257.
Wiley, T.R. and Simpfendorfer, C.A. 2007. The ecology of elasmobranchs
occurring in the Everglades National Park, Florida: Implications for
conservation and management. Bulletin of Marine Science 80: 171-189.
Williams, E.H. and Bunkley-Williams, L. 1990. Coral reef bleaching alert.
Nature 346: 225.
Williams, J.B., Shobrak, M., Wilms, T.M., Arif, I. and Khan, H.A. 2012.
Climate change and animals in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological
Sciences 19: 121-130.
Williams, M.J. (ed.). 1998. A Roadmap for the future for sheries and
conservation: Proceedings of the sheries session, IUCN marine
and coastal workshop October 17-18, 1996, Montreal, Canada.
ICLARM Conf. Proc. 56. ICLARM, Manila, the Philippines, 58 p.
Williams, R.O. 1979. Meteorologic and oceanographic data book for
the Eastern province region of Saudi Arabia. Arabian American Oil
Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Wilson, E., Miller, K., Allison, D. and Magliocca, M. 2010. Why healthy
oceans need sea turtles: The importance of sea turtles to marine
ecosystems. Oceana. (Oceana.org/sea turtles, accessed 2014).
Wilson, S., Fatemi, S.M.R., Shokri, M.R. and Claereboudt, M. 2002.
Status of coral reefs of the Persian/Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea
region, pp: 53-62, in Wilkinson, C. (ed.). Status of coral reefs of the
world. Aust. Instit. of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia.
Wilson, S.C. 2000. The Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman, pp. 17-33, in
Sheppard, C.R.C. (ed.). Seas at the Millenium. Pergamon Press,
Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
615
REFERENCES
Wiltshire, E.P. 1990. An illustrated, annotated catalogue of the Macro-
Heterocera of Saudi Arabia. Fauna Saudi Arabia 11: 91-250.
Witzell, W.N. 1983. Synopsis of biological data on the hawksbill turtle,
Eretmochelys imbricata Linnaeus, 1766, FOA Fisheries Synopsis 137:
78.
Wolanski, E., Fabricius, K., Spagnol, S. and Brinkman, R. 2005. Fine
sediment budget on an inner-shelf coral-fringed island, Great Barrier
Reef of Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 65: 153-158.
Wolfson, A., VanBlaricom, G.R., Davis, N. and Lewbel, G.S. 1979. The
marine life of an oshore oil platform. Marine Ecology Progress Series
1: 81-89.
Womersley, H.B.S. 1987. The marine benthic ora southem Australia.
Part JI. Adelaide. South Australian Government Printing Division,
484 p.
Wood, E.J.F. and Johannes, R.E. (eds.). 1975. Tropical marine pollution.
Elsevier Oceanography Series, Elsevier Scientic Publishing
Company, Amsterdam-Oxford-New York, Vol. 12.
Wood, W.W. and Sanford, W.E. 2002. Hydrogeology and solute chemistry
of the coastal sabkha aquifer in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, p. 354,
in Barth, H-J. and Boer, B. (eds.). Sabkha ecosystem, Vol. 1 — The
Sabkhas of the Arabian Peninsula and adjacent countries. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Wood, W.W., Sanford, W.E. and Al Habschi, A.R. 2002. The source of
solutes in the coastal sabkha of Abu Dhabi. Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America 114(3): 259-268.
Wood, W.W., Sanford, W.E. and Frape, S. 2005. Chemical openness and
potential for misinterpretation of the solute environment of coastal
sabkhat. Chemical Geology 215(1-4): 361-372.
Wooster, W.S., Schaer, M.B. and Robinson, M.K. 1967. Atlas of the
Arabian Sea for shery oceanography. Institute of Marine resources,
University of California.
World Health Organization. 1991. Hydrazine health and safety guide.
International program on chemical safety, health and safety guide
No. 56.
Wright, D.G. (Coordinator). 1977. Articial islands in the Beaufort
Sea. A review of potential impacts. Department of Fishery and
Environment. Winnipeg, Manitoba. September 1977.
Wright, J.L. 1974. A hydrographic and acoustic survey of the Persian Gulf,
Part I.M.S. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, 87 p.
Wright, T.D. 1978. Aquatic dredged material disposal impacts. United
States Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
MS, USA, Tech. Report DS-78-1, 57 p.
Wyneken, J., Musick, J.A. and Lohmann, K.J. 2013. The biology of sea
turtles, Vol. III.
Yamazi, I. 1974. Analysis of the data on temperature, salinity and chemical
properties of the surface water, and zooplankton communities in
the RSA in December 1968. Transactions of the Tokyo University of
Fisheries 1: 26-51.
Yasseen, B.T. and Abu-Al-Basal, M.A. 2008. Ecophysiology of Limonium
axillare and Avicennia marina from the coastline of Arabian Gulf-
Qatar. J. Coastal Conservation 12: 35-42.
Yechieli, Y. and Wood, W.W. 2002. Hydrogeologic processes in saline
systems: Playas, sabkhas, and saline lakes. Earth Science Reviews 58:
343-365.
Youssef, A.M. and Al-Fredan, M.A. 2008. Community composition of
major vegetations in the coastal area of Al-Uqair, Saudi Arabia in
response to ecological variations. J. Biol. Sci. 8: 713-721.
Youssef, T. and Ghanem, A. 2002. Salt secretion and stomatal behavior in
Avicennia marina seedlings fumigated with the volatile fraction of
Arabian Light crude oil. Environmental Pollution 116: 215-223.
Zacttruba, J. 2009.W ater Desalination using multistage ash distillation
(MSF). https://www.brighthubengineering.com/power-plants/
29623-how-desalination-by-multi-stage-ash-distillation-works.
Zahran, M. 1977. Africa A: Wet formations of the African Red Sea coast,
pp. 215-231, in Chapman, V.J. (ed.). Ecosystems of the world I: Wet
coastal ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York.
Zainal, K. 2009. The cumulative impacts of reclamation and dredging
activities. Report for ROPME, Kuwait.
Zainal, K., Al-Madany, I., Al-Sayed, H., Khamis, A., Al Shuhaby, S., Al
Hisaby, A., Elhoussiny, W. and Khalaf, E. 2012. The cumulative
impacts of reclamation and dredging on the marine ecology and
land-use in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64:
1452-1458.
Zajonz, U., Beech, M. and Gill, A.C. 2002. Fishes of sabkha-related habitats.
Sabkha ecosystems, Vol. I: The Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries
36: 283-298.
Zarba, M.A., Mohammed, O.S., Anderlini, V.C., Literathy, P. and Shunbo,
F. 1985. Petroleum residues in surface sediments of Kuwait. Marine
Pollution Bulletin 16(5): 209-211.
Zarins, J.A., Al-Mughanam, A.S. and Kamal, M. 1984. Excavations at
Dhahran South — The Tumuli eld (208-91). 1403 A.H. 1983. A
preliminary report. Atlal 8: 25-54.
Zayani, A.K. and Loughland, R.A. 2009. Intertidal habitats, pp. 85-113,
in Loughland, R.A. and Zainal, A.J. (eds.). Marine Atlas of Bahrain.
GEOMATEC, Kingdom of Bahrain.
Zhang, Z.Q. 2011. Animal biodiversity: An introduction to higher level
classication and taxonomic richness. Zootaxa 3148: 7-12.
Zieman, J-C. and Wood, E.J.F. 1975. Eect of thermal pollution on the
tropical-type estuaries, with emphasis on Biscayne Bay, Florida, in
pp. 75-98, Wood, E.l.F. and Johannes, R.E. (eds.). Tropical marine
pollution, Elsevier.
Zimmerman, K.D. and Heatwole, H. 1992. Ventilation rates in three prey
sh species treated with venom of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus
laevis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 102C: 421-425.
Zimmerman, K.D., Gates, G.R. and Heatwole, H. 1990. Eects of venom
of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, on the behaviour and
ventilation of three species of sh. Toxicon 28: 1468-1478.
Zimmerman, S.E. and Heatwole, H. 1987. Olive sea snake venom, pp.
204-213, in Covacevich, J., Davie, P. and Pearn, J. (eds.). Toxic plants
and animals, a guide for Australia. Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Zimmerman, S.E., Heatwole, H., Andreopoulos, P.C. and Yong, L.C.
1992. Proliferative glomerulonephritis in mice induced by sea snake
Aipysurus laevis venom. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology 44:
294-300.
Zuykov, M., Pelletier, E. and Harper, D.A.T. 2013. Bivalve mollusks in
metal pollution studies: From bioaccumulation to biomonitoring.
Chemosphere 93(2): 201-208.
Zwarts, L., Felemban, H.M. and Price, A.R.G. 1991. Wader counts along
the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast suggest that the Gulf harbors millions
of waders. Wader Study Group Bull. 63: 25-32.
