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The Therapeutic Value of Experiencing Spirituality in Nature

Spirituality in Clinical Practice

July 2019
7(2)

DOI:10.1037/scp0000204

Authors:

Lia Naor

University of Haifa

Ofra Mayseless

University of Haifa

Spirituality, associated with the human motivation and potential to experience connection with the sacred and divine, is a common aspect of nature experience and has been the subject of many studies. But the profound benevolent effect of experiencing spirituality in nature in therapeutic contexts has yet to be empirically uncovered. This paper focuses on the therapeutic effect of experiencing spirituality in nature from the perspective of nature-based therapists (NBT). Spirituality emerged as a central theme in a larger study designed to develop a model of NBT currently lacking in the field. Grounded theory methodology was applied, and data included in-depth interviews with 26 experienced nature-based therapists worldwide and field observations of six nature-based therapeutic workshops. Within the NBT context, spirituality emerged as involving an actual and tangible experience of the spiritual in physical form—nature as an embodiment of spirituality. The findings link this form of spiritual experience to significant therapeutic effects, including the experience of nature's immensity, contributing to an expansive perspective; experiencing interconnectedness, which elicits a sense of belonging to the large web of life; and the reflection of internal nature and truth by external nature as an accepting setting, contributing to the discovery of an authentic self. These results are discussed in light of current perspectives on the psychology of spirituality contributing to our understanding of the therapeutic effects of spirituality that may be evoked and implemented through nature. The practical and clinical implementations of spiritual connection through nature in therapeutic frameworks are discussed.

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Spirituality in Clinical Practice

The Therapeutic Value of Experiencing Spirituality in

Nature

Lia Naor and Ofra Mayseless

Online First Publication, July 25, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000204

CITATION

Naor, L., & Mayseless, O. (2019, July 25). The Therapeutic Value of Experiencing Spirituality in

Nature. Spirituality in Clinical Practice. Advance online publication.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000204

The Therapeutic Value of Experiencing Spirituality in Nature

Lia Naor and Ofra Mayseless

University of Haifa

Spirituality, which is associated with the human motivation and potential to experience

connection with the sacred and divine, is a common aspect of nature experience and has

been the subject of many studies. But the profound benevolent effect of experiencing

spirituality in nature in therapeutic contexts has yet to be empirically demonstrated.

This article focuses on the therapeutic effect of experiencing spirituality in nature from

the perspective of nature-based therapists. Spirituality emerged as a central theme in a

larger study designed to develop a model of nature-based therapy (NBT), which is

currently lacking in the ﬁeld. Grounded theory methodology was applied, and data

included in-depth interviews with 26 experienced nature-based therapists worldwide

and ﬁeld observations of 6 NBT workshops. Within the NBT context, spirituality

emerged as involving an actual and tangible experience of the spiritual in physical

form—nature as an embodiment of spirituality. The ﬁndings link this form of spiritual

experience to signiﬁcant therapeutic effects, including the experience of nature’s

immensity, which contributes to an expansive perspective; experiencing interconnect-

edness, which elicits a sense of belonging to the vast web of life; and the reﬂection of

internal nature and truth by external nature as an accepting setting, which contributes

to the discovery of an authentic self. These results are discussed in consideration of

current perspectives on the psychology of spirituality, which further our understanding

of the therapeutic effects of spirituality that may be evoked and implemented through

nature. The practical and clinical implementations of spiritual connection through

nature in therapeutic frameworks are discussed.

Keywords: spirituality, nature, nature-based therapy, spirituality in psychotherapy,

self-discovery

This article is part of the current surge in

discussions and research of spirituality in psy-

chology (Miller, 2015; Pargament, 2007; Parga-

ment, Mahoney, Shafranske, Exline, & Jones

2013). It speciﬁcally focuses on nature as a

therapeutic spiritual resource. The natural envi-

ronment offers various opportunities to experi-

ence the mysterious and ultimate aspects of

existence, commonly described as the sacred,

transcendental, and spiritual dimensions of life

(Pargament, 2007). These qualities are experi-

enced in nature through boundless and beautiful

landscapes, the powerful forces of nature, and

extraordinary forms of life (Ashley, 2007). Al-

though common to nature experience, the po-

tential beneﬁcial effect of experiencing spiritu-

ality in nature has yet to be studied empirically

in therapeutic contexts. This article addresses

this lacuna by focusing on the potential thera-

peutic value and outcomes of experiencing spir-

ituality in nature investigated in our study from

the perspective of the nature-based practitioner/

facilitator. Grounded theory (GT) was chosen as

a well-established methodology among coun-

seling and psychotherapy researchers imple-

mented to form a general framework when ex-

isting theories do not adequately capture the

complexity of the issue under research, as in the

present case (Charmaz, 2014). This qualitative

method of inquiry emphasizes the construction

of theories through an inductive analysis

Lia Naor and Ofra Mayseless, Faculty of Education,

Department of Counseling and Human Development, Uni-

versity of Haifa.

Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-

dressed to Lia Naor, Faculty of Education, University of

Haifa, 199 Abba Khoushy Avenue, Haifa 3498838, Israel.

E-mail: liawaysofknowing@gmail.com

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Spirituality in Clinical Practice

2326-4500/19/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000204

grounded in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).

Data included in-depth interviews conducted

with 26 nature-based therapists/facilitators with

different professional backgrounds from ﬁve

countries and ﬁeld observations of six nature-

based workshops.

Literature Review

Nature-Based Therapies

Nature is conceived of as “one of the most

basically important ingredients of human psy-

chological existence” (Searles, 1960, p. 27), a

notion supported by an extensive and growing

body of research linking connection with the

natural environment to healthy development

and overall well-being (e.g., Gatersleben, 2008;

Herzog, Maguire, & Nebel, 2003; Kaplan,

2001). Contact with the natural environment,

even when viewed through a window, has been

studied as a corrective or remedial measure to

counteract stress and anxiety or to aid in recov-

ery from illness (Herzog et al., 2003; Kaplan,

2001; Ulrich, 1993). Compared with urban en-

vironments, natural settings are better able to

renew depleted psychological resources (Rich-

ards, Carpenter, & Harper, 2011) and have been

well-documented for their relaxing, healing,

and restorative beneﬁts (Kaplan, 2001). Contact

with nature is now recognized as positively

affecting cognitive, attentional, emotional, spir-

itual, and subjective well-being among normal

populations (see Frumkin, 2001, for a summary

of nature’s physiological and psychological

beneﬁts). Such vast evidence has led scholars to

suggest that nature may be “one of our most

vital health resources” (Maller, Townsend,

Pryor, Brown, & St. Leger, 2006, p. 52).

Nature-based therapy (NBT) is one way by

which the unique connection between humans

and nature is harnessed to help people heal,

develop, and thrive—physically, psychologi-

cally, and spiritually (Berger, 2016; Burls,

2005; Burns, 1998; Clinebell, 1996; Naor,

2017). From the perspective of NBT, health and

full development involve more than the individ-

ual’s relationship with self and others; they en-

compass a connection with the natural environ-

ment embraced as part of the psychotherapeutic

process (Richards et al., 2011). Connection with

nature is cultivated in the psychotherapeutic

context in various ways. In wilderness therapy,

interventions, often with troubled youth, usually

include several days of journeying in nature

while learning social and coping skills. In ad-

venture therapy, interventions involve experi-

ences that require going beyond perceived lim-

its, as in rock climbing, which enhances

empowerment and self-discovery. Nature ther-

apy and ecotherapy are more common alterna-

tives to traditional psychotherapy conducted in

nearby nature as in hourly sessions in a park

where nature, is implemented as a live uncon-

trollable setting providing symbolic, physical,

and sensory material to work with therapeuti-

cally (Naor & Mayseless, 2017). Many studies

have documented the positive effects of nature-

based interventions in enhancing, for example,

self-concept and social attitudes, physical

health, and behavior and in reducing emotional

problems, recidivism, and trait anxiety (Gass,

Gillis, & Russell, 2012).

NBT is gaining popularity and credence spe-

ciﬁcally in the modern era as a response to

Western culture as characterized by a separation

from nature (Doherty, 2016). Several scholars

and practitioners of NBT have underscored the

signiﬁcance of spiritual experiences in the ther-

apeutic processes involved in NBT (Berger,

2016; Clinebell, 1996; Totton, 2014).

However, currently, notions and accounts of

spirituality in nature, speciﬁcally in a therapeu-

tic context, lack rigorous empirical support and

a conceptual model. To better understand the

extant literature on spirituality in nature and

various accounts of spirituality in the therapeu-

tic context of NBT, a brief delineation of com-

mon perspectives on what psychologists mean

when discussing spirituality or spiritual experi-

ences is called for.

Current Perspectives on the

Psychology of Spirituality

Discourse on spirituality in the psychological

context has generated various perspectives. For

example, Pargament (1999) deﬁned spirituality

as the search for the sacred, namely, the human

motivation to discover and connect with the

sacred. The term sacred refers not only to con-

cepts of higher powers and God but also to

signiﬁcant objects and/or relationships that take

on spiritual character and meaning by virtue of

their association with the divine (Pargament &

Mahoney, 2005). Pargament et al. (2013) pro-

2 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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vides a general conceptual framework for un-

derstanding spirituality resting on the assump-

tion that people are motivated to discover

something sacred in their lives, hold on to or

conserve a relationship with the sacred, and,

when necessary, transform their understanding

of the sacred.

Other scholars underscore the centrality of

meaning in these processes, referring to spiritu-

ality as involving the human desire to ﬁnd

meaning within the reality of their own mortal-

ity (Piedmont, 1999). For many people, reli-

gious and spiritual beliefs are at the core of their

meaning systems, informing their beliefs about

self and the world (Park, Edmondson, & Hale-

Smith, 2013). From this perspective, spiritual

and religious belief structures are held as one of

the most common and comprehensive meaning

frameworks that helps people make sense of

their lives and experiences by sustaining a sense

of higher purpose and direction while maintain-

ing a sense of sacredness and value (Pargament

& Cummings, 2010). Researchers and profes-

sionals have shown how these frameworks are

incorporated to help individuals cope and derive

meaning, especially in stressful circumstances

(Aldwin, 2007; Davis et al., 2018), although

they may also engender conﬂicts and struggles

(Pargament et al., 2013).

For many, this process will involve a mean-

ingful connection with something greater, be-

yond ourselves (e.g., relationships with others,

the transcendent, nature, or the universe),

(Steinhauser et al., 2017). Miller (2015) under-

scored the importance of this notion, deﬁning

spirituality as a human, inborn perceptual and

intellectual faculty allowing us to feel (or not

feel) part of something larger. According to

Miller, this nonverbal dimension of knowing

may be developed through experiencing a rela-

tionship with a guiding, and ultimately loving,

higher power (e.g., God, nature, spirit, the uni-

verse, the creator, etc.).

From a relational perspective (Mahoney,

2013), “spirituality involves the person’s search

for a sense of meaning by actualizing fulﬁlling

relationships between oneself, other people, the

encompassing universe, and the ontological

ground of existence” (Canda, 1990, p. 13). Con-

ceptual analyses and qualitative research sup-

port these notions, emphasizing the signiﬁcance

of connectedness as central to spirituality

whereby spirituality may be perceived as the

way humans actualize the universal human

yearning and potential to experience deep con-

nection with self, others, nature, and the tran-

scendent (De Jager Meezenbroek et al., 2012).

These perspectives underscore the centrality

of the experience of sacredness and something

greater than oneself in spirituality and the sense

of meaning, purpose, and acceptance, as well as

connectedness, which are often associated with

them. Notwithstanding the difﬁculty of spiritual

struggles (Pargament et al., 2013), a large num-

ber of studies (i.e., over 3,000 empirical studies

and dozens of meta-analyses) link spirituality to

a variety of favorable physical and mental

health beneﬁts (Baumeister, 2002; Koenig, Mc-

Cullough, & Larson, 2001; Sperry & Shafran-

ske, 2004). Spirituality is thus understood as a

human resource by which meaning can be dis-

covered, healthy coping can be enhanced, and

human suffering might be alleviated (Piedmont

& Leach, 2002). These perspectives reveal the

centrality of spirituality as a signiﬁcant human

aspect, organizing principle, or perceptual

framework by which the human motivation and

potential for meaning, purpose, and connection

with the sacred and divine are actualized. One

avenue by which this human faculty may be

experienced and developed is through nature.

Spirituality in Nature

Extensive research in the ﬁeld of wilderness

recreation points to spirituality as a common

and signiﬁcant construct of nature experience

(Ashley, 2007; Foster & Borrie, 2011; Heintz-

man, 2003, 2009; Schmidt & Little, 2007).

Whether through the landscape itself or the type

of activity, nature’s immensity and grandeur

seem to elicit a relatively unique emotional and

spiritual or self-transcendent experience (Ash-

ley, 2007). These experiences may be brief, as

in a ﬂeeting moment of awe and wonderment in

the face of nature’s power and beauty (Stringer

& McAvoy, 1992), or long-lasting, leading to

major self and life transformations (Naor &

Mayseless, 2017).

Although common to wilderness experience,

spirituality in nature is an elusive concept, in-

volving an extraordinary dimension of being

that is intangible, extrarational, ineffable, and

usually deﬁant of scientiﬁc or “common-sense”

explanations (McDonald, Wearing, & Ponting,

2009). Scholars and researchers have shed some

3THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

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light on it by identifying the characteristics,

outcomes, and effects of this unique spirituality

(Ashley, 2007; Heintzman, 2009).

McDonald and Schreyer’s (1991) critical

synthesis of empirical studies related to the spir-

itual beneﬁts of leisure emphasized the unique

combination of sensory awareness and extreme

states of consciousness elicited in the wilder-

ness leading to spiritual experience and out-

come. Sensory enhancement as a common char-

acteristic of nature experience intensiﬁed

through deep immersion in wilderness and chal-

lenging physical activities is supported by var-

ious studies involving canoeing (Foster & Bor-

rie, 2011), hiking (Stringer & McAvoy, 1992),

rock climbing (Shostak-Kinker, 2012), and sol-

itude (Williams & Harvey, 2001). These studies

emphasize the signiﬁcance of experiencing

deep absorption in the moment and a sense of

timelessness and spacelessness resulting in

what was described as the dissolving of bound-

aries between the self and the world and was

found to be transformative in many cases (Ter-

haar, 2009). In fact, nature is the most common

trigger for peak and transcendent experiences

characterized by a deep feeling of connection

and unity (McDonald et al., 2009; Naor & May-

seless, 2017).

Additional studies attribute the experience of

spiritualty in nature to the unique and powerful

facets of the natural environment; for example,

the perspective afforded from the mountain

summit (Rossler, 2003), the vastness of deserts

and the power of raging rivers, thunderstorms,

and water in all its guises (Taylor & Geffen,

2003). These studies link the aesthetics, views,

and landform diversity of nature to a “sense of

wonder, humility, and connectedness, all pro-

moting ‘transcendent states’” (Fox, 1997, p.

456).

While these studies focus on the signiﬁcance

of activities or characteristics of the natural

environment, other studies link spirituality in

nature to the time and space for deep reﬂection

and contemplation on the meaning and purpose

of life (perceived as an aspect of human spiri-

tuality; Bobilya, Akey, & Mitchell, 2011;

Heintzman, 2009; McDonald et al., 2009;

Stringer & McAvoy, 1992). Foster and Borrie

(2011) found that in nature, far from everyday

routine, social constraints, technology, and

daily duties, one has “the time and space to

re-connect with others and with the greater cre-

ation” (p. 7). This allows a focus on spirituality

(Heintzman, 2003, 2009) and the sacredness of

life (McDonald et al., 2009), which enhances

one’s ability to “commune” with God (Bobilya

et al., 2011).

Taken together, this body of research sup-

ports the deﬁning characteristics of spirituality

in nature delineated in Ashley’s (2007) encom-

passing work on the topic, which includes

a feeling of connection and interrelationship with other

people and nature; a heightened sense of awareness

and elevated consciousness beyond the everyday and

corporeal world; cognitive and affective dimensions of

human understandings embracing peace, tranquility,

harmony, happiness, awe, wonder, and humbleness;

and the opportunity to connect with and relate to divine

godly aspects of existence. (p. 65)

Spirituality in NBTs

As of now, researchers and practitioners have

described spirituality in nature in therapeutic

contexts only sporadically (Berger, 2016; Tot-

ton, 2014). Spirituality is not a common or

conventional topic in professional discourse in

the ﬁeld of nature-based therapies and has been

discussed mostly by practitioners sharing their

personal views and experiences. For example,

nature therapist Ronen Berger (2016) relates to

spirituality in nature as feeling part of the nat-

ural cycle of life. He provides a clinical exam-

ple of Sharon, who felt that perceiving her per-

sonal loss in relation to the natural cycle of life

mirrored by wilting ﬂowers was a healing ex-

perience. Nick Totton (2014), an acknowledged

ecotherapist, described spirituality in nature as

the experience of the depth of our existence.

Approaching rivers and lakes, the sea, moun-

tains, winds, sun, sky, and stars with therapeutic

awareness reminds us of how small we are in

the face of the universe. Totton also stressed the

sense of being accepted unconditionally in na-

ture as therapeutic and provided an example of

a client who claimed, “I have never felt more

accepted than I did by the oak tree” (p. 2).

Beringer (2000) stressed “the sacred” as fun-

damental to spirituality in nature, enhanced by

the intent, attitude, and receptive consciousness

of the therapist who makes the connection to the

sacred. In his conceptual analysis of the lived

experience of spirituality in nature, Beringer

provided the example of canoeing as an activity

that may elicit unifying/spiritual connection

with others and nature when intended as such by

4 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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the therapist. However, Beringer did not de-

scribe how this intent and attitude are imple-

mented to enhance sacredness.

Currently, there are only a few empirical

studies focusing on spirituality in nature within

the therapeutic context of NBT. For example,

Rothwell’s (2008) unpublished thesis focused

on spirituality as part of wilderness therapy. The

researcher interviewed 12 wilderness therapy

staff members who had a spiritual or religious

background. Research results led the researcher

to conclude that spirituality is a function of

wilderness therapy attributed to the facilitator’s

personal belief and interventions that involve

working intimately with nature, which facili-

tated opportunities for students to have spiritual

experiences and to grow therapeutically. An

additional study is Sahlin’s (2016) qualitative

research conducted among 35 participants at the

end of rehabilitation at a nature-based rehabili-

tation center in Sweden. In this context, guided

nature walks were implemented, eliciting fre-

quent spiritual and religious reﬂections about

being a part of “something bigger” and percep-

tions by participants of nature as a resource to

develop spiritual growth.

More thorough and systematic empirical re-

search is needed to have a clearer picture of how

spirituality experienced in nature may have

therapeutic value and benevolent therapeutic

outcomes. Thus, the objective of the present

study is to better understand the role of spiritu-

ality in nature in the therapeutic process. The

ﬁndings presented here are part of a larger study

designed to develop a working conceptual

model of NBT currently lacking in the ﬁeld.

Data were collected by interviews conducted

with a variety of NBT practitioners/facilitators

and observations of group, guided, NBT work-

shops. As part of data analyses, a major theme

emerged: the centrality of spirituality in nature

in the therapeutic process. The research objec-

tive and research question of the present study

grew out of this insight. Thus, the research

question was, “What are the therapeutic aspects

of spirituality as experienced in nature that lead

to beneﬁcial outcomes in NBT as enacted and

perceived by nature-based therapists?”

Method

Grounded theory (GT) was chosen as a well-

established methodology among counseling and

psychotherapy researchers implemented to form

a general theory when existing theories do not

adequately capture the complexity of the issue

under research, as in the present case (Charmaz,

2014). Glaser and Strauss (1967) introduced

grounded theory aiming to move qualitative in-

quiry beyond descriptive studies into a realm of

explanatory theoretical frameworks. These the-

ories are constructed through an inductive anal-

ysis “grounded” in the data (Strauss & Corbin,

1994). In congruence with constructivist

grounded theory, various examples and ac-

counts are analyzed by emphasizing general

patterns, relationships, and processes with the

intent to form a general conceptualization

(Charmaz, 2014). By utilizing the basic princi-

ples of GT involving comprehensive assess-

ment of the data beyond speciﬁc examples, an

overall understanding regarding spirituality in

nature in the therapeutic context emerged (Gla-

ser & Strauss, 1967).

Researchers’ Background

The ﬁrst author, the researcher who con-

ducted the study, is a nature guide and licensed

therapist who began working in nature and forg-

ing her professional identity when NBT was not

common or accepted in psychotherapy in Eu-

rope. The search for further knowledge and

professional development instigated her aca-

demic career and research focusing on the ther-

apeutic process of development and change oc-

curring in the natural setting. The second author

is a seasoned researcher on human development

and is interested in using qualitative research

methods.

Participants and Procedure

The participants in this study were 26

adults—16 men and 10 women, ranging in age

from 34 to 75 years old, from England, North

America, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Israel—

who facilitate nature-based processes of thera-

peutic value in independent practice and well-

established programs. Theoretical sampling

guided the procedure; therefore, participants

with expertise and many years of experience

were chosen from various practices (e.g., ad-

venture and wilderness therapy, ecotherapy, and

expressive arts therapy). Coming from different

professional backgrounds, the research partici-

pants have different levels of training and cer-

5THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

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tiﬁcation. Although the majority of participants

are certiﬁed therapists (18 of the 26 partici-

pants), all the research participants emphasized

the therapeutic value of the processes they fa-

cilitate. The range of professional backgrounds

and approaches encompassing multiple per-

spectives contributed to a rich and complex

understanding of spirituality in nature therapy

beyond the individual cases. See Table 1 for

personal details and professional background of

the participants; we used pseudonyms to protect

the participants’ identities.

Following the approval of the University of

Haifa’s board and ethics committee and partic-

ipants’ informed consent, in-depth, semistruc-

tured interviews were conducted with each par-

ticipant by the ﬁrst author, who collected all the

data. Prior to each interview, the aims of the

study and the interviewee’s rights were clari-

ﬁed. Each interview lasted between 1.5 hr and

2.5 hr, and interviews were audiotaped and tran-

scribed verbatim. The interviewer approached

each participant as holding signiﬁcant knowl-

edge that could contribute to understanding the

therapeutic value of spirituality as an aspect of

NBT. Participants were eager to share their ex-

perience and knowledge that in most cases had

not yet been conceptualized. The ﬁnal sample

size was determined by the saturation principle;

namely, data were collected and analyzed until

no new themes emerged (Padgett, 2016).

Detailed accounts of ﬁeld observations were

taken by the ﬁrst author who participated in six

different programs in the wilderness in Europe,

America, and Israel. Observation and participa-

tion in the therapeutic process within the natural

setting of its occurrence enabled an additional

perspective of the context and phenomenon un-

der study (Kawulich, 2005). These observations

were implemented with sensitivity and involved

extensive ﬁeld notes, casual documented dis-

cussions with participants, and memo writing.

Data Analysis

Analysis of data involved the basic compo-

nents of GT: simultaneous involvement in data

collection and analysis; construction of analytic

codes and categories from data, not from pre-

conceived logically deducted hypotheses; the

use of constant comparative methods during the

whole analysis; and theory development during

each stage of the data collection and analysis. In

keeping with GT’s maxim of “all is data,” rel-

evant literature, case studies, written accounts,

and empirical and theoretical publications were

simultaneously gathered and woven into the

emerging data.

Analysis of data was a spiral process that

began with deep immersion in the data by read-

ing the transcripts in detail. Once meaning units

emerged, they were highlighted and identiﬁed

by line– byline coding (e.g., Charmaz, 2008).

Assessing the meaning of these codes and the

context in which they were relayed enabled

further conceptualization. Gradually, speciﬁc

themes emerged that were then clustered as

units of meaning reﬂecting a higher level of

abstraction (Smith & Osborn, 2003). In this

study, an unknown construct of the therapeutic

process in nature that participants found hard to

articulate (deﬁned by participants as, e.g., the

unknown, something we do not understand)

emerged as a common theme in initial analysis.

Gradually additional codes and terms emerged

that were connected to this unknown but semi-

nal aspect of NBT. Thorough assessment of

these concepts in relation to the context in

which they were relayed revealed the construct

of spirituality as a general theme encompassing

various codes and deﬁnitions connected by con-

text.

The second stage of analysis involved assess-

ing research data relative to the vast body of

theoretical and empirical evidence regarding

spirituality in nature. This comparative method

involves the “weaving of two major threads in

the fabric of grounded theory; generalizable the-

oretical statements with contextual analyses of

actions and events” (Charmaz, 2008, p. 18). By

working back and forth between the emerging

themes, the database, extant literature, and the

ﬁrst author’s reﬂexivity, theoretical categories

“grounded” by evidence emerged (Lee, Saun-

ders, & Goulding, 2005). The ﬁnal stage in-

volved assessing these categories beyond spe-

ciﬁc accounts to reveal general structures,

connections, and interrelations assessed con-

stantly in relevance to theory to gain a general-

ization of concepts (Strauss & Corbin, 1994).

This process led to a general conceptualization

regarding spirituality in nature in the therapeu-

tic context.

Ethical standards regarding quality and trust-

worthiness were ensured by collecting data

from multiple sources (Morrow & Smith, 2000)

6 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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Table 1

Background Information on Participants

Pseudonym Country Gender

Age in

years

Years of

practice Type of nature-based therapy practiced Populations of interest

Dana United States Female 64 31 Teaching and mentoring wilderness

therapy in higher education

institution

Groups and individuals, both privately and

with students, as well as with clinical

populations

Sarah United States Female 39 20 Psychologist Nonclinical populations in group processes

and privately, mostly with children

Devin United States Male 54 21 Wilderness guide Nonclinical populations in group processes

and private mentoring

Samantha United States Female 52 19 Wilderness guide with a professional

background in education

Nonclinical populations in group processes

and private mentoring

Rachel United States Female 36 10 Wilderness therapy transpersonal

psychologist

Works in private practice with groups of

youth and adults with addictions

Eva United States Female 34 12 Wilderness therapist Works with groups of troubled youth and has

a private practice working with adults

Arman Israel Male 40 15 Clinical psychologist, nature therapist Private practice and group training in the ﬁeld

Ali Israel Female 55 9 Ecotherapy, art therapy Private practice, working with groups in

psychiatric ward and group workshops with

students training in the ﬁeld

Lory Israel Female 45 20 Nature therapist, social worker Private practice, facilitating group processes

among nonclinical populations and students

training in the ﬁeld

Dominic Israel Male 47 15 Adventure therapy Trains students in adventure therapy

Ron Israel Male 45 16 Nature therapist, with academic

background in social work and

drama therapy

Private practice and professional training in

groups

David Israel Male 67 35 Wilderness guide Facilitates groups of troubled youth and trains

students as ﬁeld facilitators in educational

group processes

Dan Israel Male 64 11 Wilderness guide Specialized in

special education

Facilitates groups of troubled youth

Michaela United States Female 52 10 Wilderness guide specialized in

somatic psychotherapy

Nonclinical populations in group processes

and private mentoring

Alex Israel Male 34 8 Social worker, wilderness therapist Facilitates journeys for troubled youth and has

a private practice

Tim Israel Male 41 10 Nature therapist Trains students in Ecotherapy

Tony Israel Male 56 23 Shaman Teaches nature-based shamanism and has a

private practice

Ben Israel Male 60 27 Wilderness guide with academic

background in education

Trains groups of educators in weekly sessions

to work with nature

(table continues)

7THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

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Table 1 (continued)

Pseudonym Country Gender

Age in

years

Years of

practice Type of nature-based therapy practiced Populations of interest

Mike United States Male 43 18 Wilderness guide specializing in

nature-based coaching with

academic background in education

Trains individuals and groups in nature-based

coaching and primitive skills as a way to

know self and the world

Greg Spain Male 39 10 Adventure therapy, clinical psychology Works with groups through lengthy journeys

with youth from both clinical and

nonclinical populations

Stan Israel Male 33 7 Wilderness therapist, social worker Works with troubled youth in groups in

lengthy journeys in the desert and with

groups from the general population in

multicultural contexts seeking to

interconnect

Paul United States Male 73 36 Clinical psychologist, wilderness guide Works with groups from the general

population in weekly workshops and has a

private practice

Corrie England Female 62 27 Psychotherapist, wilderness guide Works with groups and students from the

general population training in the ﬁeld by

weekly Ecotherapy workshops

Ervin Germany Male 35 7 Academic professor and researcher,

psychotherapist, music therapist

Works with clinical populations of children in

groups and individually integrating music

and creation in nature

Kelly United States Female 40 5 Mental health counselor Works with groups and individuals from the

general population integrating shamanic

work in therapeutic sessions

Ilai Israel Male 37 12 Nature therapist and social worker

with academic specialization in

education

Facilitates groups of troubled youth and trains

students as ﬁeld facilitators in educational

group processes

8 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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and by providing rich and detailed accounts

showing a visible connection between analyti-

cal ﬁndings and the data from which they were

derived, to ensure creditability (Jones, 2002).

Because of the ﬁrst author’s expertise in the

ﬁeld of study, trustworthiness was speciﬁcally

ensured by bracketing, a term used to describe

the process by which the researcher is aware of

personal assumptions and predispositions,

which were set aside to avoid undue inﬂuence

on the research (Morrow & Smith, 2000).

Bracketing was used when attempting to con-

duct the interviews with openness and curiosity,

perceiving the participants as holding signiﬁ-

cant knowledge and trying to listen to what they

shared without judging, categorizing, or analyz-

ing. In this way, spirituality in nature was

treated as a phenomenon to be understood

through the context, interpretation, and meaning

given by the research participants. Therefore,

personal thoughts, perspectives, expectations,

and preconceived insights were bracketed, that

is written down as memos or side notes that

were discussed later with colleagues and the

second author. This enabled the researcher to

listen to the interviewees as openly as possible

so that the analysis and meaning derived was

not driven by personal ideas at the expense of

what was originally communicated.

Coming from the ﬁeld enabled the ﬁrst author

to gain the participants’ trust and collaboration

in a project that had mutual signiﬁcance. Al-

though shared respect and understanding of pro-

cesses and concepts discussed enabled deep and

open rapport in a relatively short time, several

measures were taken to avoid possible bias in

the interview phase as well as in the data anal-

ysis phase. To address these challenges and to

ensure the validity of the results, themes and

interpretations were grounded in direct quotes

from the data (Stiles, 1993); the emerging

themes underwent cross-checking by the second

author and colleagues, none of whom had per-

sonal experience in this area, enhancing reliabil-

ity of the different themes and their implica-

tions; and the ﬁrst author engaged in extensive

memo writing by which observations, thoughts

and ideas were processed and reﬂected on. The

fact that the results reported in this study were

surprising to the ﬁrst author and were not re-

ferred to or sought as such in the initial research

design strengthens the creditability of the re-

search results.

Findings

The therapeutic value of spirituality in nature

as presented here is a central theme that

emerged in the larger study conducted to de-

velop a working model for NBT currently lack-

ing in the ﬁeld. Spirituality was not a topic that

we initially attended to in the structured inter-

view, but it emerged as a seminal, though un-

known, aspect of the therapeutic process in na-

ture, as described in the following extract by

Ervin, one of our research participants.

Sometimes nature is doing something so great in a very

speciﬁc moment, but you cannot explain, it goes be-

yond what we actually can sense or hear. Maybe

there’s some kind of spirituality or transcendence, and

I dare whether it will ever be possible for humans to

explain what’s going on.

Although seemingly unknown and mysteri-

ous, this aspect was related by one participant as

“the biggest piece” of the therapeutic process

and outcome. Rigorous assessment of these

concepts evaluated in the context they were

discussed led us to deﬁne these aspects by the

encompassing term spirituality, illuminated as a

unique and key construct in NBT. Although not

always referred to explicitly, the various terms

used by participants relaying the ineffable and

unknown were understood as reﬂecting a central

construct in NBT—namely spirituality. Twelve

of the 26 participants explicitly used the term

spirituality to describe the unique quality in

NBT attributed to its profound effect, and others

used terms such as mystery,magic, or transper-

sonal. These terms were used by the partici-

pants when attempting to describe a salient and

common notion having to do with the human

connection to a much larger interconnected ex-

istence that we can relate to and belong to that

is experienced and acknowledged through na-

ture. This notion was also referred to frequently

by participants as experiencing a connection

with the force of life (n⫽3), the sacred (n⫽3),

cycles of nature (n⫽5), growth instinct (n⫽

1), and interconnectedness of life (n⫽10). The

therapeutic signiﬁcance of experiencing spiritu-

ality in nature in the context of NBT is ex-

pressed by four themes. The ﬁrst illuminates the

unique way nature is experienced as an embodi-

ment of spirituality; the others reveal speciﬁc

qualities of experiencing embodied spirituality

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linked to signiﬁcant therapeutic effects and out-

comes.

Theme 1: Nature is an embodiment of the

spiritual. What is so unique about experienc-

ing spirituality in nature is that the ineffable and

spiritual aspects of existence are embodied and

experienced in physical and sensual form. This

notion was discussed by 17 of the 26 partici-

pants, emphasizing the unique way by which

spirituality is actually and physically experi-

enced in nature. Dan described the actual sen-

sory feeling.

Spirituality involves what is beyond human and ulti-

mate and we can actually feel it in certain situations...

in the air, on our body...like in the feeling in the star

light night in the desert.

Rachel described this quality as what we are

naturally awed by.

There’s just something powerful about watching the

clouds go around the sky, it’s amazing...thethings

that you’re in awe by, and even if you’re an atheist and

you do not believe it...everyone can ﬁnd god or

spirituality in nature.

Ali described the embodied experience of

connecting to the cycles of nature.

Experiencing the cycles of nature...it’s stronger than

me...it’s bigger than me and it deepens our work...

so when I take the patients out of the psychiatric ward

and they feel the sun and see the leaves falling...it

connects them to the process like physically in a sen-

sory way and they actually feel the inﬁnite.

For me it feels like this amazing sense of the presence

everywhere, expressed in unique ways in like a tree or

a blade of grass. (Kelly’s description)

Arman provided an example of how embod-

ied spirituality is incorporated speciﬁcally in the

therapeutic process.

She started to collect ﬂowers for a birthday bouquet

and I saw something I never saw before...theearth

started to move right under the plant and pulled it

under, it just disappeared...maybe a rodent pulled it

. . . but I said “it’s a magic show in honor of your

birthday!” . . . In synchronicity there is something very

spiritual, as in anything that lets you feel that your

story is in sync with all the other stories in the world.

Synchronicity is common in the symbolic

environment of nature and was common in the

nature-based workshops the ﬁrst author at-

tended. This spiritual form of expression was

experienced when a butterﬂy passed by just

when a woman was speaking about her de-

ceased mother, which she related to as a sign

from her. In another workshop, a young woman

was grieving her sixth miscarriage and to her

surprise happened to sit under a tree next to a

fallen nest with broken eggs on the ground.

Experiencing the mysterious and awe-

inspiring aspects of existence in physical, sen-

sory form through nature is deﬁned here as the

embodiment of spirituality, a form of spiritual

connection that is a core element of NBT that is

integrated intentionally in the therapeutic pro-

cess. Michaela described how she facilitates this

spiritual connection by actually conversing with

various aspects of existence embodied by na-

ture.

I help facilitate a very intimate conversation between

an individual and the mysteries of nature, and the

mysteries of their own psyches...andactually to be

in a really radical conversation with whatever comes to

converse with them, radical like we will be changed by

that, and we will become more deeply human, more

deeply authentic.

The ﬁndings of this study reveal the signiﬁ-

cance of embodied spirituality in nature relating

to three distinct therapeutic outcomes: experi-

ences of nature’s immensity that lead to ex-

panded consciousness (world- and self-view),

experience of interconnectedness eliciting a

sense of belonging in the world, and external

nature reﬂecting internal nature and truth, as a

means to discovery of authentic self and soul.

These themes are deeply interrelated, and, in

most cases, they overlap in meaning and effect,

but they are categorized separately in the fol-

lowing text.

Theme 2: Experiencing the immensity of

the natural environment expands personal

perspective. The majority of participants (20

of 26 participants) spoke about experiencing the

immensity of nature as a signiﬁcant aspect en-

abling clients to experience a connection to

“something other than human,” “a higher

power” that draws one to a wider perspective.

Participants described the immensity of nature

as not only expanding visual perspective but

also affecting personal perspectives on life. This

notion was described by participants as holding

the bigger picture, the larger context, a shift in

perspective, consciousness shift, and expansive-

ness. Personal stories and problems viewed in

wider context may be minimized when seen as

part of something larger and may inform the

individual of a bigger plan or life mission. This

expanded perception is described as a shift from

10 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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a personal perspective to a more expansive uni-

ﬁed consciousness.

Connecting to the earth helps people connect to some-

thing really big...atranspersonal piece of connecting

to something other than the human...formethe

wilderness is a higher power...being in the wilder-

ness reminds me that there’s so much more going on

than just my own small stupid issues...itdoes make

you feel small but...inareally comforting way, it

makes your problems feel smaller...itputs [life] in

perspective. (Rachel’s description)

You’re just up in Estes Park, and it’s huge and it makes

you realize, like I’m just a little piece of this enormous

thing, and that scale is very important...because we

can get so wrapped up with our own dramas and then

we’re like oh, and it puts it in perspective. (Eva’s

description)

Corrie referred to this notion in describing

nature as pulling one toward the wider picture.

So I think there is a natural pull from nature - a

tendency toward the bigger picture...people look up

at the stars, at the sunset, or the trees, and somehow it

pulls them into a bigger picture, to embrace a bigger

perspective of life...there are practical things we can

do to help them look and think wider...like taking

them to beautiful and inspiring places - they will nat-

urally be drawn out of themselves, or drawing attention

to kind of amazing fascinating things in their own

environment. That can also pull them out of their

preconceptions. And I think anything that interrupts

the assumptions that people carry, is going to be

therapeutic.

Experiencing our personal story in perspec-

tive to the larger story of life was implemented

in a workshop attended in California. One day

we were invited to focus on a personal, painful

issue by ﬁnding a place in nature that mirrored

it and having a dialogue with the place. Sarah,

who had just gone through a divorce and felt

scared and vulnerable about starting life over

with two small children, came back after a few

hours in nature and told us about her dialogue

with barren trees that had surrendered their

leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. She became aware of

the natural cycle of life in which the trees let go

of their fruit so that seeds will be planted, even-

tually bringing new life, and thus felt assured

and comforted that the painful time she was

experiencing was just a stage in her life and

could result in new opportunities.

This notion is supported by Ron, who de-

scribed the wider context as the secret of NBT.

Nature offers the wide perspective and proportion...

the combination between my personal time...story

...pain...andthis great eternity, and the unknown

. . . the transition between life and death occurring

every day in nature and life goes on...somaybe my

ownpain...it’s only a moment in my life. This puts

everything in a very different perspective. I think that’s

the secret of nature therapy.

Theme 3: Interconnectedness involves the

experience of deeply belonging. Twenty-ﬁve

of the 26 participants spoke of deep connections

between us humans and the larger world as

seminal in the therapeutic process, speciﬁcally

as a way by which the individual may experi-

ence a deep unconditional belonging to the

world. Interconnectedness was described as be-

ing aware of how we are not separate from

nature, allowing us to view everything in nature

as sentient, relating and connecting with every-

thing else. When we recognize and relate to this,

we begin to accept ourselves as part of this

interconnected world and our participation and

belonging gain meaning and purpose.

Samantha emphasized interconnectedness as

involving an evolutionary way of relating.

We are very self-centered...butinnature there’s

something in us much deeper than our strategic mind

that knows about interconnected relationships that is

evolutionary linked with other beings...thepossibil-

ity that human beings are not the only ones that are

consciously relating with everything else...soit’s a

way of beginning to relate with the world as if all the

wild others are aware of me and of each other and are

not objects but actually sentient and alive...andit

would be possible for me to feel and sense my own

place of belonging.

Belonging in this way was described by Eva

as a “knowing.”

Every human being is designed to participate with

nature, humans and the more than human world as an

animate soul community of others...andinapartic-

ular way to belong, this is the foundation of what we

are as human beings, it’s more than personal, it’s at a

species level...knowing that we are of the earth, of

this place, that we belong, no matter what happens in

our family or relationships, and that is incredibly

healing.

It is through these experiences in NBT that

one gains an experiential knowing of how we

are connected with nature and the bigger world,

as was described by Dana:

Our interconnectedness with nature...Wejust know

it, because of our experiences, and as a wilderness

therapist part of my job is going to be hearing those

pieces around relationship with nature and inviting

those in as the content...byconnecting with a

semantic emotional spiritual aspect of ourselves, and

11THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

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connecting with other people and the natural world, we

have some sense of how we are part of the bigger web.

Mike developed the human potential to know

our connection to nature by teaching outdoor

skills, which instill what he referred to as

“knowledge of place.”

I create a basic bundle of natural skills, which is

immediately empowering, cause you develop a knowl-

edge of place, and you experience a deep sense of

belonging, an awareness of your role within the eco-

system...asense of purpose, you...start to see

yourself as a caretaker of that area and it becomes like

home.

These experiences illuminate a unique, tran-

scendental sense of belonging that Greg referred

to as “feeling at home.”

In nature, the kids feel belonging to a bigger thing...

not somebody, but something, not only family, or

culture but something I cannot explain...like I’m part

ofallthis...more transcendental...they say that they

really feel at home in nature.

Theme 4: Nature reﬂects inner aspects and

provides unconditional acceptance inspiring

a discovery of self. When we perceive our-

selves as part of nature, we perceive speciﬁc

occurrences and elements in nature as reﬂecting

relevant personal information. The participants

described this as a unique mirroring, reﬂecting,

echo, or vibration occurring in nature evoking a

unique discovery process allowing us a know-

ing of who we are. Twenty-one of the 26 par-

ticipants gave lengthy examples of the way as-

pects of self are reﬂected through elements and

situations in nature. What is profound about this

internal— external reﬂection is that what is be-

ing mirrored or reﬂected through nature are

aspects of inner truth and soul experienced as

extraordinary.

Sarah described a multifaceted reﬂection,

which is easier to accept when mirrored by

nature.

Nature is a mirror for us...amirror for physical

nature, psychological nature, our spiritual nature, men-

tal nature. And so, what’s really neat about getting

people out into nature...they can start to open their

eyes to how nature reﬂects themselves, they’re able to

ﬁnd wisdom in learning and acceptance.

Devin reﬂected on what is mirrored, describ-

ing it as something deep about one’s soul.

There might be a mirroring ina...sort of direct way

and sometimes mysterious way...like an experience

where nature speaks to them and it’s about you getting

glimpses of your own soul.

Participants described what is discovered as a

personiﬁcation of that part that we do not know

about yet, soul, truth, vitality, transpersonal ex-

istence, wisdom, the divine, or what I really am.

In this way, what is being mirrored or discov-

ered through nature is profound, for it goes

beyond aspects of our persona, revealing our

authentic and inner truth.

Ron referred to this as a transpersonal exis-

tence (“I do not know if it’s my inner wisdom or

wisdom in nature that is revealed...butit’s a

more transpersonal, spiritual or existential exis-

tence that is experienced”), whereas Dan de-

scribed what is discovered as the divine within

(“I enable the place in which these kids can

discover themselves as people, as part of nature

and see god in them and in others and to be

happy about that and not afraid”).

Kelly referred to the discovery of a core self,

attributed to the accepting environment.

Finally when you get to the very core of it there’s

something there, underneath all the layers that we’re

taught to present to society...there’s something deep

down in everyone. I call it a core self or soul spirit self

that people are able to access in nature where they are

freer to be who they really are...their discovery and

honoring of that part of them is ultimately one of the

most healing things.

The participants spoke of this discovery pro-

cess as unique, describing the natural setting as

holding, containing, accepting, and uncondi-

tional. In this containing environment, true as-

pects of our identity are more easily accessible.

This ultimate acceptance was described as de-

void of any conditions—an experience of hold-

ing, where our existence does not depend on our

actions, emotions, or any social/cultural func-

tion. Experiencing unconditional existence was

described by Dan as powerful and empowering.

It’s knowing that you can exist - just being present

without a cultural, social identity...Idonotknow

how to describe it; it’s like an inner knowing...the

experience of existing without being functional is very,

very powerful and empowering.

Arman described this ultimate acceptance as

experience of what we long for.

It’s a healthy environment...anonjudgmental space,

supporting me and accepting me as I am...itreally

accepts and holds everything...that longing for total

acceptance that we always wanted.

12 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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Experiencing total acceptance in nature pro-

vides a gateway to a deep inner truth and iden-

tity beyond social and cultural conditions. From

this perspective, nature enables an awareness

and connection with an ultimate aspect residing

within us described as a core authentic self,

spirit, and loving consciousness that may con-

tribute to knowing and living a more authentic

and connected identity and life.

The ﬁndings of this study reveal the way

spirituality is experienced in nature during psy-

chotherapy or in processes that hold signiﬁcant

therapeutic value. Speciﬁcally, the ﬁndings il-

luminate how the therapeutic effect of such

experiences is derived, as described by nature-

based therapists and facilitators. These under-

standings contributed to the development of a

model portraying the therapeutic value of spir-

ituality in nature as shown in Figure 1.

In this model, the main theme of the research,

that nature embodies spirituality, which is then

experienced in physical and sensory form, is

presented as the focal point, central to under-

standing the therapeutic value of nature spiritu-

ality. Such embodied spirituality is manifested

in three central speciﬁc spiritual qualities. These

include: the immensity of nature, interconnect-

edness, and experiencing inner aspects reﬂected

by external nature. Each of these spiritual qual-

ities has distinct therapeutic value as shown by

the arrows pointing to such value. The thera-

peutic values include an expanded personal per-

spective, a deep sense of belonging, and self-

discovery. Though the three spiritual qualities

are presented as if they are separated, they often

interact. Similarly, the three therapeutic quali-

ties may at times be linked to all three spiritual

qualities embodied by nature.

Discussion

The ﬁndings shed light on what was previ-

ously described as the intangible and unknown

aspect of NBT, revealing a unique form of

spirituality—an embodiment of the spiritual in

nature. Using grounded theory, a model of the

therapeutic value of spirituality in nature was

uncovered, delineating three signiﬁcant spiritual

qualities embodied by nature that when sensed

and experienced can lead to speciﬁc therapeutic

effects (see Figure 1): experiencing nature’s

immensity, the interconnectedness of life, and

experiencing inner aspects reﬂected by external

nature. A signiﬁcant contribution of this model

is identifying these three core spiritual experi-

ences in nature and their profound therapeutic

Inner aspects

reflected by nature

providing

unconditional

acceptance

Interconnectedness

Experiencing the

immensity of

nature

Expansive personal

perspective

Self-discovery

(truth, wisdom,

soul)

A sense of deep

unconditional

belonging

Specific spiritual qualities

embodied by nature

The therapeutic value of

experiencing specific

spiritual qualities in nature

Embodied

Spirituality

Spirituality expressed

and experienced in

physical, sensory

form

Figure 1. A model of the therapeutic value of spirituality in nature.

13THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

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potential. The therapeutic outcomes include ex-

panded perspective, a deep sense of belonging,

and self-discovery. This model delineates the

speciﬁc qualities in nature linked to these ther-

apeutic effects that, when acknowledged as

such, may be cultivated and integrated in the

therapeutic context.

Theme 1: Nature Is an Embodiment

of the Spiritual

Previous research has associated spiritual ex-

perience with the unique physical and sensory

aspects of nature, as in powerful and aesthetic

landscapes, physical immersion, and sensory

enhancement shown to elicit profound out-

comes (Heintzman, 2003, 2009; McDonald &

Schreyer, 1991). The ﬁndings here take such

insights further, exposing and explicating the

therapeutic meaning of these experiences. From

the perspective of the participants, nature is

enabling an explicit, actual, sensual, and tangi-

ble relationship with the implicit and the mys-

terious that comes naturally even without spir-

itual belief or practice. This speciﬁc tangible

engagement with the spiritual aspects of exis-

tence through nature, conceptualized here as

embodied spirituality, is described as pivotal to

the therapeutic process.

In contrast to spiritual practices that foster a

relationship with the spiritual by elevation or

detachment from physical and bodily desires

(e.g., training thoughts and breath, meditating

without movement, and learning to detach from

physical and materialistic comforts), embodied

spirituality as illuminated in this study suggests

spirituality and expansion of consciousness as

attained by deeply connecting with earthy,

physical, wild, and sensual experiences. This

unique experience connects spirituality, often

deﬁned as the ethereal association with or rep-

resentation of divinity (Pargament & Mahoney,

2005), with an actual, concrete, and physical

experience.

Interestingly, such effortless embodied ac-

cess to spirituality (through nature) supports

current conceptions of spirituality as an innate

faculty. Miller (2015) stated that in contrast to

cognitive, linguistic, and abstract thinking that

need time to develop, we are born fully ﬂuent in

the capacity for a felt relationship with the tran-

scendent. Our ﬁndings support this, showing

how this presumed inborn potential is awakened

through embodied experience in nature leading

to spiritual awareness and connection.

Three speciﬁc constructs (i.e., experiences)

of embodied spirituality in nature have been

uncovered in the present study, each having

profound therapeutic meaning. They are na-

ture’s immensity and “greater than” quality, in-

terconnectedness, and nature mirroring truth

and authenticity in an ultimate accepting envi-

ronment. The participants of this study linked

these qualities to three speciﬁc experiences of

profound therapeutic value; expanding personal

perspective, a deep sense of belonging, and

self-discovery. Although the various qualities

and therapeutic values were not always dis-

cussed as separate and linear, an explicit con-

nection emerged between speciﬁc qualities and

therapeutic values. These qualities and values

were also discussed as interrelated, for example

an expanded perspective was linked to the im-

mensity of nature as well as to the interconnect-

edness experienced. Therefore, it is important to

take into consideration that the distinction made

here may overlook additional connections that

this article does not encompass.

Theme 2: Experiencing the Immensity

of the Natural Environment Expands

Personal Perspective

Spirituality has been deﬁned as the universal

human desire to connect with some larger, sa-

cred reality beyond ourselves (Piedmont &

Leach, 2002; Steinhauser et al., 2017). Numer-

ous accounts of profound nature experience in-

volve being in awe and feeling elevation in the

face of nature’s grandeur, immensity, and beau-

ty. These qualities of nature are experienced as

embodiment of ultimate aspects of existence

(Naor & Mayseless, 2017), leading to profound

beneﬁcial effects and outcomes (Shostak-

Kinker, 2012). The ﬁndings of this study illu-

minate the therapeutic effect of experiencing

these qualities of nature and provide us with

some understanding as to why and how these

experiences are beneﬁcial.

The therapeutic signiﬁcance of experiencing

the immensity and grandeur of nature lies in the

opportunity to shift perspective from a personal

to a more expansive perspective on life. Per-

sonal circumstances and stories then may be

perceived from the larger context of life, pro-

viding meaning to life’s hardships while elicit-

14 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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ing a focus on issues larger than oneself (social

and environmental). The connections with that

which is greater than us and is eternal and

inﬁnite appear to allow a new and more expan-

sive perspective on one’s problems and perhaps

meaning in life.

Such experiences resonate with psychologi-

cal notions that emphasize the importance of

spirituality as nurturing the human desire to ﬁnd

meaning within the reality of our own mortality

(Piedmont, 1999) and provide answers to exis-

tential questions about our place and purpose in

the big scheme of the world (Pargament &

Cummings, 2010). This realization of being part

of the general grand and eternal scheme of life

is especially useful in stressful circumstances

and when dealing with uncertainty, existential

questions, and suffering (Aldwin, 2007; Davis

et al., 2018).

From this perspective, experiencing the nat-

ural environment can be understood as a favor-

able and highly promising setting by which an

expanded perceptual framework may be expe-

rienced and applied. Although not speciﬁcally

deﬁned as such, an extensive body of research

focusing on the beneﬁts of nature as a restor-

ative environment supports this notion. In these

studies the natural environment is perceived as

allowing the time and space for deep reﬂection

and contemplation on meaning and purpose in

life and one’s place in the overall scheme of

things, which in many instances engenders a

sense of spirituality and sacredness of life (Bo-

bilya, McAvoy, & Kalisch, 2005; Foster, 2012;

Heintzman & Mannell, 2003; McDonald et al.,

2009).

Theme 3: Interconnectedness Involves the

Experience of Deeply Belonging

Interconnectedness is a common characteris-

tic of nature experience, described as “the feel-

ing of connection, unity, and compassion with

all of existence” (Kumar, 2000. p. 46). In the

ﬁeld of ecopsychology, interconnectedness is

discussed (mostly from a conceptual perspec-

tive) as a key concept of health. Our ﬁndings

shed light on how interconnectedness is culti-

vated through actual experience and why this is

so important to human health and development.

In NBT, interconnectedness is cultivated by re-

lating intimately with nature and its elements as

sentient others. In this way, the isolative bound-

aries of a separate self begin to dissolve, and the

large interconnected web of life is revealed, as

in the McDonald et al. (2009) deﬁnition of

interconnectedness as involving a mental or

emotional awareness of the fundamental inter-

relationships between a universal force mani-

fested in human and nonhuman life forms.

Siegel (2007) noted the signiﬁcance of inter-

connectedness to well-being and that recogniz-

ing the reality of interconnection leads to a

fundamental shift in our way of living based on

concern for the larger world. Research has

shown that well-being and happiness are asso-

ciated with deﬁning our “selves” as part of an

interconnected whole (Terhaar, 2009). Interest-

ingly, “feelings of connection to something

greater” (also deﬁned as a spiritual connection)

are delineated by the World Health Organiza-

tion (2002) as the existential dimensions of

health.

Our ﬁndings shed light on why interconnect-

edness is a crucial aspect of health. It is de-

scribed by the participants as a way of experi-

encing deep belonging in the world and

answering our universal need to belong

(Baumeister, 2002). Unlike belonging to a so-

cial group, nature offers a new kind of human

belonging—to nature and its elements as sen-

tient—and hence to the whole web of life and

existence. Kaye (2002) underscored this notion:

“We deeply need the humility to know our-

selves as the dependent members of a great

community of life, and this can indeed be one of

the spiritual beneﬁts of a wilderness experi-

ence” (p. 3). Such belonging is described as

contributing signiﬁcantly to a life of purpose.

Furthermore, such sense of ultimate belonging

may lead to taking responsibility to care for and

nurture this web of life (Mayseless & Russo-

Netzer, 2017; Russo-Netzer & Mayseless,

2017).

From a relational perspective, spirituality in-

volves the human potential to be in connection

with self, others, the transcendent, and nature

(Steinhauser et al., 2017). Contemporary psy-

chological perspectives of spirituality have

stressed the signiﬁcance of personal relation-

ships by which sacredness and meaning are

attained (Mahoney, 2013). Our ﬁndings go be-

yond personal or social relations, emphasizing

the therapeutic signiﬁcance of experiencing in-

terconnectedness in nature as a means by which

a deep sense of belonging to the world is elic-

15THE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF SPIRITUALITY IN NATURE

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

ited. The signiﬁcance of belonging to a greater

whole, not just one’s community or congrega-

tion, is somewhat new to current discussions in

the psychological literature on spirituality, call-

ing for further research so that this important

concept may be better understood and culti-

vated.

Theme 4: Nature Reﬂects Inner Aspects

and Provides Unconditional Acceptance

Inspiring a Discovery of the Self

The ﬁndings reveal that when we perceive

ourselves as part of nature, we resonate with it.

Thus, wandering through nature entails more

than the discovery of external elements and

landscapes—it reveals information on “what I

really am.” Participants relayed how synchron-

icity and distinct situations in nature revealed

signiﬁcant personal information, speciﬁcally re-

garding the individual’s authentic core self and

soul, mirrored by nature.

The signiﬁcant process of self-discovery in

nature was attributed by the participants to spe-

ciﬁc qualities of nature described as an uncon-

ditional, loving, accepting, and nonjudgmental

environment. Research on the beneﬁcial and

restorative characteristics of the natural envi-

ronment support this, emphasizing the distance

from social constraints and cultural expecta-

tions (Bobilya et al., 2011; Heintzman, 2009).

For example, in Fredrickson and Anderson’s

(1999) study on the wilderness as a source for

spiritual inspiration, participants on a canoeing

or hiking trip described the natural environment

as a “noncompetitive atmosphere where there

was virtually no reason to be anyone but them-

selves” (p. 30). The experience helped them to

realize what was meaningful in their lives. Ex-

periences of mirroring from the outside of what

individuals feel inside, synchronicity, and ulti-

mate and nonjudgmental acceptance often dis-

cussed by NBT facilitators are not prevalent in

current discussions in psychology of spirituality

literature. Future research could try to address

these experiences as potentially signiﬁcant in

individuals’ lives and explore their benevolent

outcomes.

Although the unique qualities of spirituality

in nature and the therapeutic meaning they hold

are delineated here separately, they were not

speciﬁcally expressed as separate but rather as

overlapping. For example, experiencing inter-

connectedness has been linked here to belong-

ing, while several accounts also attributed the

sense of belonging to the accepting setting and

to connection to the immensity of nature. Sim-

ilarly, the discovery of who we are was associ-

ated with interconnectedness as well as with

mirroring. Consequently, the signiﬁcance of

spirituality in nature embodied in physical, sen-

sory form may be attributed to a variety of ways

by which such embodied spirituality answers

the core spiritual human needs for meaning and

purpose, belonging, and forming a relationship

with the sacred. These ﬁndings provide new

venues for understanding the beneﬁcial human

connection to nature while shedding light on the

psychological value of experiencing spirituality

in nature that may be intentionally cultivated in

therapy.

Clinical Implications

The beneﬁcial therapeutic effects of experi-

encing spirituality through nature revealed in

this study have implications for nature-based

therapists as well as for other practitioners seek-

ing to integrate spirituality in practice. The spir-

itual qualities of nature revealed here may be

emphasized, discussed, or experienced through

intentional interventions by clinicians who may

conduct sessions in nature or integrate these

aspects through imagery or by recalling experi-

ences and memories in nature. Current written

conceptions of NBT often do not directly refer

to spirituality in nature (Rothwell, 2008). Our

ﬁndings may call for a more central place for

such spiritual dimensions. Speciﬁcally, nature-

based therapists may pay more attention to the

explicit therapeutic constructs delineated (e.g.,

sensing nature’s immenseness, experiencing in-

terconnectedness, and highlighting synchronic-

ity), making clients aware of them while ﬁnding

ways to intentionally evoke them. This may

involve creating interventions or conditions

whereby the experiences of nature’s immensity,

interconnectedness, and reﬂection of inner ex-

periences are attended to and enhanced (e.g.,

taking people to places in nature that are bound-

less and immense or calling clients’ attention to

the way we are mirrored by nature). The way

spirituality is experienced and embodied

through nature may illuminate a path by which

the potential for spirituality as a human resource

may be actualized calling for further attention in

16 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

current theoretical and empirical discourse of

the psychology of spirituality.

Caveats and Suggestions for

Future Research

Because spirituality was not a focus of the

original large study, we did not assess the par-

ticipants’ relevant background or beliefs, and

spirituality was not dealt with explicitly in the

initial interview. This enabled us to gain various

perspectives on what was described as the mys-

terious aspect of NBT without imposing con-

cepts that could limit the participants’ descrip-

tions or our understandings. Yet gaining

additional information regarding the partici-

pants’ spiritual beliefs and backgrounds could

have been useful in understanding the spiritual

connotations of the terms that they used that

could have other connotations that we may have

overlooked. The heterogeneity of the partici-

pants with respect to age, professional afﬁlia-

tion, and experience may be perceived as a

strength allowing us to gain a variety of per-

spectives from people coming from various pro-

fessional and cultural backgrounds. It may also

have been limiting, because such variety may

have weakened our capacity to ﬁnd common

themes and reach saturation. The methodology

of grounded theory allows the formation of con-

ceptual models derived from the researcher’s

interpretation of the data rather than focusing

explicitly on the participants’ phenomenologi-

cal perspectives (Charmaz, 2008). From the per-

spective of GT, the understandings gained can-

not be separated from the researcher who

produced them. So, although various steps were

taken to augment the credibility and trustwor-

thiness of the model grounded in data, the con-

ceptualization presented derives from the per-

spective of the researcher of this study and may

be understood differently by other researchers

and need to be assessed further by practitioners

and researchers. It is also important to take into

consideration that the conceptualization pre-

sented is the outcome of a speciﬁc perceptual

lens—that of the practitioners in the ﬁeld de-

scribing the way they perceive or experience

spirituality in NBT. The ﬁrst author did conduct

ﬁeld observations that may shed some light on

the clients’ experience, but to gain a more en-

compassing understanding of the therapeutic ef-

fect of spirituality in nature, further research

involving the perspective of the clients is nec-

essary.

Concluding Remarks

The ﬁndings of this study illuminate the cen-

trality of the mysterious in nature-based thera-

pies experienced through the embodiment of

spirituality by nature and its signiﬁcant benev-

olent therapeutic implications. Perluss (2012)

referred to Jung who wrote that “we have

stripped all things of their mystery and numi-

nosity; nothing is holy any longer,” and as a

result, “our psyche is profoundly disturbed” (p.

255). Kaye (2002) supported this position,

maintaining that the manifestation of spiritual-

ity in the wilderness both reﬂects the unmet

needs of our urban, commodity-driven culture

and reveals some archetypal part of us that this

culture has obscured, concluding that wilder-

ness programs are fulﬁlling people’s apparent

need to connect or reconnect with these needs

through the natural world. This study delineates

the speciﬁc experiences of spirituality enhanced

through connection with nature and how they

are linked to therapeutic outcomes that may be

integrated in therapeutic contexts for growth

and full development.

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Accepted June 20, 2019 䡲

20 NAOR AND MAYSELESS

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We present a phenomenologically based model of spiritual development and growth. The model heuristically suggests three “spatial” facets—(a) deep within, (b) up and beyond, and (c) sideways and interconnected—assuming them to be related and yet distinct realms of spiritual development. The model further underscores the importance of alignment and harmony among the three facets of development, as well as the centrality of expressing spirituality in one’s way of living and the importance of sustaining an intrinsic and intentional mindset. The model further notes that the developmental process is nonlinear and endless in nature, involves both conscious decisions and less conscious intentional actions, and might be better described as a process of “becoming.” This developmental process is assumed to contribute to the development of inner personal wholeness, which is a quality not fully achievable. Such wholeness involves a sense of inner peace, integrity, and harmony; closeness to one’s authentic self; a sense of “being held”; gratitude; a compassionate and caring stance; and a sense of meaning and purpose in life. We conclude by presenting a vision that inner and personal wholeness may lead to outer wholeness, among individuals and among social groups. Three facilitating aspects are suggested to create such a bridge between inner wholeness and outer wholeness: (a) values of respect, caring, and service; (b) a less exclusive circle of care; and (c) humility and pluralistic spirituality.

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Lia Naor

Handbook of Religion and Health

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Naor, L. (2017). Expressing the fullness of human nature through the natural setting. In Kopytin, A., & Rugh, M. (Eds.). Environmental Expressive Therapies: Nature-Assisted Theory and Practice. (pp. 204-226).

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Lia Naor

Nature is an innate and unique source by which humanity is both sustained and nurtured in the process of healthy development. In contrast to common psychological notions, that view health as the elimination of illness, expressive and nature therapies view health as involving the development and expression of human wholeness. Such wholeness involves being conscious, in relationship to and being able to express the many facets, negative and positive of one's inner nature while living in sync with outer nature. Nature as a vast, rich and multi dimensional setting offers abundant opportunities and landscapes that cultivate a knowing of the many dimensions internal and external of human wholeness in a concrete and embodied way. Extensive empirical evidence supports this notion by presenting profound benefits of connection with nature, although the process by which a fragmented self or ‘way of being’ develops into a more connected and expansive whole through connection with nature remains a mystery. Cultivating wholeness through nature is a unique learning process, involving the discovery and development of unknown and unconscious aspects of self revealed by nature. The unique and profound opportunity for personal change and development in nature has been attributed to the evolutional human design, as well as to nature's unique characteristics (restorative environment). The process by which human and environmental constructs are harnessed for personal wholeness is discussed in light of empirical and theoretical evidence as well as the author's phenomenological analysis of research on positive personal transformation in nature.

The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research

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Jul 2017

Nature-Guided Therapy: Brief Integrative Strategies for Health and Well-Being

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