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Abstract

Background and objectives: As suggests by the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, education attainment and other socioeconomic status (SES) indicators have a smaller impact on the health and well-being of non-White than White Americans. To test whether MDR also applies to happiness, in the present study, Blacks and Whites were compared in terms of the effect of education attainment on the level of happiness among American adults. Methods: General Social Survey (1972-2016) is a series of national surveys that are performed in the United States. The current analysis included 54,785 adults (46,724 Whites and 8,061 Blacks). The years of schooling (i.e., education attainment) and happiness were the main independent variable and the main dependent variable of interest, respectively. In addition, other parameters such as gender, age, employment status, marital status, and the year of the survey were the covariates and race was the focal effect modifier. Finally, the logistic regression model was used to analyze the data. Results: Based on the results, high education attainment was associated with higher odds of happiness in the pooled sample. Further, a significant interaction was found between race and education attainment on the odds of happiness, showing a larger gain for Whites compared to Blacks. Race-specific models also confirmed this finding (i.e., a larger magnitude of the effect of education for Whites compared to Blacks). Conclusion: Overall, the MDR theory also applies to the effect of education attainment on happiness. Blacks' disadvantage in comparison to the Whites in gaining happiness from their education may be due to the structural, institutional, and interpersonal racism and discrimination in the US. Therefore, there is a need for economic and public policies that can minimize the Blacks' diminished returns of education attainment and other SES resources.
International Journal of Epidemiologic Research
© 2019 The Author(s); Published by Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2019 Spring;6(2):76-82doi:10.15171/ijer.2019.14
Race, Education Attainment, and Happiness in the United
States
Shervin Assari1,2,3*
ID
1Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
2Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture, and Health, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109,
USA
3Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
http://ijer.skums.ac.ir
Original Article
Abstract
Background and aims: As suggests by the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, education
attainment and other socioeconomic status (SES) indicators have a smaller impact on the health and
well-being of non-White than White Americans. To test whether MDR also applies to happiness, in the
present study, Blacks and Whites were compared in terms of the effect of education attainment on the
level of happiness among American adults.
Methods: General Social Survey (1972-2016) is a series of national surveys that are performed in the
United States. The current analysis included 54 785 adults (46 724 Whites and 8061 Blacks). The years
of schooling (i.e., education attainment) and happiness were the main independent variable and the
main dependent variable of interest, respectively. In addition, other parameters such as gender, age,
employment status, marital status, and the year of the survey were the covariates and race was the
focal effect modifier. Finally, the logistic regression model was used to analyze the data.
Results: Based on the results, high education attainment was associated with higher odds of happiness
in the pooled sample. Further, a significant interaction was found between race and education
attainment on the odds of happiness, showing a larger gain for Whites compared to Blacks. Race-
specific models also confirmed this finding (i.e., a larger magnitude of the effect of education for
Whites compared to Blacks).
Conclusion: Overall, the MDR theory also applies to the effect of education attainment on happiness.
Blacks’ disadvantage in comparison to the Whites in gaining happiness from their education may be
due to the structural, institutional, and interpersonal racism and discrimination in the US. Therefore,
there is a need for economic and public policies that can minimize the Blacks’ diminished returns of
education attainment and other SES resources.
Keywords: Blacks, Whites, Race, Ethnicity, Class, Socioeconomic status, Happiness
Received: 12 Dec. 2018
Accepted: 4 May 2019
ePublished: 21 June 2019
*Corresponding Author:
Shervin Assari,
Tel: +1-734-363-2678,
Email: assari@umich.edu
Introduction
Happiness (i.e., the feelings of joy and pleasure, as well as a
positive emotion, is considered a major human experience.
Research shows a close link between socioeconomic status
(SES) and happiness/positive emotions1 and positive
emotions are essential regardless of age, gender, race, and
ethnicity.2 Emotions such as happiness protect individuals
against depression, which is generally regarded as one of
the most chronic debilitating illnesses worldwide and in
the United States, in particular.3 Happiness and positive
emotions are under the influence of SES, particularly
education attainment4,5 while being essential for
maintaining a sense of well-being2 and self-esteem.6 Affect
correlates with SES. In other words, low SES individuals
are less happy1,3 while individuals with higher SES report
more positive affect.7,8
According to the Minorities’ Diminished Returns
(MDR) theory,9,10 the effects of SES indicators on a variety
of positive outcomes are systemically smaller for racial and
ethnic minority groups including the Blacks compared
to Whites.11 Empirical evidence suggests that education
has smaller effects on different factors such as income,12-14
alcohol drinking,15 cigarette smoking,16 eating habits,17
chronic medical disease,18 obesity,19 self-rated health,20-22
and mortality23-26 for Blacks compared to Whites.
However, it is not well understood if there is any relative
disadvantage of Blacks compared to Whites regarding the
link between high SES and happiness.27
MDR is attributed to economic14 and psychological28
processes that are connected to racism and discrimination.
For example, Whites achieve more tangible outcomes than
minority groups, including the Blacks because many social
Int J Epidemiol Res, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2019 77
Assari
and economic processes negatively affect the Blacks’ mental
health, even that of those who have successfully climbed
the social ladder (high SES). At each level of SES, the U.S.
society favors Whites to non-Whites and thus treats the
Blacks and the other minorities unfavorably, therefore,
high SES Blacks fail to gain as many positive outcomes
as they deserve due to their SES. In addition, Blacks have
worse access to the opportunity structure, and education
does not generate the same income and employment for
the Blacks compared to Whites. Everyday lives of high-
SES Blacks are also different from those of their high-SES
White counterparts since high SES Blacks experience more
not less28 prejudice and discrimination.29-31 It is argued
that racism operates across the levels and institutions that
are bound to the tangible health gains that follow SES for
Blacks.29,32,33
However, a large body of literature on MDR is related to
negative rather than positive outcomes, showing that high
SES better protects the Whites than the Blacks against
depression and depressive symptoms.18,34-36 For example,
some reports showed the increased risk of depression,18
anxiety,37 and suicide34 among high SES Blacks. Further,
in studies with nationally representative samples, high
education36 and income35 were associated with the high
risk of major depressive disorder35,36 and depressive
symptoms18 for youth35 and adults.18,36 These results are
replicated in cross-sectional35,36 and longitudinal18 studies,
which are the extreme cases of MDR where SES not only
shows no a positive effect but also correlates with poor
outcomes.1
Objectives
The main aim of this investigation was to compare Black
and White American adults for the effect of education
attainment on their happiness. In line with previous
studies38 and informed by the MDR theory,9,10 high
education attainment is expected to result in greater
achievement for Whites than Blacks.
Methods
Design and Setting
Using a cross-sectional survey design, this analysis used
data from the General Social Survey (GSS; 1972-2016).
Since 1972, the University of Chicago has conducted the
GSS in order to monitor the societal change and social
trends of American society over time.
General Social Survey
The GSS has gathered data on contemporary American
society over more than four decades and monitored the
trends regarding the attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs of the
Americans. The GSS helps us understand how the structure
and function of the U.S. society are generally changing and
in terms of race, class, and gender, in particular. The data
further provide an excellent opportunity to run time series
and compare the U.S. subgroups, and finally, to compare
the United States with its peer industrial countries. Over
the past decades, GSS has become a unique source of
scholarly works in the fields of sociology, economics,
policy-making, and demography, among others. GSS
collects data on major social issues such as race relations,
the quality of life, and trust in U.S. institutions as well.39
Analytical Sample
The current study included 54 785 adults who were either
Whites (n = 46 724) or Blacks (n = 8061).
Study Measures
Study variables included race, age, gender, education
attainment, employment status, marital status, the year of
survey, and happiness.
Education Attainment. This variable was measured as the
years of schooling, varying from 0 to 22. Moreover, it was
treated as an interval measure. In other words, a higher
score reflected higher education attainment/the years of
schooling.
Happiness. It was measured using a single item that
measured general happiness and read as “Taken all together,
how would you say things are these days – would you say
that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?”
The response options included (1) Very happy, (2) Pretty
happy, and (3) Not too happy. The item was asked from
1972 to 2010.
Demographic Variables. Gender, age (years), employment
status, marital status, and the year of the survey were the
study covariates. Age was an interval variable which was
measured in years and gender was a dichotomous measure
[males =0 (reference group) and females =1].
Study Year. The year of study was operationalized as an
interval variable ranging from 1972 to 2016.
Socioeconomic Status. Two SES covariates, namely,
employment and marital status were included in this
study. Employment was measured as an ordinal variable
and contained eight categories as “(1) Working Full-time,
(2) Working Part-time, (3) Temporarily Not Working,
(4) Unemployed, Laid Off, (5) Retired, (6) School, (7)
Keeping House, and (8) Other”. Working Full-time was
considered as the reference group. Additionally, marital
Status was assessed as a nominal variable and encompassed
five categories including (1) Married, (2) Widowed, (3)
Divorced, (4) Separated, and (5) Never Married”. The first
option was the reference category.
Race. The self-identified race was the focal moderating
variable that was treated as a dichotomous variable (i.e.,
non-Hispanic Whites =0 [the reference group] and
Blacks =1).
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed using the Stata, version 15. The
frequency (%) and mean (standard error: SE) were
Int J Epidemiol Res, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2019
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Assari
reported to describe the participants, overall, and by race.
In addition, four logistic regressions were used including
two models in the pooled sample (Model 1 and Model
2) and two models specific to the racial groups (Model
3 and Model 4). In all models, happiness (1= being very
happy/pretty happy and 0= not too happy) and education
attainment (the years of education) were the primary
outcome (dependent variable) and the primary predictor
(independent variable), respectively, and age, gender,
employment status, marital status, the year of survey
were the covariates. Model 1 only had the main effects
while Model 2 included the race by education attainment
interaction term. Finally, Model 3 and Model 4 estimated
the effects of education attainment on happiness in
Whites and Blacks, respectively. The odds ratio (OR), SE,
95% confidence interval (CI), z-value, and P values were
reported based on the obtained data.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
This study included 54 785 adults who were either White
(n = 46 724) or Black (n = 8061). Blacks were less happy
compared to Whites who had higher education attainment.
Pooled Sample Multivariable Models
Table 1 shows the results of the two logistic regression
models, both in the overall sample. Based on Model 1 that
included no interaction term, high education attainment
was associated with higher odds of happiness independent
of race, age, gender, employment status, marital status, and
the year of the survey. Conversely, Model 2 demonstrated
an interaction between race and education attainment
on happiness, suggesting a smaller effect of education on
happiness for Blacks compared to Whites.
Race-Specific Multivariable Models
The results of the two logistic regression models, each in
one race, are presented in Table 2. Model 3 and Model 4,
performed in Whites and Blacks, respectively, revealed
that high education attainment was related to the higher
odds of happiness regardless of age, gender, and the year
of the survey for both groups. However, the magnitude of
the association was larger for Whites compared to Blacks.
Discussion
The results of the current study indicated that high
education attainment increased happiness overall,
however, this effect was disproportionately larger for
Whites compared to Blacks. Based on the results, the
MDR theory could apply to happiness.
Supporting the MDR theory,9,10,19 we found smaller
effects of education attainment on happiness among the
Blacks than Whites. An extensive body of research has
shown similar patterns for the effects of SES on other
economic and health outcomes.24,29,34,40-44 An increase
in education attainment leads to an increase in income,
but the boosting effect of education on income is not
comparable between Whites and Blacks.12,13 As a result,
highly educated Blacks experience higher obesity, poor
sleep, physical inactivity,15 depression,18 suicide,34 and
mortality24 compared to highly educated Whites. Similar
results are found for individuals43 and families, that is, the
transgenerational effects.44-47
Most traditional theories that connect SES to the
outcomes focused on the universal effects of SES
resources. Link and Phelans (1995) Fundamental Cause
Theory suggests that SES is a fundamental determinant
and the root cause of positive outcomes, including the
affect, emotions, and mental health.48 The same theory
conceptualizes racism as a fundamental cause as well.45
Despite the emphasis of the mainstream literature on the
gains of SES, there is substantial evidence suggesting that
high SES may operate as a risk factor for poor mental
health outcomes for the Blacks.11,18,19,32,34,43,44 What makes
MDR distinct from the other theories is that it focuses
on group differences in gains instead of the universal
effects.9,10
The MDR theory does not argue that racial and ethnic
groups are inherently different in their abilities to turn
their education attainment to tangible positive outcomes.
In our point of view, such interpretation should be avoided
since it is considered racist. Therefore, we need to fix the
unfair social system that has historically oppressed Blacks
instead of blaming the victims. In addition, Blacks gain
less from their education, not because of their culture,
morality, or traits, but the fact that their lives have been
and are still affected by systemic racism. Slavery is over,
but racism continues.47
Limitations and Strengths
Our study had several limitations. One main weakness
of this study was the unbalanced sample size of the
Blacks and Whites although this is usually the case in
health disparities research. Further, we only focused on
the effect modification of race while neglecting other
potential moderating factors such as gender, ethnicity, and
nativity. Accordingly, it is very important to compare the
diminished returns for Black men and women, as some
literature has shown SES as a risk factor for Black men but
not Black women.20,35 SES may differently influence the
emotion and affect among the Black males and females.
Furthermore, the present study used a cross-sectional
design and longitudinal studies should be conducted in
this regard as well. Moreover, our study failed to control
several potential confounders such as wealth and childhood
SES. Despite the above-mentioned limitations, this study
contributes to the MDR literature10,19 by showing that
it also applies to happiness. Some strengths of our study
included the national scope (nationally representative
samples) and large sample size.
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Table 1. A Summary of the Pooled Sample Logistic Regression Models
OR (SE) 95% CI Z P
Model 1 (Main Effect Model)
Race (Black) 0.63 (0.02) 0.59 - 0.67 -13.99 < 0.001
Age 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 - 1.00 1.55 0.122
Gender (female) 1.19 (0.04) 1.12 - 1.27 5.87 < 0.001
Marital status
Married 1.00
Widowed 0.40 (0.02) 0.36 - 0.43 -19.52 < 0.001
Divorced 0.35 (0.01) 0.33 - 0.38 -26.54 < 0.001
Separated 0.26 (0.02) 0.23 - 0.29 -23.12 < 0.001
Never married 0.47 (0.02) 0.44 - 0.51 -19.51 < 0.001
Employment status
Working full-time 1.00
Working part-time 0.82 (0.04) 0.75 - 0.90 -4.13 < 0.001
Temp not working 0.59 (0.05) 0.50 -0.70 -6.05 < 0.001
Unemployed, laid off 0.34 (0.02) 0.30 - 0.38 -18.91 < 0.001
Retired 0.82 (0.04) 0.74 - 0.90 -4.03 < 0.001
School 0.95 (0.08) 0.81 - 1.11 -0.67 0.501
Keeping House 0.66 (0.03) 0.60 - 0.71 -9.84 < 0.001
Other 0.35 (0.03) 0.30 - 0.40 -14.54 < 0.001
Education (1-20) 1.08 (0.00) 1.07 - 1.09 17.66 < 0.001
Intercept 4.16 (0.38) 3.49 - 4.97 15.77 < 0.001
Model 2 (Interaction Model)
Race (Black) 1.15 (0.14) 0.91 - 1.45 1.15 0.251
Age (y) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 - 1.00 1.42 0.155
Gender (female) 1.20 (0.04) 1.13 - 1.27 6.04 < 0.001
Marital status
Married 1.00
Widowed 0.40 (0.02) 0.36 - 0.43 -19.55 < 0.001
Divorced 0.35 (0.01) 0.33 - 0.38 -26.43 < 0.001
Separated 0.26 (0.02) 0.23 - 0.29 -23.27 < 0.001
Never married 0.47 (0.02) 0.44 - 0.51 -19.45 < 0.001
Employment status
Working full-time 1.00
Working part-time 0.82 (0.04) 0.74 - 0.90 -4.23 < 0.001
Temp not working 0.59 (0.05) 0.50 - 0.70 -6.13 < 0.001
Unemployed, laid off 0.34 (0.02) 0.30 - 0.38 -18.90 < 0.001
Retired 0.82 (0.04) 0.74 - 0.90 -4.08 < 0.001
At school 0.94 (0.08) 0.80 - 1.11 -0.73 0.468
Keeping house 0.66 (0.03) 0.60 - 0.71 -9.85 < 0.001
Other 0.35 (0.03) 0.30 - 0.40 -14.56 < 0.001
Education attainment (1-20) 1.10 (0.01) 1.08 - 1.11 18.11 < 0.001
Education attainment (1-20) × race (Black) 0.95 (0.01) 0.93 - 0.97 -5.25 < 0.001
Intercept 3.59 (0.34) 2.98 - 4.32 13.53 < 0.001
Future Research
All variables of the study were limited to the individual
level, however, community-level factors may also have
a role in this respect. Therefore, neighborhood and
community factors should also be investigated in future
studies. Additionally, some contextual factors such as
neighborhood and workplace racial composition are
needed to be included in similar research. Similarly,
personality and life purposes are among the most salient
determinants of the sense of happiness. Depression and
bipolar disorders are other factors that may alter the sense
of happiness as well. Future research should include and
further evaluate all the above-mentioned constructs.
Finally, this study only focused on education attainment.
Future research should also include other SES factors such
as wealth, income, employment, and marital status.
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Implications for Policy and Practice
True equality is impossible unless we establish a context
in which the very same SES indicators can generate
the very equal returns across the racial groups. In the
current system, equal education consistently results in
unequal gains for the Black than White Americans. As
a result, solutions should target racism across the levels
and institutions. Such policies should go beyond merely
equalizing the racial groups in terms of SES but eliminate
the processes that cause inequality in translating the SES
into the outcomes. Therefore, there is a need to eliminate
the additional societal barriers in the lives of Blacks and
other racial and ethnic minority groups. In the absence of
such policies, the majority group continues gaining more
positive outcomes from the available resources.
Conclusions
The magnitude of the link between education attainment
and happiness is unequal across the racial groups,
indicating that Blacks gain less happiness than Whites
from their increase in education attainment.
Ethical Approval
The GSS study protocol was approved by the University
Table 2. A Summary of Ethnic-Specific Logistic Regression Models
OR (SE) 95% CI Z P
Model 3 (Whites)
Age 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 - 1.00 -0.41 0.684
Gender (female) 1.24 (0.04) 1.16 - 1.32 6.18 0.000
Marital status
Married 1.00
Widowed 0.37 (0.02) 0.33 - 0.41 -18.89 < 0.001
Divorced 0.34 (0.01) 0.31 - 0.37 -25.06 < 0.001
Separated 0.20 (0.01) 0.18 - 0.23 -22.33 < 0.001
Never married 0.47 (0.02) 0.43 - 0.51 -17.04 < 0.001
Employment status
Working full-time 1.00
Working part-time 0.85 (0.05) 0.76 - 0.94 -3.07 0.002
Temp not working 0.66 (0.07) 0.54 - 0.80 -4.21 < 0.001
Unemployed, laid off 0.32 (0.02) 0.28 - 0.36 -17.16 < 0.001
Retired 0.84 (0.05) 0.75 - 0.94 -3.14 0.002
School 1.02 (0.10) 0.84 - 1.24 0.20 0.844
Keeping House 0.68 (0.03) 0.61 - 0.75 -7.76 < 0.001
Other 0.32 (0.03) 0.27 - 0.38 -13.69 < 0.001
Education (1-20) 1.09 (0.01) 1.08 - 1.10 17.22 < 0.001
Intercept 4.03 (0.41) 3.30 - 4.91 13.69 < 0.001
Model 4 (Blacks)
Age (y) 1.01 (0.00) 1.00 - 1.01 3.90 < 0.001
Gender (female) 1.07 (0.07) 0.95 - 1.21 1.14 0.254
Marital status
Married 1.00
Widowed 0.58 (0.06) 0.46 - 0.72 -4.97 < 0.001
Divorced 0.47 (0.04) 0.39 - 0.56 -8.24 < 0.001
Separated 0.43 (0.04) 0.35 - 0.53 -8.26 < 0.001
Never married 0.58 (0.05) 0.50 - 0.68 -6.83 < 0.001
Employment status
Working full-time 1.00
Working part-time 0.71 (0.07) 0.59 - 0.87 -3.39 0.001
Temp not working 0.41 (0.07) 0.29 - 0.58 -5.02 < 0.001
Unemployed, laid off 0.40 (0.04) 0.32 - 0.49 -8.32 < 0.001
Retired 0.77 (0.09) 0.61 - 0.96 -2.29 0.022
At school 0.80 (0.12) 0.60 - 1.06 -1.55 0.122
Keeping house 0.60 (0.05) 0.51 - 0.71 -6.07 < 0.001
Other 0.43 (0.06) 0.32 - 0.58 -5.68 < 0.001
Education attainment (1-20) 1.06 (0.01) 1.04 - 1.08 5.94 < 0.001
Intercept 2.32 (0.46) 1.57 - 3.42 4.24 < 0.001
Int J Epidemiol Res, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2019 81
Assari
of Chicago Institutional Review Board (IRB) and all GSS
participants provided informed consent. Furthermore, the
study was funded by the National Science Foundation.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures
The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgment
Shervin Assari was partly supported by the National
Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities
(4P60MD006923-05; PI = Vickie Mays), the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development
(D084526-03), the National Cancer Institute (CA201415
02; Co-PI = Ritesh Mistry), and the National Institute on
Drug Abuse (DA035811-05; PI = Marc Zimmerman).
Special thanks go to Hamid Helmi, Wayne State University,
for his help in editing the final draft of this paper. The
General Social Survey was performed by the University of
Chicago and funded by the National Science Foundation.
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... This penalty can be understood through the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, which suggests that the positive effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators are less pronounced for racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, in a series of papers, Assari and colleagues show that education attainment and other socioeconomic status (SES) indicators have a smaller impact on the health and well-being of non-White than White Americans (Assari, 2018;Assari, 2018Assari, , 2019. For vulnerable populations including racialized minorities at lower SES positions, an increase in trust may lead to a lower return. ...
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This study introduces a social capital perspective to the majority-minority gap in wellbeing. We explore the role of social trust and test specifically whether racial and ethnic minorities may experience a triple trust penalty. First is a level penalty, where minorities exhibit lower levels of trust, potentially adversely affecting their wellbeing. Second, there may be a return penalty, where minorities may experience a diminished return from being trustful. Third, there may be a protection penalty, where minorities experience reduced benefits from residing in a high-trust context. Our empirical analyses are based on data from multiple waves of the European Social Survey (Round 4–10, 2008–2020) with over 300,000 individuals from 38 European countries. Our analyses indicate support for the level penalty, but we found no evidence for the return or protection penalties. Specifically, we show that racial and ethnic minorities’ lower levels of trust can have harmful impacts on their happiness and life satisfaction. However, an increase in trust yields greater wellbeing among racial and ethnic minorities, and residing in a high-trust context also appears to have a more substantial impact on the well-being of racial and ethnic minorities as compared to their counterparts. The results suggest that promoting trust can effectively narrow the wellbeing gap among various racial groups.
... Few studies have tested the MDRs of college graduation in middle-aged and older adults [78,79,80]. These limited studies suggest that MDRs can be seen in the effects of occupational classes on the health of Black middle-aged and older people in the United States [81]. ...
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Introduction College education is typically associated with the ability to work in less physically demanding occupations, allowing for a later retirement age. However, research indicates that highly educated Black individuals often work in more demanding occupations, which affects their retirement age. Aim Building on the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) literature, we tested whether the benefit of college education on delaying the time of retirement is weaker for Black compared to White middle-aged and older adults. Methods We utilized data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), which includes a 30-year longitudinal follow-up of a nationally representative sample of middle-aged and older adults in the United States. Education levels at baseline were categorized as less than college graduate (some high school, GED, high school diploma, or some college) and college graduate. The outcome was the time to retirement, measured from wave 2 to wave 15 (baseline to 30 years later). We graphed survival curves and used independent samples t-tests to assess associations between college graduation and time of retirement, overall and by race. Results Our analysis included 6,803 White and Black participants who were employed at baseline and followed for up to 30 years. Overall, there was a positive association between college graduation and retirement timing, with individuals with higher education retiring later. However, we found significant racial differences in the retirement age of college graduates, indicating notable racial disparities in the effects of college graduation on retirement timing, disadvantaging Black college-educated individuals. Specifically, among Whites, but not Blacks, college education was associated with later retirement. Conclusion Consistent with Minorities’ Diminished Returns theory, the positive effect of college education on retirement timing are weaker for Black than for White middle-aged and older Americans. To address racial disparities, it is insufficient to focus solely on economic disparities. While closing the educational gap is important, we must also work to equalize labor market experiences for Black and White individuals with similar educational credentials. Structural factors contributing to the diminished returns of college education for Black populations must be addressed to effectively close racial disparities.
... Before, Minorities' Diminished Returns theory was never tested with occupational classes of middle-aged and older adults [78][79][80]. Thus, this was the first study that investigated whether Minorities' Diminished Returns phenomenon can be seen for the effects of occupational classes on health of Non-Latino Black middle age and older people in the United States [81]. ...
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Introduction Occupational classes exert substantial effects on both subjective and objective health outcomes. However, it remains unclear whether the health impact of similar occupational classes varies across racial groups among middle-aged and older adults in the United States. Aim Grounded in the theory of Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs), which posits that health benefits from resources such as employment are systematically weaker for racial minority populations, particularly Non-Latino Black individuals, this study tested Black-White disparities in the effects of similar occupational classes on health outcomes in middle-aged and older adults. Methods Utilizing data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), we employed a 30-year longitudinal design with a nationally representative sample of middle-aged and older adults in the United States. Six occupational classes—operator, managerial, professional specialty, sales, clerical/admin, and service—served as the key predictor variables (independent variables), with race as the moderator. Various health outcomes, including self-rated health, chronic disease, body mass index (BMI), activities of daily living (ADL), and cognitive function, were measured longitudinally from wave 1 to wave 15 (from baseline to 30 years later). Statistical analyses, incorporating logistic regression models, were conducted to assess associations between occupational class and health outcomes overall and based on race. Results Our analysis included 7538 Non-Latino White or Non-Latino Black participants followed for up to 30 years. Initial findings revealed positive health effects of professional occupations on cognitive function and self-rated health over 30 years of follow-uWe also identified significant interactions between race and professional occupational class on all health outcomes, indicating notable racial differences in the effects of professional occupations on health outcomes across domains. The effects of professional occupational class were weaker for Non-Latino Black individuals than for Non-Latino White individuals. Conclusion Consistent with the Minorities’ Diminished Returns theory, our findings indicated less pronounced positive effects of professional occupations on a wide range of health outcomes for Non-Latino Black individuals compared to Non-Latino Whites. These disparities emphasize the critical need to address structural factors that contribute to the diminished returns of prestigious occupations for Non-Latino Black populations.
... This theory also suggests that educational attainment may generate fewer positive outcomes for minoritized populations who receive low-quality education, due to segregation and social stratification [16,17]. Despite these findings, the application of Minorities' Diminished Returns theory to life satisfaction among middle-aged and older adults has been seldom explored [18][19][20]. Thus, there is a need to investigate whether the Minorities' Diminished Returns phenomenon extends to life satisfaction in the United States [21]. ...
... A study conducted with 54,758 American adults found that higher educational levels were associated with happiness. 86 Compared to individuals with lower levels of schooling, those with higher levels have greater access to health, better quality of life and a better financial status. 87 However, two investigations 11,80 found that older adults with a lower level of schooling had higher levels of happiness. ...
... Race/ethnicity. People from racial or ethnic minority groups are liable to have their happiness impeded by discrimination -personal and systemic -that such minorities often experience (which of course also makes this a collective factor) (Assari, 2019). 6. Cognition/intelligence. Various forms of intelligence may affect happiness differently, with cognitive intelligence ("IQ") more indirect (e.g., via socio-economic status), and emotional intelligence ("EQ") more direct (Altaras Dimitrijević et al., 2018). ...
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Concepts like flourishing, well-being, health, and happiness are of increasing interest across many fields, from psychology and medicine to politics and economics. However, these terms are used in diverse and contested ways, which makes it hard to find common ground and understanding. To attempt to help remedy the confusion, this paper offers an overarching conceptual "map" within which these concepts can be situated, thereby providing a common language and framework for their consideration. Moreover, while the overall configuration of this map is conceptually and logically stable, its specific elements are more flexible, particularly in terms of scalable granularity (allowing fine-grained differentiation of internal regions) and epistemological openness (allowing revisions in light of gains in knowledge). As such, the map can be adapted to suit different fields, and updated to accommodate advances in understanding. To that end, we clarify topics of investigation that are still in need of development, providing a roadmap for future research.
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Subjective wellbeing has increasingly attracted attention across academia and beyond (e.g., policy making). However, the research literature has various shortcomings, including (1) conceptual confusion around key constructs, (2) limited and fragmented understanding of contextual dynamics, and (3) a lack of cross-cultural consideration. This paper reports on data from an ambitious research endeavour capable of redressing these three issues: the Global Flourishing Study (GFS), an intended five-year (minimum) panel study investigating the predictors of human flourishing. In addressing the aforementioned issues, first, the GFS has separate items for three constructs at the heart of subjective wellbeing that are often used interchangeably but are actually distinct: life evaluation; life satisfaction, and happiness. Second, the GFS enables an analysis of the association with these constructs of 15 contextual factors (eight relating to childhood, four demographic, and three pertaining to both). Third, the GFS includes (in this first year) 202,898 participants from 22 geographically and culturally diverse countries. Regarding contextual factors, all 15 had a significant association with all three outcome variables, with the largest variation observed being for self-reported health among the childhood predictors and employment status among the demographic factors. Significantly though, the overall patterns were not uniform across countries, suggesting the trends observed are not inevitable or universal, but are contingent on socio-cultural factors. The findings provide a better understanding of, and the foundation for future work on, the conceptual, contextual, and cross-cultural dynamics of this important topic.
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Objectives: Although educational attainment is a major social determinant of health, according to Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), the effect of education tends to be weaker for marginalized groups compared to the privileged groups. While we know more about marginalization due to race and ethnicity, limited information is available on MDRs of educational attainment among US immigrant individuals. Aims: This study compared immigrant and non-immigrant US adults aged 18 and over for the effects of educational attainment on subjective health (self-rated health; SRH). Methods: Data came from General Social Survey (GSS) that recruited a nationally representative sample of US adults from 1972 to 2022. Overall, GSS has enrolled 45,043 individuals who were either immigrant (4,247; 9.4%) and non-immigrant (40,796; 90.6%). The independent variable was educational attainment, the dependent variable was SRH (measured with a single item), confounders were age, gender, race, employment and marital status, and moderator was immigration (nativity) status. Results: Higher educational attainment was associated with higher odds of good SRH (odds ratio OR = 2.08 for 12 years of education, OR = 2.81 for 13-15 years of education, OR = 4.38 for college graduation, and OR = 4.83 for graduate studies). However, we found significant statistical interaction between immigration status and college graduation on SRH, which was indicative of smaller association between college graduation and SRH for immigrant than non-immigrant US adults. Conclusions: In line with MDRs, the association between educational attainment and SRH was weaker for immigrant than non-immigrant. It is essential to implement two sets of policies to achieve health inequalities among immigrant populations: policies that increase educational attainment of immigrants and those that increase the health returns of educational attainment for immigrants.
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Background: Recent research has shown smaller health effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as education attainment for African Americans as compared to whites. However, less is known about diminished returns based on gender within African Americans. Aim: To test whether among African American men are at a relative disadvantage compared to women in terms of having improved mental health as a result of their education attainment. This study thus explored gender differences in the association between education attainment and mental health, using a representative sample of American adults. Methods: The National Survey of American Life (NSAL; 2003) recruited 3570 African American adults (2299 females and 1271 males). The dependent variables were depressive symptoms and psychological distress. The independent variable was education attainment. Race was the focal moderator. Age, employment status, and marital status were covariates. Linear regressions were used for data analysis. Results: In the pooled sample that included both male and female African American adults, high education attainment was associated with lower depressive symptoms and psychological distress, net of covariates. Significant interactions were found between gender and education attainment with effects on depressive symptoms and psychological distress, suggesting stronger protective effects of high education attainment against depressive symptoms and psychological distress for female as compared to male African Americans. Conclusion: A smaller gain in mental health with respect to educational attainment for male African American males as compared to African American females is in line with studies showing high risk of depression in African American men of high-socioeconomic status. High-SES African American men need screening for depression and psychological distress.
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Background: The Minorities’ Diminished Return (MDR) theory is defined as systematically smaller effects of socioeconomic status (SES) on the health and well-being of minority groups when compared to Whites. To extend the existing literature on the MDR theory as applied to the change of mental well-being over time, we investigated Black-White differences in the effects of baseline education and income on subsequent changes in positive and negative affect over a ten-year period. Methods: The Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) is a 10-year longitudinal study of American adults. This analysis followed 3731 adults who were either Whites (n = 3596) or Blacks (n = 135) for 10 years. Education and income, as measured at baseline and 10 years later, were the independent variables. Negative and positive affect, measured at baseline and over ten years of follow up, were the dependent variables. Covariates were age, gender, and physical health (body mass index, self-rated health, and chronic medical conditions), measured at baseline. Race was the focal moderator. We ran multi-group structural equation modeling in the overall sample, with race defining the groups. Results: High education at baseline was associated with an increase in income over the 10-year follow up period for Whites but not Blacks. An increase in income during the follow up period was associated with an increase in the positive affect over time for Whites but not Blacks. Conclusion: The MDR theory is also relevant to the effects of baseline education attainment on subsequent changes in income and then in turn on positive affect over time. The relative disadvantage of Blacks in comparison to Whites in receiving mental health gains from SES may reflect structural racism and discrimination in the United States. There is a need for additional research on specific societal barriers that minimize Blacks’ mental health gains from their SES resources, such as education and income. There is also a need for policies and programs that help Blacks to leverage their SES resources.
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Background: Living above the poverty line reduces the risk of physical illnesses, including childhood asthma (CA). Minorities’ Diminished Return theory, however, suggests that the protective effects of socioeconomic status (SES) on health are weaker for racial minorities than White families. It is unknown whether the association between SES and CA differs for White and Black families. Aims: Using a national sample, the current study compared Black and White families for the association between living above the poverty line and CA. Methods: Data came from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), 2003–2004, a national telephone survey. A total of 86,537 Black or White families with children (17 years old or younger) were included in the study. This sample was composed of 76,403 White (88.29%) and 10,134 Black (11.71%) families. Family SES (living above the poverty line) was the independent variable. The outcome was CA, reported by the parent. Age, gender, and childhood obesity were the covariates. Race was conceptualized as the moderator. A number of multivariable logistic regressions were used in the pooled sample and specific to each race for data analysis. Results: In the pooled sample, living above the poverty line was associated with lower odds of CA. An interaction was found between race and living above the poverty line on odds of CA, indicating a smaller association for Black compared to White families. Although race-stratified logistic regressions showed negative associations between living above the poverty line and CA in both White and Black families, the magnitude of this negative association was larger for White than Black families. Conclusions: The health gain from living above the poverty line may be smaller for Black than White families. Due to the existing Minorities’ Diminished Return, policies that merely reduce the racial gap in SES may not be sufficient in eliminating racial health disparities in the United States. Public policies must go beyond reducing poverty to address structural and environmental risk factors that disproportionately impact Blacks’ health. Policies should help Black families gain health as they gain upward social mobility. As they are more likely to face societal and structural barriers, multi-level interventions are needed for the health promotion of Blacks.
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Background: Although the protective effects of socioeconomic status (SES) on obesity and cardiovascular disease are well established, these effects may differ across racial and ethnic groups. Aims: Using a national sample, this study investigated racial variation in the association between family income and childhood obesity in White and Black families. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), 2003⁻2004, a nationally representative survey in the United States. This analysis included 76,705 children 2⁻17 years old who were either White (n = 67,610, 88.14%) or Black (n = 9095, 11.86%). Family income to needs ratio was the independent variable. Childhood obesity was the outcome. Race was the focal moderator. Logistic regression was used for data analysis. Results: Overall, higher income to needs ratio was protective against childhood obesity. Race, however, interacted with income to needs ratio on odds of childhood obesity, indicating smaller effects for Black compared to White families. Race stratified logistic regressions showed an association between family income and childhood obesity for White but not Black families. Conclusions: The protective effect of income against childhood obesity is smaller for Blacks than Whites. Merely equalizing population access to SES and economic resources would not be sufficient for elimination of racial disparities in obesity and related cardiovascular disease in the United States. Policies should go beyond access to SES and address structural barriers in the lives of Blacks which result in a diminished health return of very same SES resources for them. As the likely causes are multi-level barriers, multi-level interventions are needed to eliminate racial disparities in childhood obesity.
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Background: Minorities’ Diminished Return theory is defined as the relative disadvantage of minority populations compared to Whites regarding health gains that follow socioeconomic status (SES). To test whether Minorities’ Diminished Return theory holds for unmet dental care needs (DCN), we investigated Black-White differences in the effects of family income on unmet DCN among children. Methods: Data from the National Survey of Children’s Health were used. Participants were either White or Black children age 1 to 18. Family income-to-needs ratio was the independent variable. Unmet DCN was the dependent variable. Covariates included age, gender, and parental educational attainment. Race was the focal moderator. We ran logistic regression for data analysis. Results: Higher income-to-needs ratio was associated with lower risk of unmet DCN in the pooled sample. We found an interaction between race and family income-to-needs ratio on unmet DCN, suggesting a stronger protective effect for Whites than Blacks. Conclusion: Minorities’ Diminished Return also holds for the effects of family income-to-needs ratio on unmet DCN. The relative disadvantage of Blacks compared to Whites in gaining oral health from their SES may reflect structural racism that systemically hinders Black families. There is a need for additional research on specific societal barriers that bound Blacks’ oral health gain from their SES resources such as income. Policies and programs should also help Black families to leverage their SES resources.
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Background: Although the protective effects of socioeconomic status (SES) on health behaviors are well-known, according to the minorities' diminished return theory, the health return of SES, particularly educational attainment, is systemically smaller for minorities than Whites. Aims. The current study explored Black-White differences in the effects of educational attainment and income on the consumption of fruits and vegetables. Methods: This cross-sectional study used the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) 2017 (n = 3217). HINTS is a nationally representative survey of American adults. The current analysis included 2277 adults who were either non-Hispanic White (n = 1868; 82%) or non-Hispanic Black (n = 409; 18%). The independent variables in this study were SES (educational attainment and income). The dependent variable was consumption of fruits and vegetables. Race was the focal moderator. Results: In the overall sample, high educational attainment and income were associated with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables. Race moderated the effect of educational attainment but not income on the consumption of fruits and vegetables. Conclusion: In line with the past research in the United States, Whites constantly gain more health benefits from the very same educational attainment than Blacks. The health gain from income is more equal across races than the health gain from educational attainment. Such diminished returns may be due to racism across institutions in the United States.
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Background: Minorities' Diminished Return (MDR) theory suggests that socioeconomic position (SEP) may have a smaller effect on health and well-being of members of the minority than the majority groups. Aim: Built on the MDR theory, this study compared Whites and African Americans for the effects of three family SEP indicators (family type, parental education, and parental employment) during adolescence on subsequent symptoms of anxiety 18 years later during young adulthood. Methods: Flint Adolescents Study (FAS), 1994⁻2012, followed 359 youth (ages 13 to 17, 295 African American and 64 Whites) for 18 years. The independent variables were family type, parental education, and parental employment during adolescence. The dependent variable was subsequent symptoms of anxiety, measured using the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), 18 years later. Age and gender were the covariates and race/ethnicity was the focal effect modifier (moderator). Four linear regression models were estimated to investigate the effects of the three family SEP indicators at age 15 on subsequent symptoms of anxiety at age 33 in the pooled sample and also by race/ethnicity. Results: In the pooled sample, having married parents at age 15 was inversely associated with symptoms of anxiety at age 33. We found an interaction between race/ethnicity and family type, indicating a smaller protective effect of having married parents against symptoms of anxiety for African American compared to White participants. The other two SEP indicators did not show any effect and did not interact with race/ethnicity on the outcome. Conclusion: In support of the MDR theory, marital status of parents during adolescence protects White but not African American young adults against anxiety symptoms. Diminished return of SEP is one of many underlying mechanisms involved in shaping racial and ethnic disparities in anxiety, however, that is often overlooked. Future research that examines economic and social policies and programs that can equalize the health gains that follow SEP resources among racial groups would be a useful next step.
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Background: The minorities’ diminished return theory suggests that socioeconomic position (SEP) generates smaller health gains for racial/ethnic minorities compared to Whites. The current study was a Black–White comparison of the association between household income and self-rated mental health (SRMH). Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the 2017 State of the State Survey (SOSS). With representative sampling, the SOSS generates results that are generalizable to the state of Michigan. This study included 881 adults, (n = 92) Black and (n = 782) White. The independent variable was household income. The dependent variable was SRMH, measured using a single item. Age, gender, and participation in the labor force were covariates. Race/ethnicity was the focal moderator. Logistic regression models were used for data analysis. Results: Overall, higher household income was associated with better SRMH, net of covariates. An interaction was found between race/ethnicity and household income on SRMH, suggesting a smaller, or nonexistent, protective effect for Blacks compared to Whites. In race/ethnicity-stratified models, higher household income was associated with better SRMH for Whites but not Blacks. Conclusion: Supporting the minorities’ diminished return theory, our study documents differential effects for income on SRHM for Blacks and Whites, where Whites but not Blacks appear to benefit from their income. Given this, researchers and policy makers are cautioned against making assumptions that racial groups benefit equally from similar economic resources.
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According to the Blacks’ Diminished Return theory, the health effects of high socioeconomic status (SES) are systemically smaller for Black compared to White families. One hypothesis is that due to the existing structural racism that encompasses residential segregation, low quality of education, low paying jobs, discrimination in the labor market, and extra costs of upward social mobility for minorities, Black families face more challenges for leveraging their education to escape poverty. Aims: Using a nationally representative sample of American families with children, this study investigated racial variation in the effects of highest education of parents on family’s ability to scale poverty, defined as the household’s income-to-needs ratio. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) 2003–2004—a nationally representative telephone survey that included 86,537 parents of children 0–17 years old. The sample was composed of White (n = 76,403, 88.29%) and Black (n = 10,134, 11.71%) families. The independent variable was highest education of the parents. The dependent variable was household poverty status (income-to-needs ratio). Race was the focal moderator. Linear regression was used in the pooled sample, as well as by race. Results: In the pooled sample, higher education of parents in the household was associated with lower risk of poverty. Race, however, interacted with parental education attainment on household-income-to-needs ratio, indicating smaller effects for Black compared to White families. Lower number of parents and higher number of children in Black families did not explain such racial disparities. Conclusions: The economic gain of parental education on helping family escape poverty is smaller for Black than White families, and this is not as a result of a lower parent-to-child ratio in Black households. Policies should specifically address structural barriers in the lives of all minorities to minimize the diminished return of SES resources across racial minority groups. Policies should also enhance quality of education and reduce the extra cost of upward social mobility for racial minorities. As the likely causes are multilevel, the solutions should also be multilevel. Without such interventions, it may be very difficult if not impossible to eliminate the existing economic and health gap between racial groups.
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Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is essential for maintaining health, and self-rated health (SRH) is not an exception to this rule. This study explored racial differences in the protective effects of maternal educational attainment at birth against poor SRH of the youth 15 years later. Methods: Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), this 15-year longitudinal study followed 1934 youths from birth to age 15. This sample was composed of White (n = 497, 25.7%), and Black (n = 1437, 74.3%) youths. The independent variable was maternal educational attainment at birth. SRH at age 15 was the dependent variable. Family structure was the covariate. Race was the focal moderator. We ran logistic regression models in the pooled sample, as well as stratified models based on race. Results: In the pooled sample, maternal educational attainment and family structure were not predictive of SRH for the youths at age 15. Race interacted with maternal educational attainment, indicating a stronger association between maternal educational attainment at birth on youth SRH for Whites compared to Blacks. In race stratified models, maternal educational attainment at birth was protective against poor SRH for White but not Black youths. Conclusion: White but not Black youths gain less SRH from their maternal educational attainment. Enhancing education attainment may not have identical effects across racial groups. The health status of Blacks may be less responsive to improvements in maternal educational attainment. Policies should go beyond investing in educational attainment by empowering Black families to better use the educational attainment that they gain. Policies and programs should reduce the costs of upward social mobility for minority families.