A New Theoretical Framework for Multicultural Workforce Motivation in the Context of International Organizations

Abstract

This research investigates the impact of culture, leadership, and power on staff motivation in selected international organizations (IOs) and develops a theoretical framework to assist with the practice of workforce motivation. Utilizing critical theory as a paradigm of inquiry, the study’s philosophical perspective leans heavily on “phenomenology.” Concern for understanding the cultural aspect led to the result of utilizing critical ethnography methodology. Moreover, three qualitative methods were used: semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and, non-participant observations. Twenty-two supervisors, and the same number of staff, from the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Trade Centre (ITC), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), and the World Health Organization (WHO) took part in interviews and focus groups. Non-participatory observations were also carried out on a 3-day working schedule for the four IOs. For the first time in the existing literature, the findings of this research have established a theoretical framework which demonstrates linkages between concepts of culture, leadership, and power on staff motivation.

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https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019864199
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DOI: 10.1177/2158244019864199
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Original Research
Introduction
Due to the high salaries and prestige provided by interna-
tional organizations (IOs), they became a most attractive job
destination for members of manifold nationalities. Therefore,
IOs have recently begun to acquire an abundant source of
labor power with a distinctly international character.
However, along with this cultural diversity, a number of
administrative difficulties have also emerged. In line with
this state of affairs, as they are different from public manag-
ers, IO supervisors should take into consideration cultural
differences while managing multicultural teams. They should
also develop specific motivational approaches as regards
dealing with a multicultural workforce. Otherwise, the num-
ber of inefficient and discontented IO staff could increase
and the resulting negative work environment would reflect
on services provided by the institutions. To explore this phe-
nomenon, from the varying perspectives of both the supervi-
sors and their staff in social and cultural contexts, a qualitative
study is undertaken with the following research question:
Research Question 1: How can supervisors motivate
their multicultural staff in the context of IOs?
Theoretical Framework
To understand the roots of staff motivation in the context of
IOs, theories are divided into three categories as regards this
research: motivation, culture, and leadership. The GLOBE
study, Implicit Leadership Theory (ILT), Schein’s culture
and leadership theory, and McClelland’s human motivation
theory will be used as the theoretical framework of this
research. Their correlation to each other is demonstrated in
Figure 1.
The GLOBE Study
The GLOBE research project examines the relationship of
leadership, organizational culture, and societal culture. The
GLOBE is one of the largest scaled multinational studies
conducted from 62 cultures and based on a survey of 17,300
864199SGOXXX10.1177/2158244019864199SAGE OpenErciyes
research-article20192019
1The Turkish Gendarmerie General Command, Ankara, Turkey
Corresponding Author:
Erdem Erciyes, The Turkish Gendarmerie General Command, Ankara
06420, Turkey.
Email: erdemerciyes@yahoo.com
A New Theoretical Framework for
Multicultural Workforce Motivation in the
Context of International Organizations
Erdem Erciyes1
Abstract
This research investigates the impact of culture, leadership, and power on staff motivation in selected international
organizations (IOs) and develops a theoretical framework to assist with the practice of workforce motivation. Utilizing
critical theory as a paradigm of inquiry, the study’s philosophical perspective leans heavily on “phenomenology.” Concern for
understanding the cultural aspect led to the result of utilizing critical ethnography methodology. Moreover, three qualitative
methods were used: semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and, non-participant observations. Twenty-two supervisors,
and the same number of staff, from the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Trade Centre (ITC), the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), and the World Health Organization (WHO) took part in
interviews and focus groups. Non-participatory observations were also carried out on a 3-day working schedule for the four
IOs. For the first time in the existing literature, the findings of this research have established a theoretical framework which
demonstrates linkages between concepts of culture, leadership, and power on staff motivation.
Keywords
motivation, cultural leadership, international management, phenomenology, critical theory

2 SAGE Open
middle managers in 950 organizations (Chhokar, Brodbeck,
& House, 2007). Its theoretical framework is comprised of
ILT (Lord & Maher, 1991), value/belief theory of culture
(Hofstede, 1980), implicit motivation theory (McClelland,
1985b), and structural contingency theory of organizational
form and effectiveness (Donaldson, 1993; Hickson, Hinings,
McMillan, & Schwitter, 1974; House et al., 1999). The
GLOBE study developed nine dimensions for evaluating
cultural differentiation: (a) Power Distance (PD) demon-
strates the extent of a community’s acceptance and endorse-
ment of authority, power differences, and status privileges
(House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004); (b)
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) investigates “the extent to
which ambiguous situations are threatening to individuals, to
which rules and order are preferred, and to which uncertainty
is tolerated in a society” (House et al., 2004, p. 602); (c)
Institutional Collectivism (IC) encourages organizational
and institutional actions; (d) In-Group Collectivism (IGC)
stimulates individuals’ pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in
their organizations or families (House et al., 2004); (e) Future
Orientation (FO) fosters future-oriented behaviors, like
delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future
(House et al., 1999); (f) Assertiveness investigates the char-
acteristics of being assertive, confrontational, and aggressive
in social relationships (House et al., 2004); (g) Gender
Egalitarianism (GE) tries to minimize gender inequality and
supports gender equality; (h) Humane Orientaion (HO)
emphasizes the importance of being fair, altruistic, generous,
caring, and kind to others; and (i) Performance Orientation
(PO) encourages group members’ performance improvement
and excellence (House et al., 2004).
Moreover, the GLOBE study developed its own culturally
endorsed ILT that is composed of six leadership dimensions:
(a) the charismatic/value-based, (b) the team-oriented, (c)
the participative, (d) the humane-oriented, (e) the autono-
mous, and (f) the self-protective (and group-protective)
(House et al., 2004). The GLOBE study is separated from
other models with a direct link between culture and leader-
ship. In addition, it is the newest model among them and has
brought a more holistic approach to cultural diversity
research with its profound and developed dimensions (House
et al., 2004). Through its multinational aspects, theoretical
structure, nine dimensions of cultural theory, and links
between leadership, culture, and motivation, the GLOBE study
will be used as a cultural meso theory for the research at hand.
McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory
McClelland based his human motivation theory on three
needs, achievement, affiliation, and power, which were
derived from the work of Murray (1938). McClelland,
Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1958) defined the achievement
need as follows:
. . . success in competition with some standard of excellence.
That is, the goal of some individual in the story is to be successful
in terms of competition with some standard of excellence. The
individual may fail to achieve this goal, but the concern over
competition with a standard of excellence still enables one to
identify the goal sought as an achievement goal. This, then, is
our generic definition of need Achievement. (p. 181)
The need achievement implies doing something better. To
be clearer about achievement needs’ definition, McClelland
offered using the term “efficiency motive” instead of
“achievement motive” (McClelland, 1985b; McClelland &
Koestner, 1992). The definition of achievement (Maehr,
1974) and the relative importance of it vary in different cul-
tures (McClelland & Koestner, 1992), but achievement need
itself is common among all individuals and across all cul-
tures (McClelland, 1961, 1985b). McClelland, Atkinson,
Clark, and Lowell (1953) utilized Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT) to measure the levels of individual achievement
motivation through gathered participants’ imaginative stories
about picture stimuli. After they had coded these stories, they
scored levels of achievement with a coding system (Engeser,
Rheinberg, & Moller, 2009). While analyzing data, McClelland
evaluated achievement need from the perspective of being
successful (French, 1955; McClelland et al., 1953;
McClelland, Clark, Roby, & Atkinson, 1949). However,
Atkinson (1958) focused on the negative part of achievement
and tested the impact of fear of failure. Thus, he developed a
“Resultant Achievement Motivation Score” which combined
Figure 1. The relationship of meso theories.

Erciyes 3
the impact of positive and negative aspects of achievement
need. To this effect, subsequent studies gave importance to
both aspects of this need (Knowles, 1969; Miron &
McClelland, 1979; Moore, Grabsch, & Rotter, 2010; Revelle
& Michaels, 1976; Sagie & Elizer, 1999; Thrash & Elliot,
2002; Weiner, 1979, 1985).
McClelland (1961) measured the need for achievement
among managers and professionals in different countries and
under various contexts. He mainly classified levels of need
as high and low. Wishing to know if an act is useful while
solving a problem (McClelland, 1978), being determined to
work hard on the task no matter the circumstance
(McClelland, 1985a), and taking moderate risks (McClelland,
1961) are main characteristics of high achievement need.
Contrary of these characteristics stands for low achievement
need. The second fundamental need is “Affiliation,” which,
defined shortly, is the need to be with other people. Atkinson
et al. (1954) provided a broader definition: “ . . . the concern
over establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive, affec-
tive relationship with another person or persons” (p. 407).
Affiliation need is very similar to Maslow’s love,1 and
Alderfer’s relatedness needs.2 The characteristics of high
affiliation need are preferring friends rather than experts as
work-partners (French, 1956), spending more time while
interacting with other people (Koestner & McClelland,
1992), performing better on tasks when “affiliative” incen-
tives are present, having desire to maintain interpersonal net-
works, becoming more cooperative, demonstrating the wish
to conform to others, avoiding conflict, spending more time
with subordinates, and having fear of disapproval from other
people (McClelland, 1985b).
Power need is related to having an impact on others
(Winter, 1992). It is to be strong and influential toward oth-
ers, not to show dictatorial behavior (McClelland &
Burnham, 2003). People high in the need for power usually
take extreme risks, aim at high goals (McClelland & Watson,
1973), seek to build alliances with others (Winter, 1992),
desire to control events (McClelland, 1992) and the environ-
ment, and tend to become more interested in collecting pres-
tige symbols (McClelland, 1985b; Winter, 1992). They
become successful leaders when they combine positive
behavior attitudes and task-oriented manners in a group set-
ting (McClelland, 1985b). McClelland developed an empiri-
cal relation between motivational subjects in cultural models
and national events (Boyatzis, Murphy, & Wheeler, 2000).
He concludes that different people may be motivated differ-
ently (McClelland, 1985a). Moreover, there is a direct link
between human motivation theory and the GLOBE study.
Therefore, as a motivational meso theory, McClelland human
motivation theory shall be used in this research.
ILT
The origin of ILT finds roots in Implicit Personality Theory
(IPT). Bruner and Tagiuri (1954) were first to use the term
for describing inferential relationship among individual traits
(Schneider, 1973). Later, Norman and Goldberg (1966)
pointed out the unique role of the shared “IPT” of the raters
to obtain multiple-factor structure. While investigating pre-
conceptions of leadership variables patterning, Eden and
Leviatan (1975) utilized ILT in place of IPT. Nonetheless,
ILT gained its popularity in today’s context definition thanks
to the work of Lord and Maher (1991). ILT tries to explain
leadership attributions and perceptions (Lord, Foti, & De
Vader, 1984; Lord, Foti, & Phillips, 1982; Lord & Maher,
1991; Offermann, Kennedy, & Wirtz, 1994). To distinguish
different types of leadership, individuals have implicit theo-
ries regarding attributes and behaviors of leadership. ILT
provides for individuals to make social categorizations
between leaders and non-leaders. Individuals have an ideal
type of leadership in their mind and this idealization type of
leadership may show similarities in societies, but due to
impact of different factors, such as culture, social environ-
ment, and individual characteristics, the ideal type of leader-
ship may vary in variant societies (Lord & Maher, 1991).
Offermann et al. (1994) defined three types of leadership
in ILT: leader, effective leader, and, supervisor. To differenti-
ate these types, they developed eight distinct factors: sensitiv-
ity, dedication, tyranny, charisma, attractiveness, masculinity,
intelligence, and strength. Among these factors, sensitivity,
charisma, dedication, intelligence, and strength are positive
traits. The main difference between types of leadership is that
a supervisor has less of these positive attributes than the other
two types. On the contrary, leader and supervisor show more
tendencies toward tyranny than effective leader. The GLOBE
study also utilizes some of these traits while defining effec-
tive leadership: charisma, team orientation, and participative-
ness are accepted as the main characteristics of effective
leadership (Nolley & Ayman, 2005). ILT categorizes leader-
ship types with a cognitive structure that is based on social
understanding and individual traits (Levy, Plaks, & Dweck,
1999; Uhl-Bien, 2005). These understandings and traits are
mainly shaped by the culture and previous experiences of
leader and followers (Epitropaki, Sy, Martin, Quon, &
Topakas, 2013). The reason for placing culture in the center
of the leadership theory is that it makes ILT more accepted as
one of the meso theories of this research.
Schein’s Culture and Leadership Theory
Schein (2004) saw culture as a living organism nourished by
interactions between individual members, leadership behav-
ior, set of rules, structures, and norms of a society. Herein, this
dynamic process of culture is also the core of leadership. To
this effect, leadership and culture are seen inseparable from
each other as Schein’s (2004) metaphor states: they are two
sides of the same coin. Hereby, in place of reviewing general
leadership concepts, he focuses specifically on how leader-
ship influenced the creation and management of culture and
puts an emphasis on a reflexive relation between culture and

4 SAGE Open
leadership. First, leaders create culture through defining and
imposing their own values and beliefs. Then, if all followers
align with these values, they become values and beliefs of the
whole groups. For next generations, when the group seeks out
a leader, members of the group define leadership on the axis
of these values and beliefs (Schein, 2004). He also empha-
sizes the importance of a history of shared experience while
creating a common culture in a large organization. Schein
describes three culture levels: artifacts, espoused values, and
basic underlying assumptions. Due to the attribute of shared
basic assumptions of leader, culture emerges at visible arti-
facts and shared espoused value levels (Schein, 2004). The
GLOBE study as one of the other meso theories also utilized
Schein’s culture concept and evaluated culture as the product
of society’s common experimentations. With its dynamic pro-
cess between culture and leadership, Schein’s theory connects
the two main grand theories and demonstrates ongoing rela-
tions between culture and leadership. Therefore, it is utilized
as one of the meso theories in the research.
The Links of Theoretical Framework
Staff motivation in the context of IOs is a complex phenome-
non that is based on the interactions of different theories. First
of all, both leaders and followers come from different nation-
alities and work in a multicultural setting. As a result, under-
standing national and organizational culture has gained more
importance. Herein, the GLOBE study has clarified national
culture aspect through its nine dimensions and has proposed a
link between leadership, culture, and motivation. Likewise, to
understand the organizational culture aspect, Schein’s model,
with its three layers and connection of culture and leadership
theories, has been preferred as a meso theory.
Leadership is another determining factor that shapes staff
motivation. Without understanding leadership theories and
current approaches of leaders in IOs, developing a motiva-
tional theoretical framework will not assist with the practice
of staff management. Therefore, leadership and its interac-
tions with motivation, culture, and power must be investi-
gated separately. Herein, ILT with its cognitive structure that
is based on social understanding, individual traits, and cul-
tural-centric understanding has been chosen as another of the
meso theories of this research. To understand motivation
aspect, McClelland need of motivation theory has brought a
deeper understanding with its three main needs of affiliation,
achievement, and power. To this effect, it has been chosen as
a meso theory as well.
Paradigms of the Inquiry
Paradigms are based on ontological, epistemological, and
methodical assumptions. The responses to these three funda-
mental questions are interconnected with each other, and
every response affects the answers to all the other questions
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The reality of IOs has been shaped
by economic, social, political, cultural, and historical devel-
opments. When the first IOs were established, in response to
atrocious wartime experiences, the main intention for their
formation was solely for maintaining peace. However, dur-
ing the Cold War, IOs adapted their ontological position
according to tensions between the United States and USSR
and mostly played a balanced role in a bipolar world (Ozkan
& Cetin, 2016). After the Cold War, with the rise of neoliber-
alism, the reality of IOs shifted toward the efforts of eco-
nomic and social development (Womack, 2006). Moreover,
they began to emerge as important political and economic
actors in the setting up of world policy. On the contrary, since
September 11, the mission of most of IOs has been altered
into one dealing with security issues.
To be able to make comparisons among IOs, first, three
sister intergovernmental organizations, in the sectors of
economy and development, were selected: the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD),
the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the International
Trade Centre (ITC). Then, to bring a variant perspective
about IOs, unlike economic- and development-oriented
intergovernmental organizations, as a specialized agency of
the United Nations, the World Health Organization (WHO)
was included in the empirical segment of the research.
Not just the concept of IOs but also that of grand theories
of research, and specifically research topics themselves, have
been shaped by economic, social, political, cultural, and his-
torical developments. Furthermore, due to the impact of new
reforms at IOs, the value of IO staff crystallized over time.
The researcher of this study has work experiences in the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United
Nations. To this effect, he is familiar with organizational
dynamics of IOs and their staff values. Herein, the researcher
and the research subject are linked, and his personal values
have naturally influenced the process. Therefore, the episte-
mological approach will be subjective in this research.
This research investigates the impact of different national
cultural background of IO members on motivation. Hence, to
gain a better understanding of emic and etic aspects of
research, and social transformations between these two cul-
tural perspectives, as regards the methodological facet, the
need to develop a dialogue between the researcher and par-
ticipants becomes imperative. Based on all the above-men-
tioned points, subject and object are inter-subjective in this
study, with a historical understanding. To this effect, the best
paradigm to be utilized in the research is critical theory. A
theoretical framework will be developed from a subjective
perspective through an analysis of historical and cultural
contexts within critical theory.
Methodology
This research investigates motivation concept in a multicul-
tural environment. Culture is one of the grand theories of this
research. Group, or societal values, and distinct cultures

Erciyes 5
from different perspectives are important components of
research progress. Understanding and interpreting cultural
aspects gains importance in almost every step of the research.
Ethnography renders insight into groups and provides us a
better understanding of group members’ world of existence
(Howell & Annansingh, 2013). Furthermore, ethnography
requires direct and sustained contact with group members
(O’Reilly, 2009). Especially, while investigating emic per-
spective of participants, ethnography is a pretty utile
methodology.
There are different types of research methodologies that
reflect the assumptions of research paradigms in a study
(Collis & Hussey, 2003). From the ontological view of
research, understanding cultural development holds a very
fundamental place. In addition, epistemologically, the dia-
logue between the researcher and the inquiry is necessary
while creating knowledge during the research process. To
these effects, to make the necessary linkages with this
research’s paradigm of inquiry (critical theory), and to
respond to research questions thoroughly, critical ethnogra-
phy will be used as a methodology.
Method
Interpretation and theoretical analysis capacity are the most
important skills a critical ethnographer needs while dealing
with empirical data (Howell, 2013). Interviews provide a
window into the various in-depth insights of participants,
and to this effect, the researcher gains a greater range of
divergent data for the analysis process. Diversification of
data brings richness to interpretation. Three types of inter-
viewing can be utilized in both positivist and phenomeno-
logical studies. Then again, structured interviews with closed
questions fit best into a positivist and post-positivist research.
On the contrary, for phenomenological studies, semi-struc-
tured and unstructured interviews are the most appropriate
types to be considered (Howell, 2013). Semi-structured
interview uses fixed questions that can be adapted during the
interview process. Thus, it provides a more open discussion
and a better understanding of the research. Supervisors of
IOs are well occupied and the best way to meet with them is
an individual appointment according to their availabilities. In
addition, due to the hierarchical order in organizations and
power struggles among them, some supervisors may be sen-
sitive about sharing their ideas in a group discussion. To
these effects, a semi-structured interview method was used
while collecting primary data for this research. As a critical
ethnographic researcher, before beginning to conduct inter-
views, implementing pre-tests holds an important place in
the process of gathering information as they provide differ-
ent perceptions on the reflection of theoretical questions vis-
à-vis the practice area. Hence, five interviews, as pre-tests,
were conducted with IO supervisors.
Six supervisors for interviews, and the same number of
staff for focus groups from each the WTO and the WHO,
besides five supervisors for interviews and again five staff
for focus groups for each the ITC and the UNCTAD, a total
of 44 participants were included in this research. In the selec-
tion of these participants, different managerial levels,
national background, age, and sex were taken into consider-
ation, and according to their feedback and reaction to ques-
tions, the questions were revised. Moreover, while conducting
interview method, Kvale’s (1996) seven stages of inquiry
were pursued.
On the contrary, staff in IOs mostly spend time with their
colleagues at lunch or while taking a drink. They have a ten-
dency to be part of a common discussion. Therefore, to pro-
vide a better understanding of group dynamics and to explore
various experiences and opinions of participants, a focus
group was utilized as the second method in the research as
another provider of primary data. Principally, stemming
from the positivist approach, there is a real concern about
ascertaining if the focus group participants are being honest.
To ensure validity, in most cases, a questionnaire is what is
utilized to double check. Contrariwise, phenomenological
studies perceive truth as relative and focus on gathering
information on different concerns and perspectives rather
than only recognizing one definitive view (Barbour, 2007).
Therefore, creating a free atmosphere for discussion is a cru-
cial component of a successful focus group process in phe-
nomenological studies. To provide a relaxed discussion
environment, in lieu of classical techniques, showing car-
toons, asking a tricky question, and utilizing a famous quota-
tion were utilized in this research as focus group stimuli.
A focus group research map was linked to research aims
and questions, paradigms of inquiry, ethnographic methodol-
ogy, and meso theories. During focus group activities, the
researcher also became the moderator and a professional
research assistant was hired for each focus group session to
assist him. The assistant took comprehensive notes, focused
on capturing the implicit and nuanced particulars of the dis-
cussions, and recorded them with a voice recorder, but did
not intercede in them. After each of the focus group sessions,
the assistant presented a summary of the important points,
and the participants’ verbal and non-verbal reactions, in the
group interactions. Hence, while the researcher limited him-
self to only presiding over the discussions, his assistant facil-
itated in the transcription of the gathered data and
understanding of group dynamics, norms, and meanings. As
well, the assistant acted as a second pair of eyes for the mod-
erator, providing further credibility to the quality of data col-
lected through reviewing and verifying of notes and
recordings with the moderator. However, before commenc-
ing focus group discussions, to test the questions and enhance
researcher’s moderating skills, a pilot focus group study was
conducted with the participation of four IO staff who had
different nationalities, positions, ages, and sex. Again, as a
critical ethnographer, seeing different perspectives and per-
ceptions is very important for a researcher. Thus, after the
pilot study, the participants filled a focus group evaluation

6 SAGE Open
form. According to their comments and feedback, the ques-
tions were modified and the researcher re-evaluated his
stance as a moderator. Moreover, to conduct effective discus-
sions, a focus group guide was prepared in advance, and dur-
ing sessions, the moderator followed this guide.
As a meso theory, Schein’s organizational culture model
holds an important place in the determination of cultural
aspects of IOs. While Schein (2004) was investigating orga-
nizational culture concept in his clinical studies, he actively
utilized observation method as well. Observation method not
only provides an in-depth understanding of artifacts, but it
also provides an idea of other layers of organizational cul-
ture, such as espoused beliefs and values, and basic underly-
ing assumptions. Likewise, this research is shaped by critical
ethnography methodology which is based on grasping cul-
tural perspectives of the subject area. To these effects, based
on the observation plan, non-participant, structured, and
overt observations were also conducted in this research.
Findings, Analysis, and Interpretation
When we look at the evolution of motivation theory and
research in chronological order, it is seen that content, pro-
cess, and mix theories dominated the history of work motiva-
tion. However, with the progress of multinational workforces,
cross-cultural motivational research is beginning to gain
importance in the existing literature (Ahmad, 2013; Aycan,
Kanungo, & Mendonça, 2014; Zhao & Pan, 2017). As part of
the historical portion of motivational inquiries, one of the
fundamental aims of this research is to clarify the impact of
culture on staff motivation at IOs. To this effect, the partici-
pants evaluated the impact of multicultural work environ-
ment on staff motivation. Only two WTO staff inferred that
they had difficulty adapting to the work culture; one
UNCTAD supervisor stated the impact of national back-
ground on the perception of promotion and how this view
may lead to a demoralization effect among some nationali-
ties. The other 41 participants posited that national back-
ground did not have an impact on staff motivation. In lieu of
nationality, they put emphasis on the differences of personal-
ity, and the leaders. While investigating culture’s impact on
motivation, this result underscored the indispensable impor-
tance of leadership in staff motivation.
Common motivating factors for all participants were being
appreciated through explicitly highlighting their achieve-
ments, being given responsibility and autonomy, and having
promotional opportunities. These factors can be evaluated
under the category of non-monetary motivational tools.
Herein, there is an emphasis on individual progress. Except for
participants of the WHO, none others highlighted PSM (Public
Service Motivation). They saw motivation as an individual
entity which made them internally satisfied. On the contrary,
the common demotivating factors were as follows: receiving
negative feedback and boring duties, lack of communication,
limited promotion opportunities, and being unrecognized.
According to participant views, the most effective com-
mon motivational tools for IO staff fall under the two catego-
ries of monetary and non-monetary. However, they generally
prefer non-monetary incentives, such as recognition of
achievements, emphasis on PSM (WHO), career develop-
ment programs, greater challenges, higher responsibilities,
and reducing bureaucracy. On the contrary, for a common
monetary motivational tool, all organization participants
chose increasing the opportunities for permanent contracts.
This result is also related to the organizational culture of IOs.
There are a few monetary incentives in these organizations,
and their organizational culture does not support expansion
of these materialistic motivational tools.
Furthermore, McClelland’s human motivation theory is
evaluated in the following part as well. However, to provide a
more holistic understanding, power need has been evaluated
in the power section. Affiliation need is evaluated from five
different aspects: (a) dealing with unexpected events, (b)
encouraging good human nature, (c) creating team spirit, (d)
encouraging a sense of belonging, and (e) having out of work-
place relations. The supervisors showed high affiliation need
tendencies, with the exception of having out of work rela-
tions. Only three WTO supervisors have high affiliation need,
while the same number at the ITC have a midlevel affiliation
need. Apart from them, the others show low affiliation need
toward meeting out of work with their staff. There is a remark-
able separation between work and personal actions among
supervisors. This is also consistent with supervisors’ prefer-
ence of high power distance. In addition, the relationship
between affiliation need and leadership is somewhat vague,
because while staff defined effective leadership characteris-
tics, they did not enumerate being friends or establishing
close relationships with their supervisors. Alternatively, the
staff of the WTO and WHO—with the exception of one from
the WTO and three from the WHO—demonstrate low affilia-
tion need. Therein, one finds a big divergence in the findings
vis-à-vis the supervisors and staff of these two organizations.
Into the bargain, another remarkable discovery belongs to the
participants of the UNCTAD. Due to the currently limited
communication and relationship problems of the organiza-
tion, they may develop a sense of high affiliation need being
satisfied within the work context.
Achievement need is low in both supervisors and staff of
the WTO. This result may stem from two main causes: first
is related to one of the basic underlying assumptions, “there
is not much room for being creative,” and second is the lim-
ited promotion opportunities at the organization. Accordingly,
they may show low achievement need. Oppositely, there is a
remarkable contradiction among the participants of the other
organizations: while all the supervisors have high achieve-
ment need, per contra, except for one staff at the WHO, all
the others have low achievement need. When looking at the
profiles of the supervisors, they hold professional status with
permanent contracts, while inversely, most of the staff have
temporary positions and contracts, thereby, the supervisors

Erciyes 7
may be more determined to work hard, and as a result, this
sharp differentiation could emerge between participants.
Their responses demonstrate that achievement motive is
related to effective leadership. High achievement motivation
attributes such as obtaining desired resources, the ability to
set directions, being result-oriented, and driving the mission
are enumerated by staff as main characteristics of effective
leaders. In a nutshell, a comparison of the IOs’ motivation
approaches is shown in Table 1.
A New Framework
During the process of findings, analyses, and interpretations
of gathered data, I realized that “power” is the basic founda-
tion and driving force of all three grand theories. As power
types go, these main categories emerged: soft and hard power.
Typically, these expressions are used to explain power terms
in international relations. Nonetheless, IOs are an important
component of international relations. Thus, it is inevitable to
see the impact of international relations on IOs. Nye (2009)
defined hard power as “coercive power wielded through
inducements or threats” (p. 63). In the context of IOs, it is
pretty difficult to use hard power concept, because, as some
of the participants inferred, a tangible carrot and stick
approach is rather difficult to employ in this environment, as
due to limited authority over dismissal and punishment vis-à-
vis promotion and financial incentive, such tools are gener-
ally not at disposal. Hence, hard power is represented by
holding a higher position in the organization. On the contrary,
according to Wilson (2008), “soft power is the capacity to
persuade others to do what one wants” (p. 114). Soft power in
the context of IOs is based on usage of intangible methods,
such as utilizing knowledge, encouraging individual recogni-
tion, being able to develop resources and information, reach-
ing desired goals, setting and shaping an agenda, defining
rules, developing a vision of final aims, and a subtle showing
of respect. While Foucault (1980) made a linkage of power
with knowledge production, Lukes (2005) focused on the
decision-making process, controlling the agenda and creating
a false consciousness through socialization by institutions.
Herein, the results of Foucault’s and Lukes’s power under-
standings are presented in soft power preferences of partici-
pants, such as decision making, shaping agendas, and utilizing
knowledge. As explained above, soft power is thereby more
practical than hard power in the context of IOs. However, to
provide a better understanding, especially for necessary moti-
vational tools for staff, both the resources of soft and hard
power must be identified by the researcher.
In addition, IOs’ philosophical conception was influenced
by Kantian notion of a civil society and his theory of per-
petual peace. Kant also supported these theories with his
deontological ethics concept. Nevertheless, interestingly,
except for the ITC participants, Machiavellian teleological
approach is common in the power notion of other members.
In place of virtue, Machiavelli preferred to follow the
concept of virtù, whereby to gain power for the good of the
state, a leader can disregard some ethical universal rules for
a while. Most participants do not have any objections to this
understanding.
There is an interaction between leadership and power
theories. IOs utilize status perquisites as the main provider of
their power concept. To gain these benefits, the main condi-
tion is to hold a managerial position. The charismatic value-
based leadership type is the interface for all the participants
while describing their view of effective leadership. In this
type of leadership, having knowledge is one of the funda-
mental factors for gaining and holding on to power. The main
difference between the types of leadership—supervisor ver-
sus leader and effective leader—stems from how they gain
and maintain power in the organization. While supervisors
are acquiring and maintaining power through law, regula-
tions, or their status, leaders and effective leaders gain it
mainly through their character. As it is indicated in ILT, the
principal difference between leadership and effective leader-
ship stems from the quantity of positive leadership features.
Likewise, another interaction is between culture and power
theories. Viewed from their own cultural perspective, some
staff see more money or a bigger office as a symbol of power.
Moreover, according to the results of the observations, it is
deduced that having materialistic objects, such as one’s own
printer, bureau, or furniture, symbolizes power status as
regards the organizational culture of IOs. Hence, power is
interrelated with both national and organizational culture the-
ories. Even more, as McClelland and Watson (1973) inferred
holding power, especially status or responsibility, is an impor-
tant element of motivation. The participants saw these ele-
ments as vital foundations for being recognized, and
recognition is one of the most important elements of individ-
ual motivation of staff. To these effects, power is at the center
of the three grand theories regarding interaction.
Furthermore, leadership behavior has a direct impact on
motivation theory. Without the existence of good or effective
leadership, it is rather difficult to mention motivation strate-
gies, as leaders are the main implementers of these policies.
As Schein (2004) stated, leadership is one of the original
sources of organizational culture, because, during the pro-
cess of culture formation, primarily, leaders impose their
own values and beliefs. After these values are accepted and
embraced by group members, they become the whole groups’
values and beliefs. Yet after a while, the latter also begins to
affect leadership concept, and in the process of leader selec-
tion, these values become the most important selection crite-
ria. In addition, organizational culture is not the only
phenomenon that impacts leadership, but national culture
also influences the form and development of leaders’ behav-
ior. In this research, the impact of another cultural element,
international culture, was also exposed. As some of the par-
ticipants expressed, after getting used to working in a multi-
cultural environment, leadership attitudes are also influenced
through this process.

8 SAGE Open
The concept of culture has been investigated in this
research under two main categories: as organizational and
national culture. Organizational culture, with its components
of organizational climate, structure, working principles, ritu-
als, symbols, and language, directly influences motivation of
the workforce in the context of IOs. Per contra, it was real-
ized in the findings that “motivation concept is related to
individual characteristics rather than nationalities.” This is
one of the common basic underlying assumptions for all the
organizations. However, as Hofstede et al. (2010) stated,
Table 1. The Comparison for the IOs’ Motivation Approaches.
WTO UNCTAD ITC WHO
Motivating factors Being appreciated and
explicitly highlighting
achievement of the
staff, permitting
autonomy, setting
shorter timeframes
and achievable goals,
being nice, taking
responsibility of staff’s
failures, and examining
new topics.
Encouraging people to
talk, building links with
universities and other
research centers,
prioritizing staff
promotions, providing
opportunities for
field work and trips
abroad, listening to
all views, allowing for
more responsibility and
autonomy, and positive
feedback.
Giving deadlines,
monitoring, doing work
allocation according
to specific talents and
attitudes, showing
sensitivity to staff’s
individual problems,
providing possibility of
expression, recognizing
achievements, ensuring
perspective of career
evolution, sharing
information, protecting
staff’s rights, and taking
responsibilities of
failures.
Giving positive feedback and
responsibility; organizing routine
drinks, retreats, and field
work abroad; repeating PSM;
recognition through helping
staff promotion; giving credit
publicly; showing concern; and
listening to the staff.
De-motivating
factors
Unfairness, unrewarded
work, disregarding
achievements, wrong
promotion policy, lack
of communication,
disseminating false
hopes.
Lack of communication,
limited vacant posts,
restriction of flexible
work hours, going
unrecognized, assigning
more work than
capacity, having boring
requests, and giving
negative feedback.
Unexplained tasks, taking
all the credits oneself,
limited promotion
opportunities, impeding
opinions, giving boring
tasks
Giving negative feedback,
especially publicly, even with
non-verbal communication,
not saying a simple thanks,
open conflict environment,
a demanding boss, imposing
drudgeries, and having an
unmotivated supervisor.
The most effective
motivational
tools
Monetary tools: subsidies
for rent, higher salaries,
and performance
bonuses.
Non-monetary tools:
public recognitions
of achievements,
providing regular
motivation through
provision of additional
responsibilities
and titles, ensuring
career development,
arranging opportunities
for organizational
representation in
different parts of the
world, emphasizing
PSM, providing
horizontal changes in
staff positions.
Monetary tools:
augmenting the budget
of the organization and
long-term contracts.
Non-monetary
tools: lessening
bureaucracy, setting
more challenges and
higher responsibilities,
letting opportunities
out to see the result of
public service works,
increasing promotion
options, recognizing
achievements, matching
staff abilities with
the proper jobs,
performing team
building exercises, giving
positive feedback and a
feeling of involvement,
defining a clear vision,
and establishing
communication
Monetary tools: long-term
contracts.
Non-monetary tools:
encouraging the idea of
working for a common
good, giving trainings,
allocating responsibility,
minimum interference
in staff’s duties, opening
new projects, respecting
individuals’ plans,
creating an environment
that supports equal
voice, strengthening
recognition of the
organization, delegation,
showing care and
trust, good leadership
and more promotion
opportunities, a work
and life balance, and
acknowledgment with
good words.
Monetary tools: a well-paid salary
and benefits, such as educational
grants for their children, home
leave, and permanent contracts.
Non-monetary tools: having
appraisal systems, leader’s clear
guiding, acknowledgment, more
promotion options, having
human resource staff coming
from the field, building team
spirit, sharing a vision, allowing
everybody’s contribution,
developing individualized
motivation systems, recognizing
individually, attending
international conferences,
travel opportunities, getting
more responsibility, hiring
more motivated persons, facing
new challenges, establishing a
learning environment, reducing
bureaucracy, providing more
flexibility, encouraging new
ideas, establishing an efficient
performance system, fairness
in all organizational decisions,
showing respect, increasing
awareness of the staff’s PSM.
Affiliation Low and high Low and high Low and high Low and high
Achievement Low Low and high Low and high Low and high
Note. IOs = international organizations; WTO = World Trade Organization; UNCTAD = United Nations Conference on Trade and Development; ITC
= International Trade Centre; WHO = World Health Organization; PSM = Public Service Motivation.

Erciyes 9
national cultures are part of our mental software which con-
tain most of our basic values and has an undeniable impact
on forming the character and attitudes of leaders and their
staff. Hence, to understand staff’s motivation, it is necessary
to analyze national culture as well. In addition, there is a
Marxist dialectical relation between national culture
and organizational culture, which leads a struggle of two
opposites.
Motivation concept has an ongoing interaction with leader-
ship, culture, and power concepts. In addition to these relations,
it has its own dynamics. The findings reveal that there are three
main components of motivation in the context of IOs, as indi-
vidual, group, and organizational. First, while the staff were
elaborating the difficulties of motivation as regards different
nationalities, with consensus, they expressed a basic underly-
ing assumption that “motivation concept is related to individual
characteristics rather than nationalities.” Specifically, non-
monetary motivational tools, such as establishing communica-
tion between supervisors and staff, giving clearly structured
and defined objectives to the workforce, recognizing individual
achievements, performing horizontal changes in staff posi-
tions, giving more power and responsibility to the staff, ensur-
ing particular titles, and paying attention to staff’s needs by the
organization, motivate the workforce individually. To these
effects, individual understanding of motivation gains impor-
tance while identifying the research topic.
As well, while the participants were expressing their opin-
ions about team spirit and motivational tools, they put an
emphasis on the impact of group dynamics on staff’s motiva-
tion. Even though not as strong as individual motivation,
group motivation also affects motivation concept, especially
through showing fairness while distributing power, building a
feeling of being included in the team, and establishing team
spirit among team members.
The final component of motivation concept is organiza-
tional motivation. This term is related more to a sense of
belonging and in-group collectivism. When we look at the
profiles of some of the supervisors and staff, it is easily seen
that they have excellent educational and work backgrounds.
Even though they do not get astronomical salaries from IOs,
they show a desire to serve for the common good. They want
to serve all their mental forte for a greater good. Consequently,
in addition to individual and group motivation, organiza-
tional motivation is also gaining importance for understand-
ing a holistic perspective of motivation concept. To motivate
staff in IOs, supervisors must take into consideration these
different types of motivation. The interaction of the new
framework is presented in Figure 2. This figure brings
all grand theories together and shows their flow of interac-
tions through arrows. In addition, as described above, sub-
components of the grand theories can be seen here.
Conclusion
After gathering data from the 44 participants of the WTO,
the UNCTAD, the ITC, and the WHO, through interviews
Figure 2. The flow diagram of the theoretical framework.

10 SAGE Open
and focus groups, and 3 days of observations for each orga-
nization, the data were analyzed by using ethnographic data
content analysis. The findings of the research afforded an
opportunity to establish a theoretical framework which dem-
onstrated how concepts related to staff motivation were
divided into their subcomponents and how they interacted
with each other. For the first time in the existing literature,
this framework demonstrated which concepts interact to
influence motivation of IO staff. Likewise, in line with moti-
vation, establishing well-designed appraisal and perfor-
mance systems, developing clear leadership guidance,
acknowledging followers, providing more promotion
options, recognizing individual success, reducing bureau-
cracy, and establishing effective communication are essential
expectations of followers from supervisors.
This study explored the impact of culture, leadership, and
power on staff motivation in the context of IOs, through the
lenses of critical theory as a paradigm of inquiry. This
approach provided a holistic understanding, especially as
regards the philosophical conceptualism of IOs, and encour-
aged the use of qualitative research typology as the paradigm
for methodology. Explorative and qualitative research facili-
tated understanding of complex concepts, such as motiva-
tion, leadership, culture, and power. Nonetheless, this
approach did bring some limitations, especially where it con-
cerns generalization of findings. As a future research area,
quantitative inquiries which take into consideration general-
ization concerns may be conducted. In addition, this research
attained its main objective by developing a theoretical frame-
work to assist with the practice of staff motivation. Further
deductive studies may apply this framework into a living
work environment and test the areas of applicability for it.
Author’s Note
This article has been produced from author’s PhD thesis, “The
Impact of Culture, Leadership, and Power, on Staff Motivation in
the Context of International Organizations.”
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Erdem Erciyes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7842-0967
Notes
1. Maslow developed a five-step hierarchy of needs: physiologi-
cal (fundamental survival requirements), safety (security),
love (sense of belonging and affection), esteem (respect from
others, recognition), and self-actualization (actualization of
one’s own potential) needs.
2. Alderfer’s theory (ERG) is based on three fundamental human
needs: Existence (physiological desires), Relatedness (the
desire for social interactions), and Growth (the desire for being
creative).
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Author Biography
Erdem Erciyes holds double doctorate degrees (Business
Administration and Public Administration). He is an associate fel-
low of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. His areas of inter-
est and research are in law enforcement management, change man-
agement, organizational culture, leadership and international
management. He is the author of many research articles and books
on these issues.