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The Potential of Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy for Treating Trauma in Australian Aboriginal Peoples
Abstract
Colonisation and subsequent policies targeting Aboriginal peoples in Australia have had devastating consequences, including trauma, disadvantage and marginalisation. These effects have passed from generation to generation and continue to manifest in poor health and well-being outcomes, particularly mental health disorders. Innovative and culturally relevant techniques are needed to remedy inequality and address inter-generational trauma. Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP)-an experiential therapy involving horses-is a new and increasingly evidence-based treatment approach, which offers potential for working with Aboriginal peoples. This article reviews the literature on outcomes of EAP to consider its potential as a culturally responsive therapy to treat trauma and increase well-being for Aboriginal people in Australia.
... One of the ways horses contribute to client change is by facilitating a biofeedback loop (providing a behavioural response or 'unique Feedback') entailing sensory integration, relational skills, selfregulation, social-emotional wellbeing skills (SEWB), positive coping and adaptation to diverse stressors [51,58,[61][62][63]. EAL thus aligns with traditional understanding and empirical findings that acknowledge that connecting with creation in all its forms is fundamental to the process of healing in the Aboriginal culture [64][65][66] and is consistent with Aboriginal ways of knowing, being and doing [66,67]. ...
... 'Ways of doing' convey Aboriginal people's ways of knowing and being [67]. EAL's experiential, hands-on nature encourages learning through concrete outdoor activities (doing) and is less reliant on spoken language, thus aligning with Aboriginal ways of learning and expressing themselves [58]. ...
... Overall reflective functioning is increased (i.e., awareness of the nature of mental states in oneself and others, the mutual influences at work between mental states, and behaviour through an exchange with the horse) [58,66]. Engaging in activities with a horse in a natural outdoor space (on country) rather than a conventional therapy room may reduce the perceived dominance of the practitioner and perhaps offer Aboriginal young people a sense of neutrality [58,66,73] to explore their feelings and emotions in a safe and non-judgemental space [58,[82][83][84], learn roles and responsibilities of caring for one another-which is consistent with Aboriginal peoples' of being and doing [66,67,69]. ...
Australian Aboriginal people experience stressors from inequalities across crucial social determinants, including deep and entrenched disadvantage and exclusion. The impact of unaddressed historical issues is pervasive and intergenerational. The disproportionate rates of Aboriginal youth suicide, juvenile detention and imprisonment highlight the inadequacy of existing social and emotional wellbeing programs and services for Aboriginal children and young people. There is increasing recognition in Australia that aligning social and emotional wellbeing interventions with Western values and conceptions of mental health is one of the main barriers to service uptake among Aboriginal people. This suggests fundamental questions remain unanswered about what type of services effectively address the complex constellation of social-emotional and wellbeing challenges arising from intergenerational poverty and trauma. Yawardani Jan-ga is an Aboriginal-led, operated, culturally secure, Equine-Assisted Learning (EAL) project designed by and with local Aboriginal young people, community Elders, members, and experts to address the complex constellation of social-emotional, spiritual and wellbeing needs of Aboriginal children and young people, aged 6–26 years, across multiple communities in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. EAL is a strengths-based learning approach where participants work with horses’ inherent characteristics to learn transferable life skills, such as communication skills, self-awareness, and emotional regulation, to promote social and emotional growth and wellbeing. Although EAL has been previously used with Aboriginal children and young people internationally, they are yet to be widely used with Aboriginal people in Australia. Here, we describe the three subcomponents of the Yawardani Jan-ga implementation science project and the planned Participatory Action Research and phenomenological approaches to capture the distinctive experiences of participants and the local communities where the intervention is implemented. We anticipate that findings will build an evidence base that informs policy and practice by understanding key intervention elements of social and emotional wellbeing support for Aboriginal youth, how to incorporate Aboriginal worldviews across different stages of interventions, and how to capture impact best using culturally secure methods.
... Compared to traditional talk therapy, EAP enables a reduced reliance upon verbal communication between client and therapist and an overall less intrusive engagement [23,30]. Accordingly, EAP seems a suitable response to the aforementioned need for culturally sensitive therapies [31]. ...
... e identification of target populations who may benefit most from EAP is also an emerging research area. Bennett and Woodman [31] published a literature review on the potential of equine-assisted psychotherapy for treating trauma in Australian Aboriginal people. Results found EAP to be an effective treatment method for indigenous populations due to its flexibility and applicability to cultural diversity. ...
... Contemporary literature in the field of EAP, whilst limited, consistently indicates promising outcomes for the treatment for general psychopathology symptomology [22,31]. However, EAP remains an underutilized intervention in Australia. ...
Mental health conditions are increasingly prevalent in the Australian population, and despite the large evidence-based support for contemporary treatments, there are barriers which inhibit their efficacy. Thus, there is a perceived need for therapists to consider other therapeutic options which have potential to enhance treatment outcomes. There is increasing acceptance for complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) among general practitioners and clients/general community. Specifically, more than 70% of Australians utilize CAM. Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is an underutilized, culturally sensitive, complementary therapy, which has the potential to mitigate barriers of conventional therapy. The present study aimed to determine the level of knowledge about and general acceptance of EAP as a treatment for general psychopathology symptomology within community members and health professionals. The current sample included 144 community members and 55 health professionals, all with Australian citizenship. Data analysis comprised the independent t-test and two hierarchical multiple regressions. Results indicated that community members are significantly more accepting of EAP as a treatment compared to health professionals. Of the predictors tested, higher social support and openness within community members were significant predictors of accepting perceptions, and rural location was the only significant predictor for health professional’s accepting perceptions of EAP. This is one of the first studies to investigate perceptions of EAP outside the EAP field and through comparison between community members and health professionals. The current study identifies the need for future research to further investigate perceptions of EAP among Australian health professionals.
... In contrast to other animals used in Animal-Assisted Services, like cats and dogs, horses are not predators. Their large size coupled with their instinctive fearfulness, as a prey characteristic, may have a profound effect on vulnerable youth [7,63], who can identify with the horse's need for safety. ...
Childhood abuse can have long-lasting consequences and be a risk for mental health. This review aimed to explore the recent studies on equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP), which uses equines in therapy to help young people recover from adverse childhood experiences. Five relevant data-bases were utilized in the search of full-text articles published between January 2000 and August 2024 - addressing the incorporation of equines in therapeutic activities of young people (between 6 and 25 years old) who have experienced abuse, violence, or psychological trauma. The search excluded articles that lacked well-defined treatment programs or focused on physical treatments and limited the results to scholarly journals. The initial search yielded 537 articles, of which 27 were extracted. Following a detailed examination, 18 were excluded, leaving 9 works for further analysis. All authors agree that EAP holds much promise for youth with a history of trauma or abuse, however, a lack of methodological rigor was found across the publications collected, including inconsistencies in the concepts used; the variability in participants, designs, and settings of the programs; minimal use of randomization or control groups; and lack of reliability. The implications for future research are discussed, including the need to address discrepancies in the program’s descriptions and reporting outcomes.
... A strong connection to animals is also evident through the living history of our renowned Aboriginal stockmen and women, and in the unique First Nations approaches to healing by working in culturally safe spaces and in partnership with horses, dogs, and Country; such practices encourage and facilitate engagement with the healing process. Bennett and Woodman (2019) explained that working with horses through therapeutic interventions "shows promise to meet both the therapeutic and cultural needs of Aboriginal peoples" (p. 1044). ...
As mental health therapists, too often we see outward symptoms of lives impacted by complex trauma. Disconnection from self, others (families and community), and Country is at a crisis point. Looking to our First Nations healing knowledges, the author explores her experiences as a First Nations woman and therapist, and how she incorporates bush and animal assisted therapies into her private practice. Areas that the article touches on include healing on your ancestral Country, healing on Country that is not your own, healing when you do not know where your Country is, and incorporating animal assisted therapies into your healing modalities.
... This approach is based on the understanding that the relationship between humans and animals, particularly horses, can contribute positively to the development of mental and emotional well-being [9]. In the context of EAP, horses are not just tools or therapy objects but are considered therapeutic partners that can facilitate the individual's transformation process [10]. Interacting with horses can help clients overcome various emotional challenges such as anxiety, depression, and trauma. ...
The problem addressed in this research is the increasing recognition of the complexity of mental disorders, and previous studies have indicated the positive potential of Equine Therapy in addressing various mental conditions. Neurobiological and hormonal changes associated with participation in equine therapy, providing a scientific basis for the clinically observed positive effects. On the other hand, as awareness of the complexity of mental disorders and the challenges in their treatment increases, attention to therapy involving interactions with animals, especially horses, is growing. The aim of this research is to deepen the understanding of the mechanisms and benefits of Equine Therapy as an innovative and effective therapy in enhancing individual mental well-being, by detailing previous research results to contribute further to our understanding. The research methodology used in this study is a literature review, involving a critical examination and review of knowledge, ideas, or findings in academically-oriented literature. The results of the study on Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP) have proven effective in addressing depression and anxiety in adolescents, as well as having the potential as a valuable addition to the treatment of PTSD in first responders and substance use disorders. Despite positive results in increasing self-confidence, social interaction, and well-being, limited public understanding poses a challenge to the recognition of this therapy. Further research is needed to strengthen empirical evidence and understand the positive impact of human-horse interaction in the context of animal-assisted therapy.
... In social work education, the concept of love can be controversial, and is often absent, as it defies definition and empirical study (Hughes, 2018). However, love is a central concept in First Nation People's ecological views (Bennett & Woodman, 2019) and is a 'critical factor in experiences of acceptance, healing, and learning' (Gates et al., 2022, p. 4). During the COVID-19 pandemic, Gates et al. (2022) met the challenges of online learning and social isolation by modelling self-compassion and love for students experiencing crisis. ...
... Social work educators face numerous challenges when inserting historical content into diversity courses and building culturally responsive practices (Bennett, 2022;Bennett et al., 2011). Teaching Indigenous content requires a trauma-informed teaching-and-learning approach, which accents truth-telling (Bennett & Woodman, 2019). Educator-student relationships can benefit from this approach, as it can support cultural safety in relationships and create a reciprocal and respectful environment for Indigenous educators and students. ...
Actual accounts of the experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples since colonization remain largely misunderstood and misrepresented within Australian education systems and the broader social consciousness. Culturally sensitive practice and ethnic diversity are challenging topics to teach social work students when truth-telling is absent. Social workers need to develop an understanding of intergenerational trauma experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, critically reflect on perpetuated stereotypes, and confront internalized beliefs about peoples of diverse ethnic and cultural identities in preparation to work respectfully with Indigenous communities. A course focused on building students’ knowledge and skills for culturally responsive practice is described in this paper, along with suggestions for enhancing teaching and learning. The paper argues for the importance of truth-telling about Australia’s continuing racism in social work education to create cultural safety for service users.
... Ordinarily it involves non-indigenous social workers learning about indigenous knowledges that recognise the connections between land, oceans, animals and humans (Gray et al., 2013). There are already examples of human-animal programme possibilities in operation in indigenous communities, such as the use of equine-assisted psychotherapy to aid in trauma recovery (see Bennett and Woodman, 2019). But it also requires the ongoing interrogation of non-indigenous worldviews, so that they do not continue to be treated as the default position. ...
Disasters do not just affect humans. And humans do not only live with, care for or interact with other humans. In this conceptual article, we explain how animals are relevant to green and disaster social work. Power, oppression and politics are our themes. We start the discussion by defining disasters and providing examples of how three categories of animals are affected by disasters, including in the current COVID-19 pandemic. They are: companion animals (pets), farmed animals (livestock) and free-living animals (wildlife), all of whom we classify as oppressed populations. Intersectional feminist, de-colonising and green social work ideas are discussed in relation to disaster social work. We argue that social work needs to include nonhuman animals in its consideration of person-in-environment, and offer an expanded version of feminist intersectionality inclusive of species as a way forward.
The field of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) has grown significantly over the last two decades and is currently implemented with a wide variety of populations. Recognition of the therapeutic potential of the horse–human relationship had led to the development of EAT models that may include horseback riding, groundwork with the horses, or a combination of both. Mental health and other helping professionals around the world apply these models in diverse settings.
Despite the growth in EAT as a unique therapeutic approach and notwithstanding the growing body of research assessing the impact of the horse–human relationship on the therapeutic process, there is a scarcity of literature that addresses EAT as it relates to the professionals who are providing EAT services. This gap relates to issues of professional training, the impact of EAT on mental health professionals, perceptions and experiences of service providers as they navigate the field, and finally some of the barriers related to EAT treatment. This chapter addresses these issues following a brief discussion of EAT, its uniqueness, and its benefits.
Het behandelaanbod binnen de GGZ is vooral gericht op ons cognitief vermogen terwijl bekend is dat het cognitief vermogen van mensen met psychiatrische problematiek verminderd is. Het is ook aangetoond dat de gemiddelde persoon 20% onthoud van wat hij hoort en 90% onthoud van ervaringen. Equitherapie is een behandelmethode die gebruikt maakt van ervaringsgericht leren, een behandeling met een paard als co-therapeut. Een paard als co-therapeut doet aanspraak op o.a. mogelijkheden, kwetsbaarheden en kracht en legt de focus op het lichamelijke en emotionele aspect door de non-verbale interactie. Onderzoek wijst uit dat de inzet van paarden een significante vermindering geeft van PTSS, sociale angst, prikkelbaarheid, beperkingen door emotionele problemen, etc. en versterkt mentale veerkracht, vitaliteit en het sociaal functioneren. Veelal leidt de inzet van paarden als co-therapeut ook tot betere en snellere resultaten ten opzichte van therapieën zonder paard. De getrainde ggz-professional maakt vervolgens tijdens de sessies met het paard o.a. gebruik van bekende tools zoals ACT en neemt de veiligheid van mens en paard in acht. Equitherapie is, ondanks dat het nog niet evidence-based is, een wetenschappelijk veelbelovend en passend behandelaanbod binnen de GGZ: Equitherapie biedt niet alleen aansluiting bij de mensen die bij ons aankloppen voor hulp maar sluit ook aan bij de kwaliteitsstandaarden én bij de huidige maatschappelijke ontwikkelingen om mens en natuur meer samen te brengen.
The value of equine-assisted interventions that promote growth and learning is increasingly recognised in professional practice. The aim of this study was to examine how equine-assisted intervention enhanced personal and professional growth for social work professionals. Arab social workers from the social service department in the Bedouin city Hura, Israel participated in three workshops based on the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) model. Observations conducted through the workshops, debriefing sessions with participants and fourteen in-depth semi-structured interviews were analysed. Analysis exposed the importance of space in promoting development. Specifically, participants described the value of space for self-reflection, the importance of the space within and between relationships and space as a site for team building. Changes amongst the participants from dependence on external instruction to autonomous decision making, enhanced spontaneous activity with the horses and mutual assistance were identified. This is the first equine-assisted learning workshop and research conducted with social workers in Israel. The results highlight the value of equine-assisted learning as a new avenue to help grow social work professionals as they continue to work with their clientele. Results suggest that there is potential for equine-assisted interventions to support social workers internationally.
The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has shifted clinical social work (CSW) and mental health education in Australia, and indeed throughout much of the globe, onto online delivery. The disruption caused by COVID-19 presents unexpected challenges in fostering the development of skill sets among social work educators in partnership with students. This article is a reflexive collaborative autoethnography written by four educators of different international and cultural backgrounds at a regional university in Queensland. Our university has experienced a shift from primarily a face-to-face delivery to online delivery due to social distancing. This article is grounded in an ethic of love, a values-based relationship-oriented practice promoting care, collaborative dialogue and solidarity between people, using self-compassion and reflexivity. We explore how COVID-19 has forced the authors to alter their teaching practice, cope with uncertainties, and respond with loving kindness to the shifting needs of students. We draw upon our experiences as educators of diverse cultural, linguistic, gender, and sexualities from Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Nigeria and reflect upon how we have simultaneously turned inward and outward through technology. We draw upon person-centered, narrative, trauma informed and anti-oppressive clinical and educational approaches when exploring self-compassion and loving approaches with the students. We discuss the need for self-compassion and love of others as we respond to the current crisis by modeling self-compassion and love for CSW students who are experiencing crises, including loss of employment, separation from family overseas and interstate, isolation from colleagues and loved ones, and healthcare issues.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing, being and doing have recently become core social work curriculum in Australian social work degrees and are regarded as central to decolonising Australian social work education and producing culturally responsive social work practitioners. Effectively teaching these knowledges, values and skills requires multiple strategies including the development of new curriculum resources which demonstrate the integration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing, being and doing in practice. This article presents the theory and practice of co-constructing two filmed case studies with Aboriginal stakeholders which address a range of student learning needs. These powerful case studies are informed by Aboriginal knowledges and demonstrate the skills and values that the community state they want and need from social workers. Engaging in a community-led process provides social work educators with opportunities to build relationships with the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, thus modelling cultural responsiveness in action. © The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The British Association of Social Workers.
In this article, the authors describe the research process undertaken to incorporate Two-Eyed Seeing Indigenous decolonizing methodology into the treatment of intergenerational trauma and substance use disorders in Aboriginal peoples living in Northern Ontario, Canada, using the Seeking Safety model. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, the authors systematically discuss the research methodology with the hope to inspire other health researchers who are attempting to incorporate diverse methodological principles pertinent to Indigenous populations.
Much research attests to the beneficial effects of equine interventions on physical development and ability. However, less is known about the possible psychological benefits of horse activities, such as therapeutic riding or interactions with horses. Although there is public consensus that horses can have psychological benefits, it is an under-researched area and conclusions are largely based on anecdotal data. The little empirical evidence that is available about the efficacy of equine-assisted interventions on psychological outcomes tends to be mixed and is often difficult to interpret due to the lack of rigorous research designs. The purpose of this review was to examine the current state of the literature regarding the psychological effects of equine-assisted interventions, and to make recommendations for future research. Findings from this review suggest that equine-assisted interventions hold much promise, particularly in terms of child/adolescent social and behavioural issues, and perhaps adult affective disorders. However, the current state of the literature does not allow us to definitively conclude that equine-assisted interventions are efficacious. Well-designed randomised controlled trials are greatly needed in this area, as it is an appreciation of the need to standardise and document equine-assisted interventions and outcomes in future research.
This article proposes a theoretical framework for integrating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledges in Australian social work education as a central focus of the Getting it Right: Creating Partnerships for Change project. This article presents analysis from a literature review to suggest ways Australian schools of social work can adapt their curriculum in order to ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledges and practices occupy central and equally acknowledged positions in the teaching and learning experiences of social work students. The framework incorporates epistemological equality, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander-centered social work, cultural responsiveness, and indigenous pedagogy.
Animals are increasingly being used in a range of social work settings and extant research demonstrates they can offer a wide
range of benefits to humans. With other professions, social work is oriented towards caring for people but does not officially
recognise (non-human) animals. Given the rise in animal-related interventions and emergence of veterinary social work, we
argue that this needs to change. We recognise that obstacles to change include social work's history of dichotomising (or
falsely dividing) humans from animals, and focusing exclusively on human experiences of social problems (such as poverty).
Using a programme example of a canine-assisted therapy project for child sexual abuse victims/survivors in Bundaberg (Central
Queensland, Australia), we consider some of the ethical and practical issues associated with animal-assisted therapies (AATs).
We examine whether AATs can benefit both humans and animals by positively changing people's attitudes and behaviours towards
animals. We argue that the ethical legitimacy of AATs rests on their willingness to understand animals as sentient beings
with needs of their own, not just possessions or tools for humans to use.
Background
Cultural interventions offer the hope and promise of healing from addictions for Indigenous people.a However, there are few published studies specifically examining the type and impact of these interventions. Positioned within the Honouring Our Strengths: Culture as Intervention project, a scoping study was conducted to describe what is known about the characteristics of culture-based programs and to examine the outcomes collected and effects of these interventions on wellness.
Methods
This review followed established methods for scoping studies, including a final stage of consultation with stakeholders. The data search and extraction were also guided by the “PICO” (Patient/population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome) method, for which we defined each element, but did not require direct comparisons between treatment and control groups. Twelve databases from the scientific literature and 13 databases from the grey literature were searched up to October 26, 2012.
Results
The search strategy yielded 4,518 articles. Nineteen studies were included from the United States (58%) and Canada (42%), that involved residential programs (58%), and all (100%) integrated Western and culture-based treatment services. Seventeen types of cultural interventions were found, with sweat lodge ceremonies the most commonly (68%) enacted. Study samples ranged from 11 to 2,685 clients. Just over half of studies involved quasi-experimental designs (53%). Most articles (90%) measured physical wellness, with fewer (37%) examining spiritual health. Results show benefits in all areas of wellness, particularly by reducing or eliminating substance use problems in 74% of studies.
Conclusions
Evidence from this scoping study suggests that the culture-based interventions used in addictions treatment for Indigenous people are beneficial to help improve client functioning in all areas of wellness. There is a need for well-designed studies to address the question of best relational or contextual fit of cultural practices given a particular place, time, and population group. Addiction researchers and treatment providers are encouraged to work together to make further inroads into expanding the study of culture-based interventions from multiple perspectives and locations.
The consistent failure of initiatives aimed at addressing discrepancies between Australia's Aboriginal and non Aboriginal citizens point to a need to address responses to Aboriginal people by mainstream service providers. This practice paper draws on the experience of Aboriginal and non Aboriginal practitioners in the trauma field to consider the limitations and potential of “cultural competence” as a construct for working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Key limitations are the lack of accounting for the trauma and ongoing racism experienced by Aboriginal people, which result in isolation of communities, protection of abusers, and under-use of mainstream services by Aboriginal people. When trauma and racism are addressed, successful and respectful engagement with Aboriginal individuals and communities becomes possible and the potential of cultural competency initiatives can be realised. A three-step process for achieving this at the personal, practice, and agency levels, which has been developed in a collaboration by Aboriginal and non Aboriginal practitioners, is outlined.
An Indigenous social work guided by Indigenous Australians’ participation and experience that has, at its heart, human rights and social justice is in its infancy in Australia. The present paper continues a discussion on Indigenous Australian social work theory and practice developments being generated by those working in this field. Aspects of this “praxis” include recognition of the effects of invasion, colonialism, and paternalistic social policies upon social work practice with Indigenous communities; recognition of the importance of self-determination; contemporary Indigenous and non-Indigenous colleagues working in partnership; the impact of contemporary racist and neocolonialist values; and rethinking contemporary social work values and practices. There is discussion of appropriation and reinterpretation of social work concepts, incorporation of international and local Indigenous theory, and the framing of social work by Indigenous Australians’ views and values.
1. Contributions: This article is a collaborative community-based effort of the identified authors, with Ernie Sauve representing Elders Herb, Gladys, and John (a pseudonym), staff and members of the Board of Directors of the White Buffalo Youth Inhalant Treatment Centre, and Tamara MacKinnon representing the staff of the Cartier Equine Learning Centre. Acknowledgement: Two of the authors of this article, Darlene and Colleen, were driving from Saskatoon to Sturgeon Lake First Nation to meet with two of the Elders who are trusted with providing spiritual and cultural guidance at the White Buffalo Youth Inhalant Treatment Centre. As they passed a road- side cross (referred to by Darlene as a shrine) to mark the passing of an individual(s) through a motor vehicle accident, they began a discussion that observed how these "shrines" would not exist to the extent they do if there were no vehicles, and, in place, horses were once again the primary mode of transportation. When their morning meeting with the Elders was coming to a close, a final thought was shared by one of the Elders, Herb. He said that the iron horse (i.e., automobile) has contributed its share to the illness (e.g., materialism) that plagues society today. Another of the Elders, Gladys, re- flected that all is interconnected in life, and everything (e.g., seasons) comes full circle. In many ways, this article represents a piece of the circle of life for each of the authors. We are happy to be able to share this with the reader, and are grateful for what we have learned in the process.
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a social problem that often inflicts long lasting psychological trauma and leads to psychopathology, behavioural problems and re-victimization. Treating young people who are presenting with the detrimental effects of CSA is often difficult because these effects off-set efforts at establishing a therapeutic bond. Animals have been found to facilitate the development of the therapeutic alliance between client and practitioner and therapies utilizing horses have the added bonus of empowering clients. This study aimed to evaluate an Equine Facilitated Program (EFT) run by Phoenix House, a sexual violence intervention and prevention service, in Queensland, Australia. Participants were six boys and nine girls (aged 8 to 11 years) and 15 adolescent girls (aged 12 to 17 years). All participants provided several measures of data designed to establish levels of psychological distress at three points in time. That is, Time 1 - intake into the service; Time 2 – following approximately six weeks of in-clinic counselling and pre-EFT; and Time 3 post-EFT (9-10 week duration). Significant improvements in functioning were found between Time 2 and Time 3 assessment across all psychometric measures and for both age groups. No, or non-significant, improvements were found between Time 1 and Time 2 assessments. Overall the results show that EFT proved an effective therapeutic approach for the children and adolescents referred to the service. Of particular note was the finding that efficacy was similar across gender, age and Indigenous/non-Indigenous status. Implications of this and suggestions for further research are discussed.
Experience of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is both prevalent and under-reported in Australia as it is elsewhere in the world. The negative psychosocial and behavioural sequelae of such abuse may be severe and can often last for the lifetime of the individual if therapeutic intervention is not successful. Meta-analyses of treatment outcome evaluations suggest that Cognitive Behavioural Therapy based approaches tend to be the most successful in reducing psychological symptoms (such as PTSD, internalising and externalising disorders), however for some clients these approaches may not be appropriate or as efficacious due to variables such as cognitive maturity or ethnicity. The use of animals within therapy situations to help develop an effective therapeutic alliance is not new but methodologically strong evaluations of Animal Assisted Therapies (AAT) generally and Equine Facilitated Therapy (EFT) specifically are needed in order to provide a solid evidence base regarding for whom, and in what situations, these approaches are the most effective. The current study aimed to evaluate and compare the efficacy of an adjunct EFT program run by Phoenix House (a sexual assault referral centre in Queensland, Australia) for the reduction of depressive symptoms across three age cohorts of CSA victims (children, adolescents and adults). Participants included 15 children (aged 8-11 years), 15 adolescents (aged 12-17 years) and 14 adults (aged 19-50 years) with 10 of the 44 participants identifying as Indigenous Australians. A quasi-experimental, repeated measures design was used to evaluate changes in depressive symptoms with all participants responding on the Child Depression Index or Beck Depression Inventory (as appropriate) at three points in time. Comparisons of change scores between Time 1 (intake to service) and Time 2 (post in-clinic counselling) and Time 2 and Time 3 (post-EFT) indicated that regardless of age or ethnicity, EFT proved to result in a greater decrement in depressive scores than that seen between Times 1 and 2. Implications of this and directions for future research are discussed.
Although most human-animal bond research has focused on relationships between humans and pets, animals have been used for therapeutic purposes in a variety of settings. Therapeutic riding programs have demonstrated a positive impact on quality of life for people with disabilities. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy is a promising approach to address self-esteem, depression, and other emotional or psychological problems. Restoration of the trauma victim's capacity for recovery hinges on provision of safety and development of trust, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Thus, recovery from trauma represents an ideal context for exploring the therapeutic impact of equine-human relationships. The six participants in this study recognized that their pre-existing relationships with horses were therapeutic during recovering from trauma, defined as sufficient to have caused significant change in the participant's life. Semi-structured interviews and video-tapes of horse-rider interaction were used to describe the nature of the equine-human bond and its contribution to recovery from trauma. The equine-human bonds described by participants have parallels both with important elements of therapeutic alliances between professionals and clients and with the positive impact of relationship factors on client outcome.
It is currently estimated that up to 40% of Aboriginal youth (aged 13–17) will experience some form of mental health problem within their lifetime. Of greater concern is the evidence that indicates that Aboriginal youth fail to access mental health services commensurate with this need. This is due, in part, to the characteristically monocultural nature of service delivery of existing services. This paper overviews a model that has been developed specifically for the engagement of Aboriginal youth (aged 13–17 years) in mental health settings. Importantly, a mix of urban (N = 43) and rural (N = 68) Aboriginal youth were represented within the sample to determine its efficacy across different language and tribal groups. The model proved to be effective in engaging 97% of Aboriginal youth (n = 108), with only a small number not effectively engaged (n = 3). The model provides a foundation for the further development of evidence-based models of best practice that have so far provided to be elusive within this complex field.
This study demonstrates the efficacy of Equine Assisted Counseling (EAC) by comparing EAC to classroom-based counseling. Stu-dents (n = 164) identified as being at high risk for academic and/or social failure participated in 12 weekly counseling sessions. Within-group paired sample t-test results comparing pre-and post-treatment scores for external-izing, internalizing, maladaptive, and adaptive behaviors determined that the EAC made statistically significant improvements in 17 behavior areas, whereas the RD group showed statistically significant improvement in 5 areas. Between-groups ANCOVA results indicated that the EAC showed statistically significant improvement in 7 areas when compared directly to RD.
The Nimkee NupiGawagan Healing Centre (NNHC) in Muncey, ON provides residential treatment to First Nations and Inuit youth
who abuse solvents. As a complement to its culture-based programming, in 2008 the centre began offering weekly equine-assisted
learning (EAL) curriculum to its clients in partnership with the Keystone Equine Centre and the Lambton Equine Assisted Learning
Centre. This study explores the potential benefit of the EAL program on youths’ healing. We conducted 15 interviews with two
intakes of male and female EAL program participants and 6 NNHC and EAL staff, reviewed EAL facilitator and NNHC staff reflections
and participants’ EAL journals, and observed the EAL program. It was concluded that youths’ healing was aided through the
availability of a culturally-relevant space; from within an Aboriginal worldview this understanding of space is central to individual and communal well-being. This was
conveyed in three key themes that emerged from the data: spiritual exchange, complementary communication, and authentic occurrence.
This understanding provides insight into the dynamics of healing for Aboriginal youth who abuse solvents, and may be applicable
to other programming and populations.
KeywordsFirst Nations–Inuit–Youth–Equine-assisted learning–Healing–Solvent abuse
Animal-assisted Therapy (A-AT) is becoming a popular therapeutic treatment for both children and adults. The author has used
A-AT in a school setting with students with emotional disturbances. A review of the literature regarding A-AT reveals a lack
of a unified theoretical framework. This paper proposes a conceptual framework that incorporates a physiological, psychological,
and cognitive model to depict the functional deficits that challenge students with emotional disturbances. Attachment Theory
is then used to describe why A-AT may be effective in improving the socio-emotional and behavioral functioning of students
with emotional disturbances.
KeywordsAnimal assisted therapy–Attachment theory–Cognitive theory–Students with emotional disturbances
Objective:
Psychoanalysis is used to explore the effects of the annihilation of culture and how this leads to a loss of identification with a collective subjectivity and triggers catastrophic symptoms including loss of collective hope, the rise of addictive and self-destructive behaviours, and the intergenerational transmission of trauma among Indigenous Australian communities.
Conclusions:
I propose restorative educational interventions for young Indigenous children that seek to engage them with ancestral memory, cultural narratives, and a sense of purpose so that healing from historically transmitted trauma may be initiated and a grounded sense of subjectivity restored.
The regulation of Outsiders to Aboriginal Country is theorised by scholars as invasion and contact, race relations, frontiers and acculturation. In this theories, Aboriginal People are represented as powerless and hopeless in the face of their inevitable assimilation. Aboriginal regulation of Outsiders is rarely investigated for Aboriginal agency. This research investigates the agency of a Rainforest Aboriginal Community in the regulation of Outsiders to their Country of past, present and future. It develops and uses an Indigenist research paradigm founded on the principles of Aboriginal ontology, epistemology and axiology.
The most comprehensive book available dedicated to training mental and emotional health practitioners in animal-assisted therapy. A variety of animal-assisted interventions are described with case examples provided in a variety of settings with different types of animals.
The Clinical Practice of Equine-Assisted Therapy bridges theory, research, and practical methods to fill a rapidly developing gap for physical, occupational, speech, and mental health professionals interested in incorporating horses in therapy. Extensively researched and citing over 300 peer-reviewed journal articles, it examines core issues such as terminology, scope of practice, competency recommendations, horse care ethics, and clinical practice considerations. This book is an essential resource for professionals who wish to use a best-practices approach to equine-assisted therapy.
This study uses qualitative methodology to explore the research question: ‘What role can animal-assisted interventions play
in anti-oppressive social work practice?’ A review of relevant literature has shown that, while animal-assisted interventions
(AAI) have been demonstrated over time to have many benefits for service users, these types of interventions remain neglected
by social work scholarship, and the relationship between AAI and anti-oppressive practice (AOP) has yet to be explored through
research. This study supports findings that AAI practitioners have found their approaches to be congruent with an AOP approach
to social work practice. Data which support this finding are presented and three themes are considered: theoretical congruencies,
barriers and benefits, and novelty. Following this study, it is recommended that AOP practitioners consider using AAI in their
practice, and it is suggested that social service organisations need to consider relationships between humans and other animals
in developing policies.
The social, emotional, psychological and mental health needs of young people are highlighted in the social agendas of many western countries. While a range of youth programs have been developed, there are pervasive difficulties in achieving young people's sustained attention and positive participation in these programs (Santisteban et al. 1996; Slesnick et al. 2000; Stanton 2004; Szapocznick et al. 1988; Tanner et al. 2012). This research analysed some of the ways in which an innovative program using horses engaged marginalised young people in its first session. A total of 49 participants and significant others were interviewed about their experience of the program. Key themes were identified, namely the power of the horse, non-verbal relationships and non-judgemental relationships, which have been found in other studies (Burgon 2011; Frewin & Gardiner 2005; Karol 2007; Schultz, Remick-Barlow & Robbins 2007). Here, these three themes were observed as being associated with engaging young people in the initial stage of this program. This study implies that horses can be effective in efficiently engaging young clients during the initial stages of a program.
Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling is the most comprehensive book available dedicated to training mental health practitioners in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT). It explains the history and practice of AAT in counseling, discusses the latest empirical research, and provides an in-depth explanation of the psychodynamics of AAT within various theoretical frameworks. Readers will learn the proper way to select, train, and evaluate an animal for therapy. The use of a number of different therapy animals is considered, including dogs, cats, horses, birds, farm animals, rabbits and other small animals, and dolphins. Guidelines for implementing AAT in settings such as private practices, community agencies, schools, hospices, and prisons are covered, as well as ethical and legal considerations, risk management, diversity issues, and crisis and disaster response applications. Numerous case examples illustrate the use of AAT principles with clients, and forms, client handouts, and other resources provide valuable tools. This unique resource is an indispensable guide for any counselor looking to develop and implement AAT techniques in his or her practice.
At the center of therapeutic work with terrified children is helping them realize that they are repeating their early experiences and helping them find new ways of coping by developing new connections between their experiences, emotions and physical reactions. Unfortunately, all too often, medications take the place of helping children acquire the skills necessary to deal with and master their uncomfortable physical sensations. To "process" their traumatic experiences, these children first need to develop a safe space where they can "look at" their traumas without repeating them and making them real once again.15.
This article describes the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association’s (EAGALA) experiential model called Equine Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP). EAGALA’s model is based on the Association for Experiential Education’s (AEE) tenets and is focused on the learner’s experience with horses. Drawing on the historical use of equines in the healing arts, we argue that EAP is distinct from other modalities that incorporate horses because it does not promote horseback riding or horsemanship skills. We outline the EAP model, drawing connections to the AEE’s principles of practice. Current research does not consistently include a common language when describing the program being investigated (sometimes not even referring to EAP or EAGALA). Therefore, this outline is needed to distinguish EAP from other models. Recommendations for future areas of inquiry include determining the degree to which EAP is effective and considering the specific variables central to its efficacy—including the characteristics of horses.
Equine-assisted learning (EAL) is an experiential modality which utilizes horses to provide a unique learning experience for personal growth. Research by Damon et al. (Appl Dev Sci 7:119-128, 2003) suggests a positive relationship between hope and positive developmental trajectories. Hagen et al. (Am J Orthopsychiatr 75:211-219, 2005) showed hope to be a protective factor associated with adaptive functioning in at-risk youth. Ashby et al. (J Couns Dev 89:131-139, 2011) found a significant inverse relationship between hope and depression: as hope increases, depression decreases. The current study investigates the impact of a non-riding EAL curriculum entitled L.A.S.S.O. (Leading Adolescents to Successful School Outcomes) on levels of hope and depression in at-risk youth. The study uses an experimental design with longitudinal, repeated measures. Participants were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Participants in the treatment received 5 weeks of EAL, while participants in the control group received treatment as usual. Repeated measures ANOVA of participants' levels of hope and depression showed statistically significant improvements in the treatment group as compared with the control group. Even a brief (5-week) intervention of EAL had a positive impact on the lives and attitudes of at-risk adolescents, with increased levels of hope and decreased levels of depression.
Background:
The use of animals to augment traditional medical therapies was reported as early as the 9th century but to our knowledge has not been studied in an orthopaedic patient population. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of animal-assisted therapy using therapy dogs in the postoperative recovery of patients after THA and TKA.
Questions/purposes:
We asked: (1) Do therapy dogs have an effect on patients' perception of pain after total joint arthroplasty as measured by the VAS? (3) Do therapy dogs have an effect on patients' satisfaction with their hospital stay after total joint arthroplasty as measured by the Hospital Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (HCAHPS)?
Methods:
A randomized controlled trial of 72 patients undergoing primary unilateral THA or TKA was conducted. Patients were randomized to a 15-minute visitation with a therapy dog before physical therapy or standard postoperative physical therapy regimens. Both groups had similar demographic characteristics. Reduction in pain was assessed using the VAS after each physical therapy session, beginning on postoperative Day 1 and continuing for three consecutive sessions. To ascertain patient satisfaction, the proportion of patients selecting top-category ratings in each subsection of the HCAHPS was compared.
Results:
Patients in the treatment group had lower VAS scores after each physical therapy session with a final VAS score difference of 2.4 units (animal-assisted therapy VAS, 1.7; SD, 0.97 [95% CI, 1.4-2.0] versus control VAS, 4.1; SD, 0.97 [95% CI, 3.8-4.4], p<0.001) after the third physical therapy session. Patients in the treatment group had a higher proportion of top-box HCAHPS scores in the following fields: nursing communication (33 of 36, 92% [95% CI, 78%-98%] versus 69%, 25 of 36 [95% CI, 52%-84%], p=0.035; risk ratio, 1.3 [95% CI of risk ratio, 1.0-1.7]; risk difference, 23% [95% CI of risk difference, 5%-40%]), pain management (34 of 36, 94% [95% CI, 81%-99%], versus 26 of 36, 72% [95% CI, 55%-86%], p=0.024; risk ratio, 1.3 [95% CI of risk ratio, 1.1-1.6]; risk difference, 18% [95% CI of risk difference, 5%-39%]). The overall hospital rating also was greater in the treatment group (0-10 scale) (9.6; SD, 0.7 [95% CI, 9.3-9.8] versus 8.6, SD, 0.9 [95% CI, 8.3-8.9], p<0.001).
Conclusions:
The use of therapy dogs has a positive effect on patients' pain level and satisfaction with hospital stay after total joint replacement. Surgeons are encouraged to inquire about the status of volunteer-based animal-assisted therapy programs in their hospital as this may provide a means to improve the immediate postoperative recovery for a select group of patients having total joint arthroplasty.
Level of evidence:
Level II, randomized controlled study. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.
This qualitative research study explores the ways in which dance/movement therapy (DMT) and equine facilitated psychotherapy (EFP) can be combined to produce an integrated, creative, and effective psychotherapeutic approach. Interview methodology was used to collect qualitative data from current psychotherapeutic practitioners with experience in both disciplines. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and organized into 16 themes nested within 5 categories. The results showed a natural therapeutic fit between DMT and EFP, including the innate ability of horses to co-facilitate body-centered, movement-oriented, therapeutic processes. The results also suggested that combining DMT and EFP can increase therapeutic possibilities, including levels of client and therapist embodiment and creative expression, opportunities for contact and touch, and the depth and breadth of the therapeutic relationship. Finally, the results described some of the tools and techniques currently being used in DMT–EFP sessions and highlighted factors necessary to be successful in this endeavor. This study is intended to provide a foundation for further research and writing about combining DMT and EFP.
Social work practice with Aboriginal people and communities is generally regarded as complex, with workers often engaging with communities that are experiencing significant disadvantage. This paper reports on a research project that interviewed Aboriginal and non Aboriginal social workers who are experienced and well-regarded by Aboriginal communities. It provides insights into what sustains these workers and how they integrate a range of knowledge, values, and skills in their work. The research findings suggest that experienced Aboriginal and non Aboriginal social workers prioritise the development of relationships with their Aboriginal clients and communities, which are characterised by reciprocity, the integration and valuing of Aboriginal and Western worldviews, and the application of microskills such as deep listening and stillness. The article concludes with the presentation of a practice framework that is applicable to Aboriginal and non Aboriginal social workers who want to work alongside Aboriginal people across a range of practice contexts.
An Aboriginal-guided decolonizing methodology is employed in this study to examine the leisure-like lived experiences of urban-dwelling Metis and First Nations women and men living with diabetes (N = 42) in Winnipeg, Canada. Directed by the Aboriginal knowledge and world views to ensure cultural sensitivity and relevance, this methodology served as foreground for the voices of the Aboriginal study participants into three key themes of leisure-like pursuits. The first two themes, (1) family, friends, and relationship-oriented pursuits and (2) helping people in community, are closely related within the nature of Aboriginal relationships. The third theme is spiritual and cultural activities. An overarching quality of these leisure-like pursuits is engagement in enjoyable activities that are a meaningful expression of lived culture.
This article describes an equine-assisted experiential therapy approach and presents treatment outcomes in 31 participants in an equine-assisted, experiential therapy program. Participants completed psychological measures prior to treatment, immediately following treatment, and 6 months after treatment. Reported reductions in psychological distress and enhancements in psychological well being were significant immediately following treatment and were stable at 6-month follow-up. The article discusses the clinical implications and limitations of the present study and directions for further research.
Histories of childhood trauma are associated with a host of other psychiatric diagnoses in adolescence and adulthood. This chapter addresses the developmental impact of childhood trauma and argues that the explanatory adequacy of most animal models is constrained by the fact that it is impossible to model some of the uniquely human relational factors that are known to predict the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): abandonment, betrayal, helplessness, and submission. He discusses the proposal for a diagnostic construct of "complex PTSD," which aims to capture the varied consequences of exposure in early life to multiple, repeated, and prolonged interpersonal violence (e.g., sexual or physical abuse, war, community violence). Such pervasive developmental insult many result in deformations of personality and profound difficulties in negotiating stable relationships with others over the lifespan.
Topics include: developmental and relational issues; trauma in children; trauma, caregivers, and affect tolerance; the dynamics of childhood trauma; childhood trauma and psychiatric illness; toward a diagnosis of developmental trauma disorder; and treatment implications (exposure treatment, establishing safety and competence, dealing with traumatic reenactments, attention to the body: integration and mastery). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book offers a high quality, comprehensive examination of issues and strategies influencing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and social and emotional wellbeing.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of brief therapy dog visits to an outpatient pain management facility compared with time spent in a waiting room.
The design of this study is open-label. Setting. This study was conducted in a university tertiary care adult chronic pain outpatient clinic.
The subjects of this study include outpatients, adults accompanying outpatients to their appointments, and clinic staff. Intervention. Participants were able to spend clinic waiting time with a certified therapy dog instead of waiting in the outpatient waiting area. When the therapy dog was not available, individuals remained in the waiting area.
Self-reported pain, fatigue, and emotional distress were recorded using 11-point numeric rating scales before and after the therapy dog visit or waiting room time.
Two hundred ninety-five therapy dog visits (235 with patients, 34 family/friends, and 26 staff) and 96 waiting room surveys (83 from patients, 6 family/friends, and 7 staff) were completed over a 2-month study period. Significant improvements were reported for pain, mood, and other measures of distress among patients after the therapy dog visit but not the waiting room control, with clinically meaningful pain relief (decrease ≥2 points) in 23% after the therapy dog visit and 4% in the waiting room control. Significant improvements were likewise seen after therapy dog visits for family/friends and staff.
Therapy dog visits in an outpatient setting can provide significant reduction in pain and emotional distress for chronic pain patients. Therapy dog visits can also significantly improve emotional distress and feelings of well-being in family and friends accompanying patients to appointments and clinic staff.
Fossil evidence indicates an association between human beings and animals dating back at least half a million years. Today, this relationship remains strong, as evidenced by millions of visits to zoos annually, high rates of pet ownership, and the economic prosperity of the pet industry. A review of the literature indicates that human-animal interactions can remarkably enhance human physical health and psychological well-being. Yet despite reported benefits and public enthusiasm for animal-related activities, human affiliation with animals and nature is rapidly on the decline largely owing to a shift toward industrialized city living. Future research should not only continue to examine the mental and physical health implications of companion animal ownership, but also the ways to most successfully incorporate them into modern lifestyles and communities. 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is an approach in which horses are an integral part of the therapeutic process. This article provides an overview of EAP, including a brief historical perspective, key definitions, and review of pertinent literature. Benefits of the approach are presented, from the standpoint of field observations, client self-reports, and formal research articles. Rather than offer a comprehensive literature review, this article is intended to help non-EAP practitioners become more familiar with the approach.
There is growing evidence that cultural factors may influence symptom development and treatment referral patterns among abused and neglected children. To date, few treatment outcome studies have specifically examined the impact of race, culture, or ethnicity on treatment response among maltreated children. Those that have attempted to include these factors have typically suffered from lack of clarity of the meaning of these terms. This article reviews the available empirical evidence that addresses the influence of culture on symptom formation, treatment-seeking behaviors, treatment preference, and response following child maltreatment. Hypotheses regarding these findings are addressed, and implications for practice, research, and public policy are discussed.
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