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All my online-friends are better than me – three studies about ability-based comparative social media use, self-esteem, and depressive tendencies
Abstract
We conducted three studies to assess short-term and long-term effects of social comparative SNS use on self-esteem and depressive tendencies. In Study 1 (N = 75) we found in an exposure experiment including two experimental groups and one control group that social comparative internet use decreased participants’ performance-oriented state self-esteem as a short-term effect. In Study 2 and 3 (Ns = 809, 145) results of the serial multiple mediator model indicated that passive Facebook use is associated with higher depressive tendencies mediated by a higher ability-related social comparison orientation and lower self-esteem as long-term effect. To obtain more generalisable findings, we transferred the serial multiple mediator model successfully from private to professional SNS use (Study 3).
... The impact of these platforms on well-being is further highlighted by a poignant blog titled, "I scroll for 1 hour, feel anxious about myself for 1 week" (Iyer, 2021). In a similar vein, Xing usage has been linked to depressive feelings (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). Despite some recent scholarly attention, negative well-being effects of professional SNSs have been relatively overlooked. ...
... It is this internal discrepancy that is proposed to trigger negative emotional effects (Tewfik, 2022). Building on this idea, imposter thoughts may shed light on 'why' negative emotions arise from professional SNS usage (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020;Wang et al., 2023). Consequently, sociocognitive imposter theory presents a potential alternative explanation for the negative well-being effects associated with professional SNS usage. ...
... Table 1 outlines, to the best of our knowledge, the only three studies that associate either anxiety or depressive feelings with professional SNS usage, such as LinkedIn and Xing. Two of these studies support the idea that professional SNSs can induce depression and anxiety through social comparison, similar to general SNSs (Jones et al., 2016;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). ...
We attend to the unexamined intersection between professional social network site (SNS) usage and imposter syndrome. Specifically, we provide the first examination of: do such sites cause imposter thoughts ("others think I am more competent than I think I am"); if so, why and when this happens, and what effect this has on well-being and consumption-related results. Supported by objective self-focused attention theory and two online experiments, we show that professional SNS usage heightens professional self-focused attention, triggering imposter thoughts. This results in negative emotions and consumption-related effects. We further examine two boundary conditions, showing that effects are reduced for individuals high in narcissism or work centrality. From these findings, we extend the sociocognitive theorization of the imposter phenomenon by uncovering, first, context-specific self-focused attention as the reason "why" people feel imposter-ish in particular circumstances and second, consumption-related consequences. We further contribute imposter thoughts as a new alternative explanation for negative emotions experienced whilst using professional SNSs. K E Y W O R D S compensatory consumption, imposter phenomenon, imposter syndrome, LinkedIn, objective self-focused attention, social network sites, well-being
... Number of descriptive studies 4 (Frison and Eggermont, 2020), active public Facebook use Eggermont, 2016a, 2020), browsing own Facebook newsfeed (Alfasi, 2019), compare/impress as motive for false self-presentation on Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), daily Facebook use (Brailovskaia et al., 2019b), deception as motive for false self-presentation on Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), Facebook account length (Hussain et al., 2019), Facebook addiction (Koc and Gulyagci, 2013;Hong et al., 2014;Zaffar et al., 2015;Brailovskaia and Margraf, 2017;Khattak et al., 2017;da Veiga et al., 2019;Damota, 2019;Foroughi et al., 2019;Kulkarni and Deshpande, 2019;Sotero et al., 2019;Brailovskaia et al., 2019b,d;Bais and Reyes, 2020;Eşkisu et al., 2020;Iovu et al., 2020;Rachubińska et al., 2021;Verseillié et al., 2021;Ho, 2021a;Atroszko et al., 2022), Facebook intensity (Iovu et al., 2020;Ahamed et al., 2021;Nazzal et al., 2021), Facebook intrusion (Bendayan and Blanca Mena, 2019;Przepiórka and Błachnio, 2020;Cudo et al., 2020a), Facebook surveillance (Scherr et al., 2019), frequency of Facebook use (Kang et al., 2013;Brailovskaia et al., 2019b), general Facebook use (Rosen et al., 2013a;Brailovskaia and Margraf, 2016;Vannucci et al., 2019;Brailovskaia et al., 2019a;Tandoc Jr. and Goh, 2023), ideal self-presentation on Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), impression management as motive for using Facebook (Rosen et al., 2013a), inspection time of social updates on Facebook (Hussain et al., 2019), interpersonal motives for using Facebook , liking behavior on Facebook (Wright et al., 2018), more frequent in-person social interaction on Facebook (Teo et al., 2019), number of accumulated points in Facebook , number of accumulated tips in Facebook , number of Facebook friends (Rosen et al., 2013a;Nazzal et al., 2021), passive Facebook use Eggermont, 2016a, 2020;Dibb and Foster, 2021), perceived attraction to online social support on Facebook (Giota and Kleftaras, 2013), perceived content production on Facebook (Shaw et al., 2015), perceived downward social comparison on Facebook (Steers et al., 2014), perceived downward-identification in social comparison on Facebook (Kang et al., 2013), perceived emotional engagement with Facebook (Verseillié et al., 2021), perceived emotional support on Facebook (McCloskey et al., 2015), perceived frequency of having a negative feeling from social comparison on Facebook (Lee, 2014), perceived frequency of social comparison on Facebook (Lee, 2014), perceived level of activity on Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), perceived level of watching on Facebook (Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020), perceived negative social support on Facebook (McCloskey et al., 2015), perceived non-directional social comparison on Facebook (Steers et al., 2014), perceived non-directional social comparison on Facebook by male (Steers et al., 2014), perceived online physical appearance comparison (Walker et al., 2015), perceived social comparison direction on ...
... Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), strategic digital skills on Facebook ( Facebook (Cingel and Olsen, 2018), perceived appearance self-esteem state (Ozimek et al., 2021), perceived frequency of commenting on statuses on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived frequency of posting on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013;Ye et al., 2021), perceived frequency of posting YouTube clips on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived frequency of putting a lot of thought into one posts on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived frequency of tagging people in statuses on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived frequency of updating Facebook status (Eşkisu et al., 2017), perceived level of acting on Facebook (Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020;Ozimek et al., 2021), perceived level of activity on Facebook (Michikyan et al., 2015), perceived level of awareness when using Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived level of clicking "like" on photos on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived level of Facebook dependency (Lee et al., 2012), perceived level of feeling judged by what one posts on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived level of free expression on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived level of networking on ...
... Further examples of negative effects on perceived self-esteem include compensatory Facebook use (Goljović, 2017), Facebook fatigue (Cramer et al., 2016), Facebook intrusion Przepiórka et al., 2021), perceived feeling of connectedness to Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived frequency of untagging oneself from in photos on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), perceived level of Facebook integration into daily activities (Faraon and Kaipainen, 2014), perceived negative activities on Facebook (Tazghini and Siedlecki, 2013), problematic Facebook use (Tobin and Graham, 2020;Primi et al., 2021), risky and impulsive Facebook use (Flynn et al., 2018), time spent on Facebook (Faraon and Kaipainen, 2014;Hanna et al., 2017;Bergagna and Tartaglia, 2018), and use of Facebook for simulation (Bergagna and Tartaglia, 2018). Research also suggests that browsing own Facebook newsfeed (Alfasi, 2019), passive Facebook use (Hanna et al., 2017), and use of Facebook for social comparison (Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020) are associated with lower perceived self-esteem. ...
Social networking sites (SNS), with Facebook as a prominent example, have become an integral part of our daily lives and more than four billion people worldwide use SNS. However, the (over-)use of SNS also poses both psychological and physiological risks. In the present article, we review the scientific literature on the risk of Facebook (over-)use. Addressing this topic is critical because evidence indicates the development of problematic Facebook use (“Facebook addiction”) due to excessive and uncontrolled use behavior with various psychological and physiological effects. We conducted a review to examine the scope, range, and nature of prior empirical research on the negative psychological and physiological effects of Facebook use. Our literature search process revealed a total of 232 papers showing that Facebook use is associated with eight major psychological effects (perceived anxiety, perceived depression, perceived loneliness, perceived eating disorders, perceived self-esteem, perceived life satisfaction, perceived insomnia, and perceived stress) and three physiological effects (physiological stress, human brain alteration, and affective experience state). The review also describes how Facebook use is associated with these effects and provides additional details on the reviewed literature, including research design, sample, age, and measures. Please note that the term “Facebook use” represents an umbrella term in the present work, and in the respective sections it will be made clear what kind of Facebook use is associated with a myriad of investigated psychological variables. Overall, findings indicate that certain kinds of Facebook use may come along with significant risks, both psychologically and physiologically. Based on our review, we also identify potential avenues for future research.
... This theory has been extensively supported by existing empirical evidence. For example, recent research found that increased Facebook engagement was associated with increased social comparisons (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020), and that women feel that they compare themselves more to others when using social media (Monks et al., 2021). Social comparisons were also found to moderate the positive relationship from frequency of women's Instagram engagement to physical appearance anxiety and body dissatisfaction (Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018). ...
... While there are limited studies exploring the direct link between social media engagement and cosmetic surgery for men, there has been research which explores the effect of social media on variables associated with cosmetic surgery interest. These studies suggest that men's social media engagement positively predicts known cosmetic surgery correlates such as disordered eating, psychiatric issues, and body dissatisfaction (Abbas & Karadavut, 2017;Afsar, 2013;Chung et al., 2021;de Calheiros Velozo & Stauder, 2018;Lonergan et al., 2020;Lutzow et al., 2021;Mahon & Hevey, 2021;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020;Rambaree et al., 2020;Seidler et al., 2022;Walker et al., 2021). In sum, existing literature suggests that social media engagement is likely tied to their interest in cosmetic surgery. ...
... Self-esteem has been established as a predictive factor for engagement in cosmetic surgery, such that women with lower self-esteem are drawn to surgery (al Ghadeer et al., 2021;Yoon & Kim, 2020). Similarly, preliminary research has reported a relationship between self-esteem social media engagement in mixed-gender samples (Doğan & Çolak, 2016;Nisar et al., 2019;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020), such that those lower in self-esteem are drawn to passive social media engagement while those with higher self-esteem are more likely to be active social media users. Those with higher self-esteem may be more confident posting on social media and engaging with others content, while also being less likely to experience poor body image. ...
Men’s cosmetic surgery rates are increasing globally. Existing literature suggests that social media engagement encourages women to undergo cosmetic surgery, yet the relationship between social media and cosmetic surgery for men remains underexamined. The aim of this study was therefore to explore if social media engagement impacted men’s interest in undergoing cosmetic surgery. Using an adapted version of the Passive and Active Use Measure to assess social media engagement, the relationship between social media engagement and cosmetic surgery consideration was explored. Among 311 American adult men (Mage = 37.7), passive social media engagement (e.g., viewing photos, browsing profiles) was found to have a small positive relationship with consideration of cosmetic surgery (p < .05, 95% CI [0.12, 0.49]). Conversely, Active Non-social media engagement (e.g., posting videos, tagging) and Active Social media engagement (e.g., posting statuses, commenting) did not predict cosmetic surgery consideration. These results demonstrate that the ways in which men use social media (rather than whether or not they use social media in general) determines their interest in cosmetic surgery. While social media engagement is a known correlate for appearance dissatisfaction in women, this study provides evidence that social media engagement is potentially also harmful to men’s body image. This preliminary research may contribute to informing best clinical practice for men experiencing body dissatisfaction. Namely, reducing passive social media use may alleviate men’s likelihood of pursing cosmetic surgery, in turn reducing their exposure to the physical and psychological risks associated with undergoing cosmetic surgery.
... People tend to be active or passive in social comparison in social media use. This is where people compare themselves (how they look and perceive "better lives" of those they see on social media themselves) and envy and depressive tendencies (wishing to possess the material and status of others) [12,21,22]. ...
... (a) The problematic use of smartphones increased attention seeking and heightened sensitivity (e.g., [29,30]) (b) When little or absence of peer endorsement on social media (in the form of "likes," "following," etc.) induces a sense of worthlessness (e.g., [31][32][33]) (c) The measurement of achievement by those they see online consequently experiencing depressive tendencies avoiding reality (e.g., [22,34]) ...
... A major limitation of the studies listed above was that they all used Beck Depression Inventory to measure depression related to social media use. Also, they referred to the depression experienced by social media users as depressive tendencies (e.g., [22]). This inference could also mean that the depressive tendency of the individuals might be responsible for their unhealthy social media use. ...
Social media use has been linked to adverse health outcomes such as depression. To facilitate interventions, understanding the varied causes of depression is necessary. The authors developed a social media-induced depression tendency (SMIDT) scale for use with young people and aimed to validate it for young people in Nigeria. The study was conducted in three parts using an online survey (Google Forms) with purposive sampling targeting young people. Study 1 was an exploratory study that developed the SMIDT scale with 361 young people aged 16 to 26 years (mean age = 22:81). A concise measure of SMIDT was obtained. In study 2, confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the SMIDT with young people aged 17 to 25 years (mean age = 23:61). Construct, discriminant, and concurrent validities were established, and three factors were identified (sensitivity/attention seeking, worthlessness, and escapism/reality avoidance), which explained 55.87% of the variance. Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale. The results showed that the 15-item SMIDT scale had high internal consistency and satisfactory validity. The SMIDT scale can enable the assessment of factors associated with social media-induced depression tendency. The three factors identified in the scale provide insight into the factors contributing to depression associated with social media use. The SMIDT scale has the potential to help identify at-risk individuals and in-developing interventions to prevent or reduce social media-induced depression tendencies. However, this study only focused on young people in Nigeria. Additional studies using the SMIDT scale are required to assess its generalizability and applicability in evaluating other factors, such as quality of life among young people. Moreover, while social media use has been associated with adverse health outcomes, it is crucial to recognize that it can also positively affect mental health. Further research is necessary to explore the complex relationships between social media use and mental health outcomes.
... Researchers (e.g., Chou & Edge, 2012;Feinstein et al., 2013;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020) have suggested social comparison is a major influence among young adults experiencing depression and many young adults make these comparisons using social media platforms. Social comparison consists of the notion where people feel inadequate as a result of comparing themselves to others they perceive as being more successful than themselves (Feinstein et al., 2013). ...
... Social comparison consists of the notion where people feel inadequate as a result of comparing themselves to others they perceive as being more successful than themselves (Feinstein et al., 2013). Research also suggests SMU involves upward comparisons with others which often results in low self-esteem (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). Chou and Edge studied the impact of using Facebook and young adults' perceptions of their Facebook friends' posts, finding those who had used Facebook longer (i.e., an average of 4.83 hours each week) had stronger beliefs that others were happier than they were and agreed their peers' lives were "fairer" than their lives. ...
... Thus, young adults with high social comparison due to heavy SMU will continue to use social media despite negative consequences (Vogel et al., 2015). As researchers (e.g., Chou & Edge, 2012;Feinstein et al., 2013;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020) have noted, heavy SMU is linked to depression and other mental health issues among young adults and warrants understanding of appropriate, evidence-based psychotherapeutic approaches for identifying and treating these individuals. ...
Social media platforms represent a primary form of communication among people of all ages, with young adults being the leading users of social media. While social media use (SMU) has many benefits, there are numerous studies that show excessive SMU is correlated with high rates of depression. There is extensive research on the effects of SMU among adolescents; however, there are limited studies that address the effects of SMU among young adults. We reviewed the counseling literature from 2010 to 2020 to identify studies pertaining to SMU and depression among young adults and identified effective, evidence-based psychotherapeutic approaches for treating depression among young adults who are heavy social media users. Rehabilitation counseling implications and recommendations are addressed provided based on our findings.
... Self-esteem is defined as the affectiveevaluative facet of the self. 10 In an effort to enhance self-esteem, social media users promote a positive selfpresentation online to help them build meaningful connections with family members, friends, and strangers. 11 Social identity theory conceptualizes social identity as a person's knowledge of belonging to an in-group, and that this belonging influences one's sense of self. ...
... Options were set to remove an item if it did not load 0.32 on a factor or if it demonstrated a cross-loading of <0. 10. Results of an EFA suggested a one-factor solution with all six loadings on factor 1 with the loadings ranging from 0.34 to 0.80 (see Appendix Table A1 for items and factor loadings). ...
Fake news is on the rise on many social media platforms. The proliferation of fake news is concerning, yet little is known about the characteristics that may motivate social media users to denounce (or ignore) fake news when they see it posted by strangers, close friends, and family members. Active social media users (N = 218) completed an online survey examining psychological characteristics (i.e., misinformation correction importance, self-esteem) and communicative characteristics (i.e., argumentativeness, conflict style) that may relate to an individual's willingness to denounce fake news posted by either strangers or close friends/family members. Participants examined several manipulated fake news scenarios differing in political alignment and relevant topic content within a Facebook news article format. Results indicated that misinformation correction importance was positively related to willingness to denounce in the context of close friends and family, but not with strangers. Moreover, participants with higher self-esteem were less likely to denounce fake news posted by strangers (but not posted by close friends and family), which suggests that confident individuals prefer to avoid challenging people outside of their close ties. Argumentativeness was positively related to willingness to denounce fake news in all scenarios no matter the user's relationship to the fake news poster. Results for conflict styles were mixed. These findings provide preliminary evidence for how psychological, communicative, and relationship characteristics relate to social media users' decision to denounce (or ignore) fake news posted on a social media platform.
... Analogous contrast effects have been found in a field study in which a moderately attractive woman was evaluated less positively following exposure to highly attractive actresses [5,6]. In addition, social comparisons on social media are likely to impair self-esteem [7]. ...
... Finally, the construct validity of the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale was examined. In accordance with results by [7,67] indicating that social comparison orientation is positively associated with Facebook activity it was assumed that the PACS is positively linked with Instagram activity substituting comparison orientation by the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale and Facebook activity by Instagram activity. Note that comparison orientation and PACS both represent individual-difference measures of the readiness to perform social comparisons and that the Instagram activity questionnaire was developed analogously with the Facebook activity questionnaire. ...
Background
As photo editing behavior to enhance one?s appearance in photos becomes more and more prevalent on social network sites (SNSs), potential risks are increasingly discussed as well. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior, self-objectification, physical appearance comparisons, self-perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem.
Methods
403 participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring the aformentioned constructs. A parallel-sequential multiple mediation model was conducted to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior and self-esteem considering multiple mediators.
Results
The results indicate that photo editing behavior is negatively related to self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem mediated via self-objectification and physical appearance comparisons.
Conclusions
The postulated mediation model was justified by our data. Thus, SNS users should be aware of potential negative consequences when using photo editing applications or filters.
... Other studies have taken a more fine-grained approach and decomposed social networking sites usage into active and passive usage types [14][15][16][17]. Active usage encompasses activities that foster interactions with other users and is assumed to enhance mental health. ...
... Overall, our findings fit well into the vulnerability model of neuroticism [91,92] which argues that higher levels of neuroticism presents an important risk factor for developing common mental health disorders. Moreover, our results complement the SOS-T model [53] which posits that especially users with emotion regulation difficulties are prone to resort to dysfunctional self-regulation via social networking sites [16]. Here, we again clarify the specific subset of users for whom self-regulation on social networking sites is associated with detriments. ...
Background
Research on the relationship between Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms has resulted in mixed findings. In contrast, problematic Facebook use has been found to be a robust predictor of depressive symptoms. This suggests that when intense Facebook use results in a problematic usage pattern, it may indirectly predict depressive symptoms. However, this mediation pathway has never been examined. Moreover, it remains unclear whether the possible indirect relationship between Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms through problematic Facebook use is moderated by demographic (age), and personality (neuroticism and extraversion) characteristics.
Methods
To address these gaps, we conducted an online cross-sectional study ( n = 210, 55% female, age range: 18–70 years old, M age = 30.26, SD = 12.25). We measured Facebook use intensity (Facebook Intensity Scale), problematic Facebook use (Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale), depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Revised), and neuroticism and extraversion (Ten Item Personality Inventory).
Results
A mediation analysis revealed that problematic Facebook use fully mediates the relationship between Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms. Moreover, a moderated mediation analysis demonstrated that this indirect relationship is especially strong among young users and users scoring high on neuroticism.
Conclusions
These findings expand our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between Facebook use intensity and depressive symptoms and describe user characteristics that act as vulnerability factors in this relationship.
... Recent studies have incorporated the concept into social media, where it manifests as a bigger problem given the elusive features. Issues arise when it creates the impression that others are doing better than them and hypothesises it to one having a negative perception of themselves (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2019). ...
... Self-esteem is defined as an overall evaluation by an individual of themselves in respecting and considering themselves worthy (Rosenberg, 1965). It refers to one's subjective summary about oneself based on the ideal individual one wants to become, how that ideal is achieved, and the missed opportunities (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2019). ...
This study investigates the relationship between Instagram usage, social comparison, and self-esteem among young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is given the prevalence of virtual socialization due to remote learning. A survey participated by 200 young adults studying in Malaysian universities was carried out. Results demonstrated active engagement on Instagram. However, the direct relationships between Instagram usage, social comparison, and self-esteem were inconsequential. Hence, no significant differences between those using Instagram frequently and those who did not were found. Yet, the study observed considerably low self-esteem among the respondents and an active tendency to make social comparisons while using Instagram during the social restriction period caused by the pandemic.
... However, findings of previous research do not show clear results on causal dependencies between self-esteem and SNS (Ellison et al., 2007;Gonzales & Hancock 2011;Hollenbaugh & Ferris 2014;Lee 2014). To examine whether the use of social media declines or increases people's well-being, Ozimek and Bierhoff (2020) conducted a first study to see under which circumstances use of social media is functional or dysfunctional. Study 1 included an experimental paradigm with respect to a Facebook exposition task with social comparative elements to investigate this issue (i.e., participants had to write down social information with respect to the first five profiles on their news feed). ...
... Thus, they do not achieve their goals but quite the reverse: They become unhappy. A recent study by Ozimek and Bierhoff (2020) shows that especially people with difficulties in emotion regulation seem to use social media as a means for self-regulation. Thus, perhaps the inability to deal with stress and emotional problems might be a reason that the use of social media does not lead to higher well-being and happiness, but it becomes worse. ...
This review aims, first, to introduce a novel theory for social media use, the so-called social online self-regulation theory (SOS-T) by embedding it into an exhaustive literature review, second, to present correlational as well as experimental evidence for the model from our own lab and beyond, and, third, to discuss self-regulatory variables correlated with social networking site (SNS) use reflecting self-regulatory processes such as social comparisons and age, social comparison orientation and materialism, grandiose, and vulnerable narcissism, self-esteem, and depressive tendencies, and, finally, SNS use and emotion regulation. We will also suggest future studies and discuss differences and similarities of more private SNS use (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, or Snapchat) to other SNSs, such as the business-oriented SNS XING.
... Specifically, we outline direct and indirect influences that help shape millennials' social media behaviour. Given the negative health and wellbeing implications of heightened social media usage on the individual's academic, social, and physical wellbeing (Benson, Hand, and Hartshorne 2019;Ozimek and Bierhoff 2019), an understanding of what and how real-life concerns influence social media usage becomes essential. ...
... The causal directionality of this relationship is, however, uncertain (Andreassen, Pallesen, and Griffiths 2017;Primack et al. 2017). Low self-esteem and depression, for instance, may cause higher usage of social media as a means of avoiding physical inter-personal contact, while at the same time, higher social media use may result in lower self-esteem and depression due to the social comparison enabled by the technology (Ozimek and Bierhoff 2019;Primack et al. 2017). This need for social comparison, however, drives social media use and at the same time, reduces the individual's self-esteem (Vogel et al. 2015). ...
Two characteristics of millennial behaviour motivate the present study – an increasing concern for various life issues, and an increasing level of social media usage. In the present study, we focused on millennials’ societal concerns, financial concerns and social exclusion concerns and examined how these concerns influence social media behaviour. Adopting the compensatory consumer behaviour framework, we proposed that millennials’ social media behaviour can be understood as a form of compensatory consumption, that is, a coping mechanism for dealing with major life concerns. Data collected from a commercial survey of Australian millennials supported most of our hypotheses. We observed that social exclusion concerns directly influenced social media behaviour, whereas societal and financial concerns influence social media behaviour indirectly through influencing social exclusion concerns. Our proposed model explained more than half of the variance in social exclusion concerns, and more than one-third of the variance in social media behaviour.
... As such, while during active usage information is mainly produced, during passive usage information is mainly consumed. A wide range of studies indicate that passive consumption of information on SNSs results in upward comparisons and associated feelings of envy [14,[30][31][32][33][34]. Consistently, meta-analytic evidence reveals a negative relationship between passive use of SNSs and indicators of SWB while active usage of SNSs may stimulate SWB [35]. ...
... This should come as no surprise as the research described above clearly indicates that passive use of SNSs is predictive of online social comparison and that online social comparison most often negatively impacts indicators of SWB. A wide range of crosssectional [33,34,54] and longitudinal studies across short [30] and long [8,55] timescales revealed that upward social comparisons indeed explain the negative impact of passive use of SNSs on SWB. However, it should be noted that social comparison is not the only mechanism connecting SNSs to SWB. ...
Due to the rise of social networking sites (SNSs), social comparisons take place at an unprecedented rate and scale. There is a growing concern that these online social comparisons negatively impact people’s subjective well-being (SWB). In this paper, we review research on (a) the antecedents of social comparisons on SNSs, (b) the consequences of social comparisons on SNSs for SWB and, (c) social comparison as a mechanism explaining (mediator) or affecting (moderator) the relationship between SNSs and SWB. The occurrence of social comparisons on SNSs depends on who uses the SNS and on how the SNS is being used with passive use in particular resulting in increased levels of social comparison. Moreover, social comparison on SNSs may occasionally result in an increase in SWB but typically negative effects are found as people tend to engage in contrasting upward social comparisons. Finally, several studies show that social comparison is a key mechanism explaining the relationship between use of SNSs and SWB and that users with a tendency to engage in social comparison are especially likely to be negatively impacted by SNSs. The dynamic, cyclical processes that result from this pattern of findings are discussed.
... The results of this study confirm research findings of Ozimek and Bierhoff (2020) who in three investigations observed decreased self-esteem and higher depressive tendencies as a consequence of socially comparative activities on SNSs. Furthermore, the authors revealed a systematic association of passive SNSs use with higher depressive tendencies, mediated by higher ability-related comparison orientation and lower self-esteem. ...
Social networks are experiencing great popularity, with Instagram currently being the most intensively used network. On these platforms, users are continuously exposed to self-relevant information that fosters social comparisons. A distinction is made between ability-based and opinion-based comparison dimensions. To experimentally investigate the influence of these comparison dimensions on users' subjective well-being, an online exposition experiment (N = 409) was conducted. In a preliminary study (N = 107), adequate exposition stimulus material was selected in advance. The results of the main study indicated that exposition of ability-related social comparisons in the context of social media elicited lower well-being than exposition of opinion-related social comparisons. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings were discussed and suggestions for future work were outlined.
... Research has shown that individuals with a higher social comparison orientation are more likely to engage in upward social comparisons on social media, comparing themselves to others who are perceived as better off [33]. This tendency to compare oneself to others and seek social validation through online interactions aligns with the motivations that can drive addictive social media use [34]. The constant exposure to idealized representations of coolness on social media can intensify the desire to compare oneself to these images and seek validation from others, potentially leading to addictive behaviors. ...
... However, comparisons in social media also entail some risks. Studies show that passive use of social media, in which the focus is on reading comments, viewing profiles and the newsfeed, can lead to less well-being, satisfaction with life, and lower mental health (Lee, 2014;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020;Verduyn et al., 2015). This can be especially the case if the use becomes excessive and ends in a form of so-called media addiction (Andreassen & Pallesen, 2014). ...
... In addition, other studies consistently showed positive correlations between SNS use and social comparison orientation (Ozimek & Förster, 2021;Vogel et al., 2015), from which the Need for Social Comparison can be inferred as another motive. Therefore, these three motivesthe Need for Self-Presentation, the Need to Belong, and the Need for Social Comparisonhave already been identified as showing a stable direct connection to SNS use (Ozimek et al., 2018;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). ...
A lot of research has been conducted to explore the high amount of daily usage time on social networking sites(SNSs). We suggest a two-dimensional frame of reference for investigating the usage of SNSs, which incorporatesboth four motives for usage and mode of usage in terms of active/passive usage. A special feature of the itemconstruction was to combine the motive facet and the active/passive facet as integral dimensions in the formu-lation of items. The advantage of this approach is the comprehensive assessment of SNS use with high contentvalidity. Till now, such a measure, which is based on the two-dimensional frame of reference, does not exist. Tofill the gap the aim of our study was to develop the Motives to use SNSs Scale (MOTUS) assessing: (1) active as wellas passive use and (2) underlying motives by conducting two studies (N1 = 597, N2 = 437). Study 1 focused onitem development, item reduction, and identification of factor structure. The analysis resulted in an eight-factorstructure that represented active and passive domains of each motive. Study 2 confirmed this factor structureby showing good values for model fit. The results confirmed the construct validity of the MOTUS. Results are discussed with respect to applications and limitations of the new measure.
... However, comparisons in social media also entail some risks. Studies show that passive use of social media, in which the focus is on reading comments, viewing profiles and the newsfeed, can lead to less well-being, satisfaction with life, and lower mental health (Lee, 2014;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020;Verduyn et al., 2015). This can be especially the case if the use becomes excessive and ends in a form of so-called media addiction (Andreassen & Pallesen, 2014). ...
... However, some studies have reached the opposite conclusion, implying that SMU may have a negative impact on SWB (Shakya and Christakis, 2017). These studies suggest that SMU may exacerbate people's social comparisons (Liu et al., 2019;Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020), and problematic SMU may lead to boredom (Bai et al., 2021). Moreover, some scholars have pointed out that passive SMU weakens self-concept clarity (Lin et al., 2021), which further reduces SWB. ...
Introduction
Previous studies have explored the impact of social media use on people’s subjective well-being, but there is a lack of discussion on the relationship between social media use, Internet addiction, and subjective well-being, and the research on the influence of digital skills on this relationship is not sufficient. This paper aims to fill these gaps. Based on the flow theory, this paper takes Chinese residents as the research object and uses CGSS 2017 data to analyze the impact of social media use on people’s subjective well-being.
Methods
Our study used multiple linear regression models for analysis. To test the hypotheses and the moderated mediation model, we adopted PROCESS models with 5000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples and 95% confidence intervals. All analyses were conducted using SPSS 25.0.
Results
The empirical analysis shows that social media use has a positive direct effect on subjective well-being, and Internet addiction plays a suppressing role in the relationship between social media use and subjective well-being. In addition, we found that digital skills moderated the positive effect of social media use on Internet addiction and the indirect effect of social media use on subjective well-being through Internet addiction.
Discussion
The conclusion of this paper supports our previous hypothesis. Besides, the theoretical contribution, practical significance, and limitations of this study are discussed based on the results of previous studies.
... Analogous contrast effects have been found in a eld study in which a moderately attractive woman was evaluated less positively following exposure to highly attractive actresses (Kenrick & Guitierres, 1980; see also Vogel et al., 2015). In addition, social comparisons on social media are likely to impair self-esteem (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). ...
As photo editing behavior (PEB) to enhance one’s appearance in photos becomes more and more prevalent on social network sites (SNSs), potential risks are increasingly discussed as well. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between PEB, self-objectification, physical appearance comparisons, self-perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem. 403 participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring these constructs. A parallel-sequential multiple mediation model was conducted to investigate the impact of PEB on self-esteem via multiple mediators. The results indicate that PEB has a negative effect on self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem mediated via self-objectification and physical appearance comparisons. Therefore, SNS users should be aware of potential negative consequences when using photo editing applications or filters.
... Whereas Instagram browsing at T1 predicted higher levels of depressed mood at T2, T1 depressed mood did not predict T2 Instagram browsing (Frison & Eggermont, 2017). Passive use of Facebook also predicted declines in performance self-esteem and affective well-being over time, according to experience sampling and experimental data (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2019;Verduyn et al., 2015). The pattern is further confirmed by a meta-analysis, in which passive use of social network sites was found to correlate with poor well-being (r = − 0.14, p < 0.001; Liu et al., 2019). ...
Social media use is almost ubiquitous among adolescents and emerging adults. Although much has been studied about the psychological implications of social media use, there is currently no integrative model in which multiple dimensions of social media are considered. The goal of this theoretical article is to introduce the Multidimensional Model of Social Media Use (MMSMU), which aims to provide a useful framework for researchers and practitioners to study and understand young people’s social media use in relation to their psychological well-being. The model attends to three major dimensions: activities performed on social media, motives for social media use, and communication partners connected through social media. We present empirical evidence showing whether each dimension is associated with better or poorer well-being and identify or propose mechanisms explaining the associations. Before concluding the article, we discuss clinical implications and possible ways to further expand the proposed model.KeywordsSocial mediaCommunication technologiesWell-beingMental healthAdolescentsEmerging adults
... Ők eredményeink szerint is hajlamosabbak depresszióra, amelyben felerősödhet a kognitív torzítások, a tartósan negatív énkép és örömtelenség, valamint a folyamatos külső megerősítések vágya. Ez circulus vitiosusként tovább növelheti a pozitív visszacsatolásokra irányuló éhségüket [22]. Az asthmás gyermekek esetében lényeges az a mozzanat, amelynek során a saját magukat ért hatásokat hogyan címkézik fel, milyen oktulajdonítás, attribúció jellemző rájuk. ...
Összefoglaló. Bevezetés: Az asthma bronchialéban szenvedő fiatalok egészségmagatartására lényeges hatást gyakorol a virtuális világ (például a Facebook). Ezt gyakran kötődési hiányállapotaik kompenzálására használják. Célkitűzés: Az asthmás gyermekek közösségimédia-használatának vizsgálata egészséges kontrollcsoporttal összehasonlítva. Módszer: A vizsgálatban 250 fő, 10-18 éves asthmás, valamint 250 fő, 10-18 éves egészséges gyermek vett részt. Velük a Facebook Használati Kérdőív, a Ten Item Personality Inventory, a Rosenberg Önértékelési Skála, a Beck Gyermekdepresszió Kérdőív, valamint a Gyermek Multidimenzionális Szorongás Skála került felvételre. Eredmények: Az asthmás gyermekek kevesebb aktív időt töltenek a Facebookkal, mint az egészségesek (p<0,001), mégis ők érzik azt, hogy ez a platform inkább az életük része (p<0,001). Az asthmásokat magasabb depressziószint és szorongás, valamint alacsonyabb önértékelés jellemzi (p<0,001). Mindkét csoport esetében a lányok használják gyakrabban a Facebookot. A lányok között a Facebook fokozott használata együtt jár a magasabb depressziószinttel és szorongással. Következtetés: Az asthmás gyermekek életében a közösségi média igen jelentős szerepet tölt be. Mivel a 10-18 éves korosztály vulnerábilis ennek addiktív hatásaira, a pszichoedukáció és a prevenció alapvető volna. Orv Hetil. 2022; 163(15): 593-598.
Summary:
Introduction:
The health behavior of patients with asthma bronchiale can be influenced by the virtual world (e.g., Facebook). It is often used to compensate their attachment deficits.
Objective:
In this study, the use of social media is analyzed among asthmatic children compared to a healthy control group.
Method:
250 asthmatic and 250 healthy children were interviewed from the age of 10 to 18. The Facebook Intensity Scale, the Ten Item Personality Inventory, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the short version of the Beck Depression Inventory and the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children were used in the study.
Results:
Asthmatic children's social media time was significantly lower compared to that of healthy children (p<0.001). However, their feeling of being part of the Facebook community is the main motivation to use it (p<0.001). Higher scores of anxiety and depression, and the lower self-esteem compared to the healthy control group can be detected among asthmatic children (p<0.001). The increased use of Facebook can be shown in both groups of girls. The increased use of Facebook among girls is in connection with a higher score of depression and anxiety (p<0.05).
Conclusion:
Social media plays a very important role in the life of asthmatic children. The psychoeducation and prevention is of basic importance, because the age group of 10-18-year-old children is vulnerable to the addictive effect of social media. Orv Hetil. 2022; 163(15): 593-598.
... By design, social network sites are making it easy to view others' social connections, but being privy to others' social lives may make some feel lonely by comparison. This is consistent with other work linking social comparison to decreases in indicators of social well-being (Burnell et al., 2019;Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020), and it stands to reason that the tendency to engage in these kind of comparisons could be particularly pronounced during the context of a pandemic lockdown, when the social isolation and uncertainty might have led people to be even more reliant on social comparisons on social media to make sense of their own social situation. ...
As the people around the globe suffered physically, relationally, emotionally, and financially in response to the COVID-19 crisis and accompanying social distancing mandates, they often turned to social media to cope. This study used an online survey to understand the relationships between social media engagement, loneliness, well-being, perceived social support, and social comparison with an Indian sample (N = 364). Correlations showed significant associations between all variables of interest, with the exception of social media engagement and perceived social support. Partial correlations revealed that an association between social media engagement and loneliness disappeared when social comparison orientation was controlled for; however, an inverse relationship between social media engagement and well-being remained, even when social comparison orientation was accounted for.
... Social comparison on social media, in particular, is one engagement type that has received growing attention in recent years [43,44]. Studies find that those who passively use social media (e.g., seeing other people's profiles but not directly interacting with them), in comparison to those who actively engage with them (e.g., by chatting via instant messaging or broadcasting in the form of posting a status update), are more likely to engage in social comparison behaviours and feel jealous towards others [45][46][47]. A meta-analysis corroborates this notion that while social media's passive use is negatively associated with loneliness, active use enhances wellbeing [48]. ...
Young adults are currently the loneliest demographic in the UK and other Western countries, yet little is known about how they see the causes of their loneliness. Thus, the objective of this study is to explore the subjective causes of loneliness among young adults (18–24 years old), particularly those of lower socio-economic status (SES) who are in employment, renting and living in the most deprived areas, since they are the loneliest in the UK. Utilising a free association technique and thematic analysis, and embedded in a phenomenological framework, the subjective causes of loneliness in a matched sample of 48 young adults in the four most deprived boroughs of London are found to cluster around five themes: The Feeling of Being Disconnected, Contemporary Culture, Pressure, Social Comparison and Transitions Between Life Stages. Disconnection arises from feeling one does not matter, is not understood or is unable to express oneself. Challenges pertaining to social media and materialism in contemporary culture contribute to loneliness as does pressure associated with work, fitting in and social comparison. Social media play a major role in exacerbating these experiences. Finally, transitions between life stages such as breakups, loss of significant others and transitory stages to do with education and employment are felt to cause loneliness. The findings suggest potential avenues for loneliness reduction.
... It is generally concurred that self-identity is affected by social media, for example, Elsayed [6] claims that social media has negative effects on social identity of adolescents. Further, according to past researches, teenagers, and adults who overuse social media have experienced negatives outcomes such as depression and lack of self-esteem [7], [8]. As such, it can be concurred that social media plays an important role in shaping people's perceptions in the 21st century. ...
With social media having penetrated people’s daily life, sharenting has become a common phenomenon among the current generation. The term “sharenting” is derived from the combination of the words “share” and "parenting” which refers to parents who often post or share their children’s photos/videos on social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, Blog, and so on. Sharenting has resulted in a lot of consequences due to the sharing of children’s information. To understand the consequences of sharenting, the current research analysed the contents of children’s information that are shared by parents in Malaysia. The research also investigated the reasons that motivated parents to be involved in the trend of sharenting. A qualitative research adopting one-to-one interview was conducted to obtain in-depth information and knowledge from the respondents selected through a non-probability snowball sampling method. The responses from the interviews were analysed using a thematic analysis where it was noted that in terms of the content shared, two key themes emerged specifically funny and interesting photos as well as children’s educational progress. On the other hand, in terms of reasons for sharenting, the respondents listed several reasons including to keep in touch with friends/family members, to keep as memories, and gain support from others.
... For example, processes of social comparison negatively contribute to users' self-esteem since the self-presentation of comparison targets is mostly positively biased and valenced [4], contributing to harmful upward social comparisons [6]. Across two studies, Facebook use was associated with more social comparison processing and lower self-esteem among adult users [25], a finding supported longitudinally as well [22]. Further, an experimental study found that self-esteem was lower among participants exposed to their news feed (containing social information), relative to those exposed to other Facebook content with no social information [26]. ...
The relationship between social media and self-esteem is complex, as studies tend to find a mixed pattern of relationships and meta-analyses tend to find small, albeit significant, magnitudes of statistical effects. One explanation is that social media use does not affect self-esteem for the majority of users, while small minorities experience either positive or negative effects, as evidenced by recent research calculating person-specific within-person effects. This suggests that the true relationship between social media use and self-esteem is person-specific and based on individual susceptibilities and uses. In recognition of these advancements, we review recent empirical studies considering differential uses and moderating variables in the social media–self-esteem relationship, and conclude by discussing opportunities for future social media effects research.
... However, as a coping strategy, using SNS too much could be maladaptive as excessive SNS use can lead to more mental health problems, including depression and loneliness (Appel et al., 2016;Boer et al., 2020;Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020;Thorisdottir et al., 2019). ...
s
Passively browsing other's content on social networking sites (SNS) is popular among young females. It remains unclear how passive use relates to female's negative emotions, and especially whether short-term associations are confined by individual differences. This study used ecological momentary assessment over the course of one week to examine the associations between passive use of SNS and negative emotions, and investigated whether individual differences (i.e., self-esteem and life satisfaction) would moderate this relationship. A sample of N = 99 Chinese female undergraduates (Mage = 18.81, SDage = 0.84) completed a baseline online survey on self-esteem and life satisfaction, and received a daily online survey about their Qzone use as well as their negative emotions for seven days. Multilevel modeling revealed that passively browsing Qzone on a given day was associated with less negative emotions. However, the within-person association was independent of self-esteem and life satisfaction. Implications of passive SNS use are discussed especially regarding their potential to reduce negative feelings among Chinese young female undergraduate students, at least in the short term.
... Fifth, research suggests that social media use can have negative effects on users' selfesteem, leading to depressive tendencies (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2020). As young people view idealized representations of others' lives on social media, they make comparisons to their own lives, leading to decreased self-esteem in some instances (Steinsbekk et al., each other as they recognized similarities between them, created an opportunity for friendships, provided a space for students to post their opinions regarding social and political topics, and stimulated students to include emotion in their stories. ...
Educators consider the development of problem-solving skills in learners to be a primary goal of contemporary teaching and learning efforts. Yet, participating in problem-centered instruction is challenging for learners, and educators have sought different ways of supporting learners as they make sense of complex content. Social media applications are readily available for use by educators, which in turn provides many opportunities for these tools to support teaching and learning activities. While social media affordances offer educators exciting opportunities to support learners in authentic problem-solving contexts, these tools do not come without challenges, and little research has considered how such tools can specifically facilitate the development of learners’ problem-solving abilities. The purpose of this paper is to identify prominent educational affordances of social media and to explore how these identified affordances have the potential to support ill-structured problem-solving activities. This paper offers researchers and educators new directions for facilitating problem-centered learning when using social media.
... As such, this perpetuates the persistent perception of being outnumbered by others who are succeeding in life. Coupled with our innate tendency to crave and digest social information, the exposure to such social information leads to comparative evaluations and negative appraisals about oneself (Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2020). Such upward online comparison more often causes people to feel inadequate, have poorer self-evaluations -which have been linked to various negative outcomes including depressive symptoms and negative emotions (Haferkamp and Krämer, 2011;Kalpidou et al., 2011;Feinstein et al., 2013;Blease, 2015). ...
Existing meta-analyses have shown that the relationship between social media use and self-esteem is negative, but at very small effect sizes, suggesting the presence of moderators that change the relationship between social media use and self-esteem. Employing principles from social comparison and evolutionary mismatch theories, we propose that the social network sizes one has on social media play a key role in the relationship between social media use and self-esteem. In our study (N = 123), we showed that social media use was negatively related to self-esteem, but only when their social network size was within an evolutionarily familiar level. Social media use was not related to self-esteem when people’s social networks were at evolutionarily novel sizes. The data supported both social comparison and evolutionary mismatch theories and elucidated the small effect size found for the relationship between social media use and self-esteem in current literature. More critically, the findings of this study highlight the need to consider evolutionarily novel stimuli that are present on social media to better understand the behaviors of people in this social environment.
... Whereas Instagram browsing at T1 predicted higher levels of depressed mood at T2, T1 depressed mood did not predict T2 Instagram browsing (Frison & Eggermont, 2017). Passive use of Facebook also predicted declines in performance self-esteem and affective well-being over time, according to experience sampling and experimental data (Ozimek & Bierhoff, 2019;Verduyn et al., 2015). The pattern is further confirmed by a meta-analysis, in which passive use of social network sites was found to correlate with poor well-being (r = − 0.14, p < 0.001; Liu et al., 2019). ...
Social media use is almost ubiquitous among adolescents and emerging adults. Although much has been studied about the psychological implications of social media use, there is currently no integrative model in which multiple dimensions of social media are considered. The goal of this theoretical article is to introduce the Multidimensional Model of Social Media Use (MMSMU), which aims to provide a useful framework for researchers and practitioners to study and understand young people’s social media use in relation to their psychological well-being. The model attends to three major dimensions: activities performed on social media, motives for social media use, and communication partners connected through social media. We present empirical evidence showing whether each dimension is associated with better or poorer well-being and identify or propose mechanisms explaining the associations. Before concluding the article, we discuss clinical implications and possible ways to further expand the proposed model.
... Intensive use of SNSs can be associated with multiple negative consequences. Perhaps the first among them is the intensification of depressive symptoms that can become progressively more serious (Sampasa-Kanyinga and Hamilton, 2015;Appel et al., 2016;Escobar-Viera et al., 2018;Ozimek and Bierhoff, 2019;Wartberg et al., 2020;Hussain et al., 2020). ...
The use of social media, particularly among youngsters, is characterized by simple and fast image exploration, mostly of people, particularly faces. The study presented here was conducted in order to investigate stereotypical judgments about men and women concerning past events of aggression—perpetrated or suffered—expressed on the basis of their faces, and gender-related differences in the judgments. To this aim, 185 participants answered a structured questionnaire online. The questionnaire contained 30 photos of young people’s faces, 15 men and 15 women ( Ma et al., 2015 ), selected on the basis of the neutrality of their expression, and participants were asked to rate each face with respect to masculinity/femininity, strength/weakness, and having a past of aggression, as a victim or as a perpetrator. Information about the empathic abilities and personality traits of participants were also collected. The results indicate that the stereotypes—both of gender and those of victims and perpetrators—emerge as a consequence of the visual exploration of faces that present no facial emotion. Some characteristics of the personality of the observers, such as neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and affective empathy, have a role in facilitating or hindering stereotype processing, in different ways for male and female faces by male and female observers. In particular, both genders attribute their positive stereotypical attributes to same-gender faces: men see male faces as stronger, masculine, and more aggressive than women do, and women see female faces as more feminine, less weak, and less as victims than men do. Intensive use of social media emerges as a factor that could facilitate the expression of some stereotypes of violent experiences and considering female subjects as more aggressive. Findings in this study can contribute to research on aggressive behavior on the Internet and improve our understanding of the multiple factors involved in the elaboration of gender stereotypes relative to violent or victim behavior.
... We engage in them because they provide us with often useful information regarding how we stack up against our peers. However, when we compare ourselves to people on social media who are outperforming us (i.e., an upward social comparison), we end up feeling envy and distress (e.g., [50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]). Emerging evidence has also begun to link upward social comparisons on social media with the experience of fear of missing out (FOMO) [60], meaninglessness [61], and body-image dissatisfaction [55,62]. ...
Within a relatively short time span, social media have transformed the way humans interact, leading many to wonder what, if any, implications this interactive revolution has had for people’s emotional lives. Over the past 15 years, an explosion of research has examined this issue, generating countless studies and heated debate. Although early research generated inconclusive findings, several experiments have revealed small negative effects of social media use on well-being. These results mask, however, a deeper set of complexities. Accumulating evidence indicates that social media can enhance or diminish well-being depending on how people use them. Future research is needed to model these complexities using stronger methods to advance knowledge in this domain.
Social networks are gaining widespread popularity, with Instagram currently being the most intensively used network. On these platforms, users are continuously exposed to self-relevant information that fosters social comparisons. A distinction is made between ability-based and opinion-based comparison dimensions. To experimentally investigate the influence of these comparison dimensions on users’ subjective well-being, an online exposure experiment (N = 409) was conducted. In a preliminary study (N = 107), valid exposure stimulus material was selected in advance. The results of the main study indicated that the exposure to ability-related social comparisons in the context of social media elicited lower well-being than exposure to opinion-related social comparisons. The theoretical and practical implications of this study consist of including the findings in clinical settings, e.g., affective disorder therapy, and the identification and reduction of ability-related content on social networking sites (SNSs). Future work should include assimilation and contrast effects which might interact with social comparison orientation and well-being.
Instagram provides users with different features, including posts and stories. Instagram post stays on the users’ feeds permanently unless the content is deleted. An Instagram story has an ephemeral nature as the uploaded content vanishes after 24 h. Through a survey of 224 respondents, this study explored individuals’ psychological constructs when using different Instagram features. Instagram usage pattern (i.e., use of different features (video, emoji, etc.), categories of content (food, selfie, etc.) that users usually post, reasons for editing photos (slim body, flawless skin, etc.), amount of time to create and upload a post/story), social comparison, self-esteem, and body image concerns based on the user’s perception of ephemerality and permanency were examined. Results demonstrated that the perception of ephemerality on Instagram stories were negatively related to social comparison and body image concerns. In addition, the longer the amount of time the user spent on posting either a post or story on Instagram, the higher the likelihood the user was to socially compare. Overall, the findings align with previous research suggesting that Instagram users who socially compare are likely to have lower self-esteem and higher body image concerns.
The social comparison theory explains some negative effect of social networking sites (SNSs) use. These Internet applications have made easier the online social comparison that in turn predicts depression and lower life satisfaction. Individuals prone to depression engage in greater levels of social comparison, particularly with others who are thought to be slightly better off, and experience a decrease in mood or self-esteem in the light of others? perceived happiness. The present study aimed at investigating the impact of the use of SNSs on the mood in an experimental design. In total, 120 university students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. In the experimental groups, the participants were instructed to access their Facebook and browse personal profiles for 20 minutes; while in the control, they read articles. For the participants with initial low mood using Facebook further lowered their mood whereas for the other participants did not have any effect. Furthermore, using Facebook lowered the mood of the participants not accustomed to use it frequently.
While a number of previous studies examined the impacts of social networking sites (SNSs) on young people’s well-being, they usually focused on a single platform without considering the increasing use of multiple social media platforms. In addition, only a few studies have explored gender differences, and empirical evidence outside Western culture is still lacking. To this end, the present study explores how two different types of use (i.e., active vs. passive) of the two most popular SNS (social network sites) platforms (i.e., Facebook and Instagram) are related to college men’s and women’s life satisfaction via social support and social comparison in South Korea. Path analyses conducted using data from a nationwide online survey of Korean college students (N = 360) revealed that active use contributes to life satisfaction via perceived social support on SNSs, while passive use decreases life satisfaction via negative social comparison on SNSs. Both active Facebook and Instagram use are related to perceived social support, while negative social comparison tends to be related only to passive Instagram use. Gender differences were not observed in the hypothesized relationships except for those involving the control variables (i.e., the amount of overall SNS use and the number of SNS platforms used). The results suggest that the influences of SNS use on subjective well-being depend on the types of SNS use and the nature of the platforms. The practical implications for social media literacy education are discussed.
An extensive body of work has explored the causal links between social media use, envy, and depression. However, the findings regarding the directional influence among these variables have been equivocal. This current study draws upon a three-wave longitudinal panel (N = 355) and focuses on the link between Facebook use and depression. Results from the cross-lagged panel analyses showed that increased Facebook use (t1) leads to increased depression (t2) which further leads to greater Facebook use (t3). This relationship is further enhanced when the role of envy is accounted for. Specifically, more Facebook use (t1) leads to greater users’ envy (t2) which leads to more depression (t3). Implications of the results are discussed.
Social media use has previously been shown to have negative implications for cognition. Scarce research has examined underlying pathways through which social media use may influence cognition. One potential pathway involves the consequences of social comparison, such that those who use social media more frequently may feel worse about themselves and more envious toward others. In turn, these negative socioemotional states could compromise memory. Further, whether an individual uses social media actively or passively may moderate these associations. Using an online adult lifespan sample (n=592), the current cross-sectional study examined whether socioemotional consequences of social comparison (self-esteem and envy) mediated relationships between social media use and memory (everyday memory failures and episodic memory) and whether active/passive use moderated these associations. Mediation models revealed that higher envy, but not lower self-esteem, partially explained the relationship between higher social media use and more self-reported everyday memory failures. Neither envy nor self-esteem mediated the relationship between higher social media use and lower objective episodic memory performance. Additionally, higher social media use was associated with higher envy to a greater extent for active users compared to passive users. These findings may suggest that high social media use has negative ramifications for both subjective and objective memory and that increased feelings of envy may partially explain these effects for subjective, but not objective, memory.
Fourth book in a series of books about the internet. This book covers many issues about Facebook and functions as a historical reference. All books can be downloaded at https://tinyurl.com/y46px3fr
Ziel dieses Beitrags ist die Darstellung von drei Studien zur Erfassung kurzfristiger und langfristiger Effekte von sozial-vergleichendem Gebrauch der sozialen Netzwerke Facebook und XING auf den Selbstwert und depressive Tendenzen. Studie 1 (N = 75) zeigte im Rahmen einer Internetexposition im Labor, dass eine sozial-vergleichende Aufgabe im Internet im Vergleich zu einer Kontrollaufgabe einen geringeren Selbstwert zur Folge hat.
Studien 2 und 3 (Ns = 809, 145) zeigten im Rahmen Online-Befragungen, dass sowohl passive Facebook- als auch die generelle XING-Nutzung mit höheren depressiven Tendenzen einhergehen. Diese Assoziationen werden über eine höhere Neigung zu sozialen Vergleichen und einen dadurch bedingten, geringeren Selbstwert vermittelt. Die Ergebnisse werden vor dem Hintergrund bisheriger Forschung diskutiert sowie Implikationen für die Präventionsarbeit mit Kindern, Jugendlichen und Erwachsen im Umgang mit Sozialen Medien abgeleitet.
Development and validation of a measure of individual differences in social comparison orientation (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure [INCOM]) are described. Assuming that the tendency toward social comparison is universal, the scale was constructed so as to be appropriate to and comparable in 2 cultures: American and Dutch. It was then administered to several thousand people in each country. Analyses of these data are presented indicating that the scale has good psychometric properties. In addition, a laboratory study and several field studies are described that demonstrated the INCOM’s ability to predict comparison behavior effectively. Possible uses of the scale in basic and applied settings are discussed.
In this study, we examine chronic materialism as a possible motive for Facebook usage. We test an explanatory mediation model predicting that materialists use Facebook more frequently, because they compare themselves to others, they objectify and instrumentalize others, and they accumulate friends. For this, we conducted two online surveys (N 1 = 242, N 2 = 289) assessing demographic variables, Facebook use, social comparison, materialism, objectification and instrumentalization. Results confirm the predicted mediation model. Our findings suggest that Facebook can be used as a means to an end in a way of self-regulatory processes, like satisfying of materialistic goals. The findings are the first evidence for our Social Online Self-regulation Theory (SOS-T), which contains numerous predictions that can be tested in the future.
These meta-analyses of 60+ years of social comparison research focused on two issues: the choice of a comparison target (selection) and the effects of comparisons on self-evaluations, affect, etc. (reaction). Selection studies offering two options (up or down) showed a strong preference (and no evidence of publication bias) for upward choices when there was no threat; there was no evidence for downward comparison as a dominant choice even when threatened. Selections became less differentiable when a lateral choice was also provided. For reaction studies, contrast was, by far, the dominant response to social comparison, with ability estimates most strongly affected. Moderator analyses, tests and adjustments for publication bias showed that contrast is stronger when the comparison involves varying participants’ standing for ability (effect estimates, -0.75 to -0.65) and affect (-0.83 to -0.65). Novel personal attributes were subject to strong contrast for ability (-0.5 to -0.6) and affect (-0.6 to -0.7). Dissimilarity priming was associated with contrast (-0.44 to -0.27; no publication bias), consistent with Mussweiler (2003). Similarity priming provided modest support for Collins (1996) and Mussweiler (2003), with very weak assimilation effects, depending on the publication bias estimator. Studies including control groups indicated effects in response to upward and downward targets were comparable in size and contrastive. Limitations of the literature (e.g., small number of studies including no-comparison control conditions), unresolved issues, and why people choose to compare upward when the most likely result is self-deflating contrast are discussed.
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Mental health problems among young adults have become a significant public health concern. Stressful life events are viewed as the leading cause of psychological distress. Self-disclosure, however, has been found to buffer the deleterious impact of stress on mental health. Recent studies show that college students are likely to talk about their problems on social network sites (SNSs), but it is unclear to what extent they benefit from doing that. This study examined the effect of self-disclosure on SNSs on young adults’ mental health. Survey data were collected from a probability sample of 560 university students. The results show that self-disclosure on Facebook moderates the relationship between stressful life events and mental health. Facebook disclosure was also positively associated with enacted social support on Facebook, which led to increased perceived social support, enhanced life satisfaction, and reduced depression. SNSs, therefore, serve as a promising avenue for delivering health care and intervention.
Face-to-face social interactions enhance well-being. With the ubiquity of social media, important questions have arisen about the impact of online social interactions. In the present study, we assessed the associations of both online and offline social networks with several subjective measures of well-being. We used 3 waves (2013, 2014, and 2015) of data from 5,208 subjects in the nationally representative Gallup Panel Social Network Study survey, including social network measures, in combination with objective measures of Facebook use. We investigated the associations of Facebook activity and real-world social network activity with self-reported physical health, self-reported mental health, self-reported life satisfaction, and body mass index. Our results showed that overall, the use of Facebook was negatively associated with well-being. For example, a 1-standard-deviation increase in "likes clicked" (clicking "like" on someone else's content), "links clicked" (clicking a link to another site or article), or "status updates" (updating one's own Facebook status) was associated with a decrease of 5%-8% of a standard deviation in self-reported mental health. These associations were robust to multivariate cross-sectional analyses, as well as to 2-wave prospective analyses. The negative associations of Facebook use were comparable to or greater in magnitude than the positive impact of offline interactions, which suggests a possible tradeoff between offline and online relationships.
Social network sites are ubiquitous and now constitute a common tool people use to interact with one another in daily life. Here we review the consequences of interacting with social network sites for subjective well-being—that is, how people feel moment-to-moment and how satisfied they are with their lives. We begin by clarifying the constructs that we focus on in this review: social network sites and subjective well-being. Next, we review the literature that explains how these constructs are related. This research reveals: (a) negative relationships between passively using social network sites and subjective well-being, and (b) positive relationships between actively using social network sites and subjective well-being, with the former relationship being more robust than the latter. Specifically, passively using social network sites provokes social comparisons and envy, which have negative downstream consequences for subjective well-being. In contrast, when active usage of social network sites predicts subjective well-being, it seems to do so by creating social capital and stimulating feelings of social connectedness. We conclude by discussing the policy implications of this work. © 2017 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
People frequently engage in social comparisons. Whenever they are confronted with information about how others are, what others can and cannot do, or what others have achieved and have failed to achieve, they relate this information to themselves. And, whenever they try to determine how they themselves are or what they themselves can and cannot do, they do so by comparing their own characteristics, fortunes, and weaknesses to those of others. In fact, such social comparisons are so deeply engraved into our psyche that they are even engaged with others who are unlikely to yield relevant information concerning the self (Gilbert, Giesler, and Morris, 1995). Social comparisons are also engaged with others who – phenomenologically – are not even there, because they were perceived outside of conscious awareness (Mussweiler, Rüter, and Epstude, 2004a). In this respect, comparisons with others appear to be one of the most fundamental, ubiquitous, and robust human proclivities. The proclivity to compare, however, goes much further. People not only compare themselves to others, they pretty much compare any target to a pertinent standard. This is apparent in psychophysical as well as social judgments. To evaluate how heavy a target weight is, for example, judges compare it to a given standard weight (Brown, 1953; Coren and Enns, 1993). Similarly, to evaluate how aggressive a target person is, judges compare him or her to an accessible standard (Herr, 1986). This essential relativity of human judgment has played a particularly prominent role in the domain of social cognition research. © Cambridge University Press 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook, provide abundant social comparison opportunities. Given the widespread use of SNSs, the purpose of the present set of studies was to examine the impact of chronic and temporary exposure to social media-based social comparison information on self-esteem. Using a correlational approach, Study 1 examined whether frequent Facebook use is associated with lower trait self-esteem. Indeed, the results showed that participants who used Facebook most often had poorer trait self-esteem, and this was mediated by greater exposure to upward social comparisons on social media. Using an experimental approach, Study 2 examined the impact of temporary exposure to social media profiles on state self-esteem and relative self-evaluations. The results revealed that participants’ state self-esteem and relative self-evaluations were lower when the target person’s profile contained upward comparison information (e.g., a high activity social network, healthy habits) than when the target person’s profile contained downward comparison information (e.g., a low activity social network, unhealthy habits). Results are discussed in terms of extant research and their implications for the role of social media in well-being.
Previous research on the interpersonal effects of computer-mediated communication (CMC) reveals inconsistencies. In some cases CMC has been found to be impersonal, task-oriented, and hostile. Other reports show warm personal relations, and still others show gradual adjustments in interpersonal relations over time. The past research results are also difficult to compare, as their research methods reveal inconsistent approaches. These inconsistencies include the treatment of time limits on group development, the neglect of nonverbal behavior in face-to-face, comparison groups, and other measurement issues. Each of these factors may obscure our understanding of the way CMC partners get to know and come to relate to each other through CMC. The present study attempts to address some of these concerns. This study explored the effects of computer conferencing on the interpersonal messages with which people define their relationships, known as relational communication. Observers rated the relational communication from transcripts of CMC conversations or from videotapes of face-to-face three-person groups who had worked in several sessions. Analyses showed that CMC groups achieved more positive levels on several dimensions of interpersonal communication than did face-to-face groups. On other dimensions, no differences between conditions were found. In no case did CMC groups express less intimacy or more task-orientation than face-to-face groups. Implications are drawn suggesting that under certain conditions, CMC may promote positive relational effects in ways that previous theories have not considered, and in some ways superior to more traditional media.
The current paper looked at the linkage between the use of Facebook and depression levels of
selected Filipino adolescents. Two hundred college students whose ages ranged from 17 to 20,
in a private and sectarian collegiate institution were selected through purposive sampling.
Goldberg Depression Scale (GDS) and a survey regarding the number of hours allotted in the
use of Facebook per week served as data collection instruments. Utilizing a
descriptive-correlational research design, the researchers found that there is no significant
association between respondents’ level of depression and the use of Facebook (r = 0.04, p =
0.70). Hence, depression cannot be sufficiently linked to the use of Facebook. Implications of
the findings to the fields of counseling and psychology were discussed.
Two studies investigated how social comparison to peers through computer-mediated interactions on Facebook might impact users' psychological health. Study 1 (N = 180) revealed an association between time spent on Facebook and depressive symptoms for both genders. However, results demonstrated that making Facebook social comparisons mediated the link between time spent on Facebook and depressive symptoms for men only. Using a 14-day diary design (N = 152), Study 2 found that the relationship between the amount of time spent on Facebook and depressive symptoms was uniquely mediated by upward, nondirectional, and downward Facebook social comparisons. Similarly, all three types of Facebook social comparisons mediated the relationship between the number of Facebook logins and depressive symptoms. Unlike Study 1, gender did not moderate these associations. Both studies provide evidence that people feel depressed after spending a great deal of time on Facebook because they feel badly when comparing themselves
Getting students to network with one another can be one of the biggest challenges in college courses, despite being a highly important function of higher education. Networking can, in fact, lead to that first job or to professional advancement, and technology can improve the success of individual and institutional efforts. This article describes how one instructor moved from a systemwide “Meet the Classmates” assignment nested within the learning management system to the use of a free social networking system, LinkedIn®, and how one icebreaker assignment evolved to three larger, more comprehensive assignments that better leveraged certain social networking system characteristics for greater career preparedness. Exploratory data from 154 respondents from undergraduate capstone strategy courses provides insights into some possible advantages and limitations of the free social networking system to offset networking challenges as well as to enhance those professional and career-based advantages associated with effective network management.
The present article is concerned with a common misunderstanding in the interpretation of statistical mediation analyses. These procedures can be sensibly used to examine the degree to which a third variable (Z) accounts for the influence of an independent (X) on a dependent variable (Y) conditional on the assumption that Z actually is a mediator. However, conversely, a significant mediation analysis result does not prove that Z is a mediator. This obvious but often neglected insight is substantiated in a simulation study. Using different causal models for generating Z (genuine mediator, spurious mediator, correlate of the dependent measure, manipulation check) it is shown that significant mediation tests do not allow researchers to identify unique mediators, or to distinguish between alternative causal models. This basic insight, although well understood by experts in statistics, is persistently ignored in the empirical literature and in the reviewing process of even the most selective journals.
Previous studies have focused on why people use Facebook and on the effects of ‘‘Facebooking’’ on well being. This study focused more on how people use Facebook. An international sample of 1,026 Facebook users (284 males, 735 females; mean age = 30.24) completed an online survey about their Facebook activity. Females, younger people, and those not currently in a committed relationship were the most active Facebook users, and there were many age-, sex-, and relationship-related main effects. Females spent more time on Facebook, had more Facebook friends, and were more likely to use profile pictures for impression management; women and older people engaged in more online family activity. Relationship status had an impact on the Facebook activity of males, but little effect on the activity of females. The results are interpreted within a framework generated by an evolutionary perspective and previous research on the psychology of gossip.
With over 800 million active users, Facebook is changing the way hundreds of millions of people relate to one another and share information. A rapidly growing body of research has accompanied the meteoric rise of Facebook as social scientists assess the impact of Facebook on social life. In addition, researchers have recognized the utility of Facebook as a novel tool to observe behavior in a naturalistic setting, test hypotheses, and recruit participants. However, research on Facebook emanates from a wide variety of disciplines, with results being published in a broad range of journals and conference proceedings, making it difficult to keep track of various findings. And because Facebook is a relatively recent phenomenon, uncertainty still exists about the most effective ways to do Facebook research. To address these issues, the authors conducted a comprehensive literature search, identifying 412 relevant articles, which were sorted into 5 categories: descriptive analysis of users, motivations for using Facebook, identity presentation, the role of Facebook in social interactions, and privacy and information disclosure. The literature review serves as the foundation from which to assess current findings and offer recommendations to the field for future research on Facebook and online social networks more broadly.
© The Author(s) 2012.
This study examined the influence of the social networking site Facebook and face-to-face support networks on depression among (N = 361) college students. The authors used the Relational Health Communication Competence Model as a framework for examining the influence of communication competence on social support network satisfaction and depression. Moreover, they examined the influence of interpersonal and social integrative motives as exogenous variables. On the basis of previous work, the authors propose and test a theoretical model using structural equation modeling. The results indicated empirical support for the model, with interpersonal motives predicting increased face-to-face and computer-mediated competence, increased social support satisfaction with face-to-face and Facebook support, and lower depression scores. The implications of the findings for theory, key limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
This study examined the frequency of social comparisons in a work setting, and the feelings that these comparisons evoked. These processes were related to individual differences in social comparison orientation, and to the perception of a cooperative social climate at work. The participants were 216 physicians from various health centers in the Community of Valencia in Spain. In general, upward comparisons occurred more often, and elicited more positive and less negative affect than downward comparisons. Those high in social comparison orientation reported relatively more upward as well as downward comparisons, more positive affect after downward comparisons, and more negative affect after upward comparisons. Conversely, those who perceived the social climate at work as cooperative reported relatively more downward comparisons, more negative affect after downward comparison, and more positive affect after upward comparison. Among the 87 participants who participated in the longitudinal part of the study, perceived cooperative climate and social comparison orientation were more stable over a period of one year than the frequency of upward and downward comparison and the affective consequences of upward and downward comparison. It is concluded that individuals interpret social comparisons at work in a positive way when they perceive the social climate as cooperative, and in a negative way when they are high in social comparison orientation.
Social comparisons are an essential source of information about the self. Research in social psychology has shown individual variation in the tendency toward comparison with other people’s opinions and abilities, raising the question of whether social comparisons are driven by psychological dispositions. To test the empirical validity of this proposition, Gibbons and Buunk (1999) created an instrument that measures the tendency to engage in social comparison and captures central aspects of the self, the other, and the psychological interaction between the two. The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM) comprises 11 core items that have been tested in the United States and the Netherlands. To date, however, no attempt has been made to implement this instrument in a large-scale survey of the German population. To fill this gap, the core items of the INCOM scale were integrated into the 2010 SOEP (Socio-Economic Panel Study) pretest. This paper analyzes the validity of the INCOM scale and discusses potentials for shortening the instrument for continued use in large-scale population surveys. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis as well as scale validation tests (invariance tests combined with external validation techniques) produce acceptable results and confirm the measurement instrument as valid and effective. With regard to shortening the questionnaire, a six-item scale is recommended, which shows excellent model fit and proves to be a reliable and efficient indicator to grasp individual dispositions towards social comparison.
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
Zusammenfassung: Für die deutschsprachige Fassung der Rosenberg-Skala zum Selbstwertgefühl von Ferring und Filipp (1996) wird eine Teilrevision vorgeschlagen. Ein Item der bisherigen Skalenversion stellte sich in eigenen Analysen als psychometrisch unzulänglich heraus und weist eine mangelnde inhalt-liche Validität auf. Dadurch ist möglicherweise die Vergleichbarkeit mit der Originalversion und mit Adaptationen der Rosenberg-Skala in anderen Sprachen nicht gewährleistet. Die vorgeschlagene Teilre-vision der Skala versucht, diese Mängel zu beheben und erweist sich in zwei unabhängigen Untersuchun-gen als Verbesserung der bisherigen Skala auf Itemebene. Außerdem werden hier erstmals vollständige Kennwerte für alle Skalenitems mitgeteilt. Abstract: A partial revision is proposed for the German version of Rosenberg's general self-esteem scale published by Ferring und Filipp (1996). According to our results, one item of the previous scale adaptation turned out to be psychometrically weak and – in our opinion – is lacking content validity. Therefore, the comparability with the original version and with adaptations of the Rosenberg-scale in other languages might be critical. The partially revised scale tries to eliminate these shortcomings and shows improved item statistics in two independent samples. In addition, complete statistics are presented for all scale items.
Low self-esteem and depression are strongly related, but there is not yet consistent evidence on the nature of the relation. Whereas the vulnerability model states that low self-esteem contributes to depression, the scar model states that depression erodes self-esteem. Furthermore, it is unknown whether the models are specific for depression or whether they are also valid for anxiety. We evaluated the vulnerability and scar models of low self-esteem and depression, and low self-esteem and anxiety, by meta-analyzing the available longitudinal data (covering 77 studies on depression and 18 studies on anxiety). The mean age of the samples ranged from childhood to old age. In the analyses, we used a random-effects model and examined prospective effects between the variables, controlling for prior levels of the predicted variables. For depression, the findings supported the vulnerability model: The effect of self-esteem on depression (β = -.16) was significantly stronger than the effect of depression on self-esteem (β = -.08). In contrast, the effects between low self-esteem and anxiety were relatively balanced: Self-esteem predicted anxiety with β = -.10, and anxiety predicted self-esteem with β = -.08. Moderator analyses were conducted for the effect of low self-esteem on depression; these suggested that the effect is not significantly influenced by gender, age, measures of self-esteem and depression, or time lag between assessments. If future research supports the hypothesized causality of the vulnerability effect of low self-esteem on depression, interventions aimed at increasing self-esteem might be useful in reducing the risk of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
This poster presents a preliminary analysis of data collected from staff personnel at a large U. S. university regarding their use of the social network site (SNS) Facebook in their personal and professional lives. Sixty-five percent of online American adults now have a profile on a SNS, and Facebook is increasingly utilized in organizational settings such as universities as a tool for information dissemination, recruiting, and promotion of the organization and its programs. Analysis of interview data (N = 26) found that while social media outlets like Facebook offer a number of advantages for reaching diverse populations, navigating work/life boundaries on Facebook was a concern for many participants. Through the lens of context collapse---the flattening of multiple distinct audiences into a singular group---we explicate these concerns, focusing on participants' strategies for maintaining boundaries between their personal and professional lives.
This study examines the relationship between use of Facebook, a popular online social network site, and the formation and maintenance of social capital. In addition to assessing bonding and bridging social capital, we explore a dimension of social capital that assesses one's ability to stay connected with members of a previously inhabited community, which we call maintained social capital. Regression analyses conducted on results from a survey of undergraduate students (N=286) suggest a strong association between use of Facebook and the three types of social capital, with the strongest relationship being to bridging social capital. In addition, Facebook usage was found to interact with measures of psychological well-being, suggesting that it might provide greater benefits for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction.
The present study's (N = 145) aim was to introduce a multidimensional behavioural report for assessing activity on the professional social network site (SNS) XING and to carry out a comparison with private SNS use (i.e. Facebook). Psychometric analyses revealed good internal consistency and construct validity of the new XING Activity Questionnaire. Results suggest that private and professional SNS use is positively correlated to people's ability-related social comparison orientation (SCO) and depressive tendencies on the one hand and negatively correlated to self-esteem on the other hand. In addition, both people's general SCO and opinion-related SCO were solely positively correlated to Facebook use. The findings are in line with the Social Online-Self-Regulation-Theory suggesting that people are using not only private but also professional SNSs for self-regulation.
College students and recent graduates are the fastest-growing user demographic on LinkedIn, with an estimated 40 million profiles for these groups. Guided by the theory of planned behavior, 107 college students completed an online survey to determine their LinkedIn use, attitudes, perceived control, and social influences for networking and job/internship searching. The results of this study suggest that students are infrequent and passive users of LinkedIn. Past behaviors, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and actual behavioral control were related to the effectiveness of LinkedIn to help them find internships and jobs. Parents and friends, attitudes, and past use of LinkedIn were related to their intention to use LinkedIn. Past use of LinkedIn and parents were the significant predictors of future intention to use LinkedIn.
Abstract This work examines the assumption that grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, although positively correlated, have different consequences for frequency and time expenditure of Facebook use and, additionally, the importance of social comparisons for both constructs. Participants completed measures of Facebook use, grandiose narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, social comparison orientation, and self-esteem. Four studies (Ns = 384, 175, 289, and 520) provided evidence that vulnerable narcissism, but not grandiose narcissism, was linked to Facebook use and to social comparison orientation if partial correlations between narcissism and Facebook use were employed controlling for core narcissism. Further analyses indicated that social comparison orientation operated as a mediator between vulnerable narcissism and Facebook use. Implications for understanding the distinction between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in the prediction of Facebook use and social comparison orientation are discussed in the light of self-regulatory theory: Vulnerable narcissists seem to use Facebook as means to attain narcissistic goals (e.g., compare themselves with important others) whereas grandiose narcissists seem to utilize different strategies in order to attain self-regulatory goals.
This study examined how social networking site (SNS) users' social comparison orientations indirectly affect their psychological well-being via four types of social comparison-based emotions. Based on national survey data, we found that social comparison-based emotions mediated the relationships between Facebook users' social comparison orientations and psychological well-being. If Facebook users have a stronger ability-based social comparison orientation, their psychological well-being decreases via upward contrastive emotions (e.g., depression and envy) toward the comparison other; however, it increases via downward assimilative emotions (e.g., worry and sympathy). By contrast, if Facebook users have a stronger opinion-based social comparison orientation, their psychological well-being increases via increased feelings of upward assimilative emotions (e.g., optimism and inspiration) or decreased feelings of upward contrastive emotions (e.g., depression and envy) towards the comparison other. These results indicate that the effects of social comparison on psychological well-being on SNSs become positive or negative depending on whether the users’ social comparison orientation emphasized ability or opinion, and the type of emotions triggered by the comparison. We provide theoretical discussions and practical suggestions for psychologically healthy SNS use based on these empirical findings.
College age students make up the largest segment of social networking populations, with 75% of adults between the ages of 18 and 24 participating to some degree. Previous research has shown that people are often exposed to social networking sites during their college years. This study examines hospitality students' perceived benefits and drawbacks of social networking sites versus professional networking sites. The sample consisted of students in undergraduate hospitality classes. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and multiple regression methods were utilized. This study found that Facebook was perceived to have no significant benefits and several drawbacks; whereas LinkedIn was found to have several significant benefits and no drawbacks. Implications are provided for the hospitality industry, as well as for business, human resources, and education.
Established literature supports the notion that depressed individuals tend to be socially maladjusted and behave differently from those who aren't depressed. Yet, previous studies seem to overlook the influence of personality on behavior. Particularly, neuroticism may moderate the effect of depression on the way people behave. As one of the Big-Five factors of personality, neuroticism refers to a trait of one's capability to control emotional distress. Based on behavioral data from 393 Facebook users, current research demonstrates the interaction between depression and personality. Users engaged in activities at different levels of activities corresponding to their depression levels. Further, the effect of depression on social networking was regulated by personality: once neuroticism exceeded certain points, an increase in depression led to a decrease in social networking activities.
This study aims to offer a holistic model for human resource practices, affective commitment, job autonomy, and employee creativity. It examines the factors that create conditions for bringing forth creativity in employees. Data were collected from 440 employees drawn from 35 hotels using a structured self-administered questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis and hierarchical regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The findings of the study reveal that affective commitment was acted as a mediator between human resource practices and employee creativity while job autonomy was acting as a moderator between affective commitment and employee creativity. This article contributes to a better understanding of the effect of human resource practices on the commitment level of employees working in the hotel industry and provides evidence that commitment acts as a mediator between the factors of human resources practices and employee creativity.
An extensive literature shows that social relationships influence psychological well-being, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We test predictions about online interactions and well-being made by theories of belongingness, relationship maintenance, relational investment, social support, and social comparison. An opt-in panel study of 1,910 Facebook users linked self-reported measures of well-being to counts of respondents' Facebook activities from server logs. Specific uses of the site were associated with improvements in well-being: Receiving targeted, composed communication from strong ties was associated with improvements in well-being while viewing friends' wide-audience broadcasts and receiving one-click feedback were not. These results suggest that people derive benefits from online communication, as long it comes from people they care about and has been tailored for them.
Facebook use is analyzed depending on age and occurrence of social comparisons. The hypotheses state that age is negatively associated with Facebook use and that this association is mediated by social comparison orientation. Data collection was realized via the Internet. The online-questionnaire included information on Facebook use on the basis of a behavioral report (cf., McAndrew & Jeong, 2012), an inventory for measuring social comparison orientation by Gibbons and Buunk (1999), and demographic questions. Results are based on 335 participants. They confirm both the negative association between age and frequency of Facebook activities and the mediation of this association by comparison orientation. These results are interpreted on the basis of evolutionary theory. This study offers new insights on the mediating role of social comparisons in the relationship between age and Facebook use. In the discussion suggestions for further routes of research on the link between age, comparison orientation, and Facebook use are outlined.
Online professional networks become more and more important for professional self-presentation, for recruitment processes, and job hunting. While previous studies determine that individuals present themselves authentically on rather privately used social networks, self-presentation on online professional networks is still unexplored. This study examines how validly individuals present themselves on professional networks. It investigates whether an individual’s online self-presentation is idealized or rather authentic. 63 owners of a profile on the German professional network XING had to describe themselves twice – first authentically and then idealistically. Both self-descriptions were compared with the ratings of five independent observers who received the participants’ XING profiles. Results reveal that observer ratings correlated significantly with some of the profile owners’ authentic personality and job-relevant characteristics, but none of them correlated significantly with the idealized self-descriptions of the profile owners. This shows that individuals present themselves rather authentically on XING.
Prior research indicates that Facebook usage predicts declines in subjective well-being over time. How does this come about? We examined this issue in 2 studies using experimental and field methods. In Study 1, cueing people in the laboratory to use Facebook passively (rather than actively) led to declines in affective well-being over time. Study 2 replicated these findings in the field using experience-sampling techniques. It also demonstrated how passive Facebook usage leads to declines in affective well-being: by increasing envy. Critically, the relationship between passive Facebook usage and changes in affective well-being remained significant when controlling for active Facebook use, non-Facebook online social network usage, and direct social interactions, highlighting the specificity of this result. These findings demonstrate that passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
It is not—unless it triggers feelings of envy. This study uses the framework of social rank theory of depression and conceptualizes Facebook envy as a possible link between Facebook surveillance use and depression among college students. Using a survey of 736 college students, we found that the effect of surveillance use of Facebook on depression is mediated by Facebook envy. However, when Facebook envy is controlled for, Facebook use actually lessens depression.
Recent research demonstrates that it is the quality rather than the frequency of social networking experiences that places individuals at risk for negative mental health outcomes. However, the mechanisms that account for this association have yet to be examined. Accordingly, this study examined whether the tendency to negatively compare oneself with others while using Facebook leads to increases in depressive symptoms, and whether this association is mediated by increases in rumination. A sample of 268 college-age young adults completed an initial online survey and a 3-week follow-up. Path analysis was used to test the hypothesized model, wherein negative social comparison on Facebook was predicted to be
associated with increases in rumination, which, in turn, was predicted to be associated with depressive symptoms. The model controlled for general social comparison to test the specific effect of social comparison on Facebook over and above the tendency to engage in social comparison in general. Results indicated that the hypothesized mediation effect was significant. In sum, in the context of social
networking, negatively comparing oneself with others may place individuals at risk for rumination and, in turn, depressive symptoms. Findings increase understanding of the mechanisms that link social networking use to negative mental health outcomes and suggest a continued emphasis on examining the specific processes that take place in the context of social networking that may be pathogenic.
Facebook has been shown to be the most popular social network in the United States. Facebook not only has implications in the online world, but face-to-face connections are also affected by this medium. This study explores the uses of Facebook for self-disclosure behavior utilizing the uses and gratifications perspective. Using a convenience sample of Facebook users, this study examines individual and sociological factors as well as Facebook motives to discover the impact on depth, breadth, and amount of user self-disclosure. Path analyses showed that the Big Five personality factors, self-esteem, social cohesion, and motives contribute to self-disclosure dimensions. However, demographic variables did not impact disclosiveness. Limitations are discussed and directions for future research are proposed.
To evaluate the association between social networking site (SNS) use and depression in older adolescents using an experience sample method (ESM) approach.
Older adolescent university students completed an online survey containing the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 depression screen (PHQ) and a weeklong ESM data collection period to assess SNS use.
Participants (N = 190) included in the study were 58% female and 91% Caucasian. The mean age was 18.9 years (standard deviation = .8). Most used SNSs for either <30 minutes (n = 100, 53%) or between 30 minutes and 2 hours (n = 74, 39%); a minority of participants reported daily use of SNS >2 hours (n = 16, 8%). The mean PHQ score was 5.4 (standard deviation = 4.2). No associations were seen between SNS use and either any depression (p = .519) or moderate to severe depression (p = .470).
We did not find evidence supporting a relationship between SNS use and clinical depression. Counseling patients or parents regarding the risk of "Facebook Depression" may be premature.
focus on . . . [the] important, persisting task of achieving a significant audience's favorable evaluation / central to this treatment is an approach called ego-task analysis, which offers a general framework for analyzing the interaction of situation and personality in determining behavior
a review of the literature on ego-involvement leads to the identification of three significant evaluative audiences: public, private, and collective / the associated motivational facets of the self are then related to research and theory on social influence, self-awareness/self-consciousness, self-presentation, and self-esteem (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
There has been much speculation about modern environments causing an epidemic of depression. This review aims to (1) determine whether depression rates have increased and (2) review evidence for possible explanations. While available data indicate rising prevalence and an increased lifetime risk for younger cohorts, strong conclusions cannot be drawn due to conflicting results and methodological flaws. There are numerous potential explanations for changing rates of depression. Cross-cultural studies can be useful for identifying likely culprits. General and specific characteristics of modernization correlate with higher risk. A positive correlation between a country's GDP per capita, as a quantitative measure of modernization, and lifetime risk of a mood disorder trended toward significance (p=0.06). Mental and physical well-being are intimately related. The growing burden of chronic diseases, which arise from an evolutionary mismatch between past human environments and modern-day living, may be central to rising rates of depression. Declining social capital and greater inequality and loneliness are candidate mediators of a depressiogenic social milieu. Modern populations are increasingly overfed, malnourished, sedentary, sunlight-deficient, sleep-deprived, and socially-isolated. These changes in lifestyle each contribute to poor physical health and affect the incidence and treatment of depression. The review ends with a call for future research and policy interventions to address this public health crisis.