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LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) on Recycled Polyester
Abstract
Polyester is a synthetic material which is produced from the petroleum products. The various environmental impacts are associated with polyester from manufacturing to end of life. Therefore, the manufacturing of recycled polyester (rPET) is an important to process as concerned with environmental impact and also inevitable. The rPET has a wide scope of their potential applications similar to virgin polyester. Generally, life cycle assessment (LCA) technique investigates the environmental impacts of the particular products from its cradle to grave. Therefore, it helps to identify the critical phase which creates the maximum impact on the entire product life cycle. So, it is significant to understand the environmental impact of rPET, nevertheless, LCA on rPET is foreseeable. The data from the LCA can initiate preliminary steps to reduce the environmental burdens from the products, also it provides the detailed information on how it affects the ecosystem. In this chapter we discussed about the LCA on rPET, initially, the brief introduction will be provided about the present manufacturing techniques of rPET. Various issues associated with sustainability of rPET manufacturing, importance and methodology of LCA on rPET were explained in detail. Based on the LCA results, the important parameters with respect to the sustainability of rPET would be present in this chapter.
... Recycled PET, when compared to virgin PES fibers, can save between 45 and 85% of non-renewable energy use, being connected with the reduction of global warming potential (GWP). These recycling processes show the reduction of the environmental impacts, being 76% from mechanical recycling, 54% via semi-mechanical recycling, and around 24-36% via chemical recycling in relation to virgin polyester production (Periyasamy & Militky 2020;Sadeghi et al. 2021a, b;Thiounn & Smith 2020). ...
... Polyester is dyed with disperse dyes, along with dye carriers that, when used for dyeing processes, present concerns about the toxicity and volatility of this group of chemicals, whereas cotton is dyed with reactive dyes. In the case of fiber blends, the PES fibers need to be dyed separately from the cotton fiber; therefore, blends tend to have larger environmental impacts than non-blended fibers (Periyasamy & Militky 2020;van der Velden et al. 2014). ...
Polyester in the textile industry is frequently mixed with cotton fibers to produce PET-CO blend fabrics, widely used in clothing and home textiles. However, polyester’s slow degradation (up to 400 years) and the production of cotton and PET are related to environmental impacts. Brazil is prominent in the cotton production scenario due to the quality and volume of its production, although of environmental damages and health issues to farmworkers. Blend fibers, being a junction between natural and synthetic ones, carry the impacts of both productions. This study aimed to compare the environmental impacts of pure cotton and PET-CO (blended polyester and cotton) productions. A bibliographic analysis of literature and reports from sectorial organizations was carried out, resulting in data and knowledge about the environmental impacts caused by textile and clothing production related to cotton and polyester-cotton blend and other actions turned to reduce or nullify these impacts towards the circular economy, with emphasis to textile recycling. The adoption of the circular economy needs to be deeply understood so that the textile waste returns to the beginning of the production cycle, as well as the need to improve the production processes to avoid polluting and losses of energy, water, and other resources through actions, such as the correct separation and disposal of waste.
... Based on a preliminary LCA study, it was found that in terms of GHG emissions, the largest contributions come from polyester production from virgin fibers (accounting for about 60% of the overall emissions) and transportation of raw fibers (accounting for about 20% of the emissions). Anyway, in the first case, switching from hydrocarbon-based production to recycled polyester might reduce such impact to about 25%-50% of the emissions associated to conventional polyester production (Periyasamy, A.P., Militky, J. 2020). With reference to transport of the raw materials the distance between collection points and raw materials processing plays the major role (e.g. in Italy the number of processing establishments capable of treating textile waste is very limited and mostly located in Tuscany), and this might significantly affect the positive outcome of the analysis particularly when raw materials are collected in peripheral regions like Puglia. ...
... (a) Textiles should be used and reused as long as possible before they end up in landfills. The textile waste minimization also reduces the release of fiber fragments from landfills (b) Textiles should be recycled as much as possible [161] . New fibers can be produced from textile waste by suitable tech-nics: 100% cellulose waste can be dissolved in a suitable solvent (e.g., N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide [ 162 , 163 ], 7-Methyl-1,5,7-triazabicyclo [4.4.0]dec-5-enium ...
The production and consumption of textiles is continuously increasing due to the growth of population and fast fashion. Fiber fragments (1µm-5mm) released from garments and home textiles during washing, drying, and wearing are considered a new source of environmental pollution and health hazard. Fiber fragments can be ingested by aquatic animals and substantially threaten their metabolic activities. Small fiber fragments can also enter our food chain by the consumption of sea creatures, sea table salt, and drinking water. In this paper, we overview various important parameters on the release of fiber fragments from garments, and home textiles including the type of fabric, weaving/knitting structure, detergent type and concentration, temperature, pH, spin-speed, and duration of the washing and drying processes. The influence of various mechanical and chemical textile finishes on the release of fiber fragments is explained. Any process that reduces the strength of fibers and their interactions including sanding, brushing, bleaching can potentially increase the release of fiber fragments in consecutive wet processes. We highlight some of the most important environmental regulations on the release of microplastics and fiber fragments to the environment and provide a series of recommendations to reduce the impact.
Upon aiming to achieve weight and CO2 reduction goals in the automotive industry, it's crucial to find a balance between performance and environmental/financial impacts. This involves considering both innovative materials and production techniques alongside conventional alternatives. While advanced materials like high-performance alloys and composites hold the potential for substantial weight reduction, their adoption must be carefully evaluated. We need to consider the initial CO2 impact and production costs associated with these materials and parts. Ultimately, a holistic approach that considers all factors will lead to more sustainable and efficient automotive solutions. The study considers new steel and aluminum grades, recent developments in polymer materials, and their production methods. By embracing a balanced approach, it aims to achieve lightweight solutions without sacrificing scalability or increasing CO2 impact. The framework addresses material and production method complexities within the automo
The fashion industry is a lucrative market that generates revenue in the trillions through the production and distribution of clothing, footwear, and various accessories. The apparel industry has experienced a remarkable expansion in the past few years, evidenced by a 100% increase in output between 2000 and 2023. The apparel industry makes a substantial contribution to the negative impacts of biodiversity loss and climate change. The fashion industry’s expansion and social and environmental sustainability concerns, catalyzed by digitalization, are propelling it toward a sustainable trajectory. The present review article centers on the primary issues faced by the fashion industry and the utilization of metaverse technologies to tackle sustainability challenges within this sector. The metaverse refers to the amalgamation of physical and digital space within a virtual world, commonly referred to as the meta-universe. The metaverse is a strategy that is anticipated to be employed in fashion e-commerce and retailing, aiming to facilitate consumer decision-making processes, ranging from user experience to customer experience. This approach is expected to confer considerable competitive benefits. This review paper aims to analyze the sustainable impact of the metaverse on the fashion industry and foster discourse among researchers and industry professionals.
This study aims to determine the appropriate methods and parameters for the eco-friendly and sustainable production of finer yarns from recycled cotton fibers with acceptable quality and high recycled fiber ratios to transform pre-consumer textile wastes into better-quality products with value-added in the ready-made clothing industry. Cotton fibers were mechanically recycled from dyed fabric wastes. Mélange 100% cotton yarns were produced with different recycled/virgin fiber blend ratios (80/20, 72/28, 64/36, and 56/44) at different yarn counts (30 and 20 tex) and by different spinning methods (compact and open-end spinning) without any chemicals treatment. The yarn properties were tested and compared to determine the best production parameters. As a result of the study, it was seen that the yarn properties improved when the proportion of virgin cotton fiber in the yarn increased in parallel with previous studies. Besides, the yarn hairiness and unevenness of open-end yarns were better than compact yarns. On the other hand, using the compact spinning method led to higher yarn tenacity. The results indicated that the compact spinning method is advantageous in achieving the target of increasing the ratio of recycled fiber use with good tenacity for the production of %100 cotton yarns.
This study estimated the amounts of municipal solid waste, greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation potential, and energy production potential from waste management in Thailand from 2017–2050. According to a grey forecasting model (GM 1,3), waste generation is predicted to increase at an average rate of 1.15% year–1 and will reach 39.61 M tons in 2050. Four waste management scenarios were investigated including: a baseline scenario, in which waste management practices in 2017 remain unchanged; scenario 1, which includes installation of waste-to-energy incineration plants from 2018–2021; scenario 2, which assumes the waste-to-energy target (900 MWe) is accomplished; and scenario 3 which maximizes waste sorting and material recovery. In the baseline scenario, greenhouse gas emissions will reach 18,972 kt CO2eq and the power production potential will be 179 MWe in 2050. Scenario 2 provides maximum waste disposal reduction, resulting in the greatest greenhouse gas mitigation. Its greenhouse gas emissions are 20% lower than the baseline in 2030, and 47% in 2050. The power production potential in scenario 2 in 2050 (910 MWe) can help prevent 11,756 kt CO2eq of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel consumption. Scenario 1 provides the smallest greenhouse gas mitigation potential, with only 7% reduction in 2030 compared to the baseline. However, all scenarios can help Thailand meet its Nationally Determined Contributions targets. Findings from this study provide some insights for policy makers and researchers in evaluating waste management and climate policies.
Carbon footprint, also called carbon profile, defines the overall amount of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with a product
throughout the entire supply chain, from raw materials to end-of-life recovery and disposal. Electricity production in power plants, heating with fossil fuels, transport
operations, other industrial and agricultural processes, among others, cause
these emissions. Indicators such as the global warming potential (GWP) are used
to quantify the carbon footprint. As defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, GWP is an indicator that reflects the relative effect of a GHG in
terms of climate change considering a fixed time period, such as 100 years
(GWP100). The GWP for different emissions can then be added together to
give a single indicator that expresses the overall contribution of these emissions
to climate change. Denim garments are the most popular clothing worldwide;
many countries are taking measures to reduce carbon emissions through the use
of organic cotton, environmentally friendly methods of manufacturing, and
optimized denim manufacturing. Carbon credits have been adopted by denim
manufacturers; this helps them to achieve overall goals of carbon emissions. This
chapter explains the concept of carbon footprint in denim manufacturing and
describes case studies, difficulties facing the industry, and optimized denim
manufacturing techniques that reduce the carbon footprint.
The effect of fiber type (cotton, polyester, and rayon), temperature, and use of detergent on the number of microfibers released during laundering of knitted fabrics were studied during accelerated laboratory washing (Launder-Ometer) and home laundering experiments. Polyester and cellulose-based fabrics all shed significant amounts of microfibers and shedding levels were increased with higher water temperature and detergent use. Cellulose-based fabrics released more microfibers (0.2–4 mg/g fabric) during accelerated laundering than polyester (0.1–1 mg/g fabric). Using well-controlled aquatic biodegradation experiments it was shown that cotton and rayon microfibers are expected to degrade in natural aquatic aerobic environments whereas polyester microfibers are expected to persist in the environment for long periods of time.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a common technique to evaluate the environmental impact of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) packaging. A review is needed to gain a clear view of the accumulated knowledge, scientific trends and what remains to be done. The main purpose of this paper is to present an overview of LCA of PET, mainly for packaging. LCA studies of PET consist largely of two segments: final destination of post-consumer PET, comparing recycling with other options (incineration, landfilling); and alternative materials, comparing PET with other polymers or materials such as glass and aluminum cans. In the first case, the scenarios most often compared have been landfill disposal and mechanical recycling. There has also been considerable research on the use of post-consumer PET for energy conversion and chemical recycling. In the second case, the main polymer compared with PET is poly(lactic acid), whose mechanical properties make it unsuitable for carbonated beverage bottles. Numerous articles have focused only on energy consumption or global warming potential. Few studies have discussed mechanical recycling technologies in LCA and there is a lack of data on the processes used in developing countries. This review highlights the need to conduct LCA studies of PET, since many aspects are still not fully understood.
The disposal of used diapers is a critical eco-technological problem aggravated by the exponential increase of global consumption rate each year. The global production of disposable used diapers increases exponentially and is expected to exceed US$ 71 billion/year by 2022. It was revealed that about 20 billion pieces of the used diapers were dumped in landfills yearly, generating more than 3.5 million tonnes of diaper waste that require almost 500 years to be fully decomposed. The resource-consuming production and disposal of used diaper waste have led to many environmental issues and poses a threat to public health. This review provides an in-depth discussion of the challenges, strategies, and the recent breakthrough in rectifying problems arising from generation and disposal of used diapers. The use of various technologies for treatment and recycling of used diaper were highlighted, particularly on the use of potentially safer and cleaner technologies such as biodegradation and thermal pyrolysis in maximizing the recycling of used diapers with minimal cost. It was established that useful end products that have wide applications can be obtained through biodegradation and pyrolysis of used diapers, hence providing a future research direction to enhance the efficiency of these process in recycling of used diaper.
Textile-reinforced Portland cement-based concrete has been researched and developed over the last few decades. It was widely used in a different range of applications, such as repair and/or strengthening of structural elements, thin walls, lightweight structures, façade elements, and others. Due to its varied application, this study aims to develop the carbon textile-reinforced geopolymer composite. Specimens of rectangular form with the dimensions of 400 × 100 × 15 mm3, reinforced with carbon textile, were produced. Four-point bending test was used to evaluate the effect of carbon textile on the mechanical strength of reinforced geopolymer composite based on the three factors: the different mortar compositions corresponding to the addition of the chopped basalt fiber (BF), the number of carbon textile layers, and the different thicknesses of the mortar cover layer. Besides that, a small part of the pull-out test was also considered to assess the adhesion strength at the interface between carbon textile and geopolymer mortar. The experimental results from the four-point bending test showed that the mechanical strength of composite specimens increased when the content of the chopped basalt fiber increased. With the increasing number of the textile layers, the specimens improved the flexural strength significantly. However, the flexural toughness of the specimens reinforced with three textile layers did not improve, as compared to those reinforced with two textile layers. The experimental results for the specimens related to the mortar cover thicknesses indicated that specimens with the mortar cover thickness of 2 mm provide the best strength. The experimental results from the pull-out tests showed that all the specimens have the same failure mode by slipping of the fiber yarn from the matrix.
Flame retardants are used in a wide range of plastics to extend the time-of-escape from fires. By definition, they are designed to perform this task only in case of a fire, which is then automatically the end of the plastic's lifetime. However, not all flame retardant plastic products are eventually set on fire, which is why they are abundant in plastic waste, potentially interfering with the mechanical recycling systems in place. To date, there has been little information on the influence of flame retardant additives during the mechanical recycling of solid (thermo)plastic waste. This contribution provides a comprehensive overview of the state of the art concerning the mechanical recycling of flame retardants containing polymers and plastics. In a first part, this review discusses the effect of mechanical melt reprocessing on the flame retardant properties of different recycled thermoplastic polymers, addressing questions whether the flame retardant additives are still present and effective after recycling and whether they interfere with the mechanical recycling itself. Special attention is paid to Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment containing flame retardants. A second part of the review lists several upgrading strategies for common polymeric waste streams that consist of adding virgin flame retardants to recycled plastics with the purpose of bringing an additional value to the compound.
Health concerns as a result of harmful UV-rays drive the development of UV-sensors of different kinds. In this research, a UV-responsive smart textile is produced by inkjet printing and UV-LED curing of a specifically designed photochromic ink on PET fabric. This paper focuses on tuning and characterizing the colour performance of a photochromic dye embedded in a UV-curable ink resin. The influence of industrial fabrication parameters on the crosslinking density of the UV-resin and hence on the colour kinetics is investigated. A lower crosslinking density of the UV-resin increases the kinetic switching speed of the photochromic dye molecules upon isomerization. By introducing an extended kinetic model, which defines rate constants kcolouration, kdecay and kdecolouration, the colour performance of photochromic textiles can be predicted. Fabrication parameters present a flexible and fast alternative to polymer conjugation to control kinetics of photochromic dyes in a resin. In particular, industrial fabrication parameters during printing and curing of the photochromic ink are used to set the colour yield, colouration/decolouration rates and the durability, which are important characteristics towards the development of a UV-sensor for smart textile applications.
The textile industry has a high environmental impact, discharging significant amounts of industrial water, consuming high levels of energy, and emitting vast amounts of air pollutants. To meet the requirement of sustainable manufacturing, we built a system-oriented improved design framework based on life cycle assessment (LCA) for an existing polyester–cotton production system to reduce the environmental impacts of the production process. LCA was used to identify candidates for best available technology (BAT) development. The effect of the BATs on environmental, economic, and product performance was evaluated. LCA identified that polyester–cotton production exerted the greatest environmental impacts on marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential, global warming potential, and abiotic depletion. The printing and dyeing stages of the production process were the most damaging to the environment. Six BATs were proposed and all were feasible with clear economic and environmental benefits, as the resource depletion, ecological influence, and human health values were reduced by 50.13, 50.08, and 7.65%, respectively, compared with the existing process. In addition, the quality of the products, such as color fastness and color shade, was greatly improved. We suggest that future studies should also take into consideration the distribution and use stage using accurate and representative original data, to further improve the sustainability of the production process. Human health, fertilizer leakage, land use, and pesticides should also be taken into account within the life cycle of textiles.
Attributes possessed by plastic materials have contributed sustainably to the development of the plastic industry. However, despite these positive aspects of plastics, plastic industries have continued to face a number of challenges into the recovery and recycling of plastic for waste reduction and resource utilization. The study assessed the strategies that would positively influence plastic manufacturing and recycling companies to recover and recycle plastic solid wastes. A total of 15 plastic manufacturing and recycling companies were investigated in Zambia and the results showed favourable responses towards the recovery and recycling of PSW. The results have an economic, social and environmental impact for the plastic manufacturing and recycling companies as well as for the relevant decision makers in the waste management sector.
This paper reviews studies of the environmental impact of textile reuse and recycling, to provide a summary of the current knowledge and point out areas for further research. Forty-one studies were reviewed, whereof 85% deal with recycling and 41% with reuse (27% cover both reuse and recycling). Fibre recycling is the most studied recycling type (57%), followed by polymer/oligomer recycling (37%), monomer recycling (29%), and fabric recycling (14%). Cotton (76%) and polyester (63%) are the most studied materials.
The reviewed publications provide strong support for claims that textile reuse and recycling in general reduce environmental impact compared to incineration and landfilling, and that reuse is more beneficial than recycling. The studies do, however, expose scenarios under which reuse and recycling are not beneficial for certain environmental impacts. For example, as benefits mainly arise due to the avoided production of new products, benefits may not occur in cases with low replacement rates or if the avoided production processes are relatively clean. Also, for reuse, induced customer transport may cause environmental impact that exceeds the benefits of avoided production, unless the use phase is sufficiently extended.
In terms of critical methodological assumptions, authors most often assume that textiles sent to recycling are wastes free of environmental burden, and that reused products and products made from recycled materials replace products made from virgin fibres. Examples of other content mapped in the review are: trends of publications over time, common aims and geographical scopes, commonly included and omitted impact categories, available sources of primary inventory data, knowledge gaps and future research needs. The latter include the need to study cascade systems, to explore the potential of combining various reuse and recycling routes.
Environmental impacts of the mineral extraction have been a public concern. Presently, there is widespread global interest in the area of mining and its sustainability that focused on the need to shift mining industry to a more sustainable framework. The aim of this study was to systematically assess all possible environmental and climate change related impacts of the limestone quarrying operation in Thailand. By considering the life cycle assessment method, the production processes were divided into three phases: raw material extraction, transportation, and comminution. Both IMPACT 2002+ and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol methods were used. Results of IMPACT 2002+ analysis showed that per 1 ton crushed limestone rock production, the total depletion of resource and GHGs emissions were 79.6 MJ and 2.76 kg CO
The plastics of waste of electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) are improved for fire safety by flame retardants, and particularly brominated flame retardants (BFR). As waste, the management of these plastic fractions must comply with the update of the regulation of waste hazard classification (2014, 2017), the publication of a technical standard on management of WEEE (2015), and a restriction of use for decabromodiphenylether in the product regulation (2017).
Data of bromine (n = 4283) and BFR concentrations (n = 98) in plastics from electric and electronic equipment (EEE), and from WEEE processing facilities before and after sorting for bromine in four sites in France have been studied for chemical composition and for regulatory classification. The WEEE was analysed by handheld X-ray fluorescence, and the waste was sorted after shredding, by on-line X-ray transmission for total bromine content (< or > 2000 mg/kg) in small household appliances (SHA), cathode ray tubes (CRT) and flat screens plastics.
In equipment (n = 347), 15% of the equipment items have no bromine, while 46% have at least one part with bromine, and 39% have all parts brominated. The bromine concentration in plastics is very heterogeneous, found in high concentrations in large household appliance (LHA) plastics, and also found in unexpected product categories, as observed by other authors. Clearly, an unwanted global loop of brominated substances occurs via the international recycling of plastic scrap.
In waste (n = 65), polybromobiphenyls, polybromodiphenylethers (PBDE), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecane were analysed. The most concentrated BFRs are decaBDE (3000 mg/kg) and TBBPA (8000 mg/kg). The bromine concentration of regulated brominated substances was identified in 2014 and 2015 to be up to 86% of total bromine in “old” waste (SHA, CRT), 30–50% in “younger” waste (Flat screens), and a mean of only 8% in recent products (2009–2013). Regulated substances are a minority of all the brominated substances and the only practical way to sort is to measure total bromine on-line. The sorting reduces the mean bromine concentration in the “Low Br” fraction in all sites, and reduces the decaBDE concentration to levels below the restricted use limit. After sorting, the concentration in the “High Br” fractions exceeds all present or future regulatory limits.
In conclusion, sorting of small household appliances, cathode ray tubes and flat screen plastics is necessary to avoid uncontrolled dispersion of regulated substances in recycled raw material. Other categories (large household appliances, electric and electronic tools, lighting equipment) should also be considered, since their total bromine content (unweighted mean concentration) is high for some of these products. A European campaign consisting of 7 countries and 35 sites will begin in 2017, directed by WEEE Forum, the European association speaking for thirty-one not-for-profit e-waste producer responsibility organisations, to assess the mean bromine content of plastics from large household appliances after shredding.
This review presents a comprehensive description of the current pathways for recycling of polymers, via both mechanical and chemical recycling. The principles of these recycling pathways are framed against current-day industrial reality, by discussing predominant industrial technologies, design strategies and recycling examples of specific waste streams. Starting with an overview on types of solid plastic waste (SPW) and their origins, the manuscript continues with a discussion on the different valorisation options for SPW. The section on mechanical recycling contains an overview of current sorting technologies, specific challenges for mechanical recycling such as thermo-mechanical or lifetime degradation and the immiscibility of polymer blends. It also includes some industrial examples such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling, and SPW from post-consumer packaging, end-of-life vehicles or electr(on)ic devices. A separate section is dedicated to the relationship between design and recycling, emphasizing the role of concepts such as Design from Recycling. The section on chemical recycling collects a state-of-the-art on techniques such as chemolysis, pyrolysis, fluid catalytic cracking, hydrogen techniques and gasification. Additionally, this review discusses the main challenges (and some potential remedies) to these recycling strategies and ground them in the relevant polymer science, thus providing an academic angle as well as an applied one.
Waste recycling is a livelihood for the marginalized society in the developing economies and it is not surprising to find recycling of municipal solid waste (MSW) been carried out. Plastic waste is a waste type in MSW yet a number of challenges still exist in managing this waste type. A literature review was conducted to identify the key drivers to sustainable development of post-consumer packaging plastic waste recycling systems in developed and developing economies. A number of articles focusing on drivers or factors influencing sustainable management and recycling of solid waste and municipal solid waste were reviewed. Further analysis of the results indicated a number of drivers from the economic, environmental and social aspect as drivers to sustainable development of recycling systems for post-consumer packaging plastic solid waste.
This paper examines the impact of the Chinese recycling subsidy policy (CRS-policy) on the recycling and reuse industry across the whole product life cycle. We propose a closed-loop dynamic system to illustrate the production flow and interactions among various industry and market factors. A simulation analysis is conducted using data on gas auto engines in China to evaluate the effectiveness of the CRS-policy in encouraging product recycling and reuse. Specifically, we analyze the preventative and regenerative effects of the CRS-policy, and its impact on environmental pollution and social welfare. We further investigate how market factors, including the manufacturer’s innovation environment, consumer environmental awareness and sensitivity to the subsidy, and recycling and reuse industry profit, affect the effectiveness of the CRS-policy. The study provides strong evidence of the important role of the subsidy policy in the recycling and reuse industry and offers insightful recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness of the subsidy policy.
Products that are produced by various industries such as agriculture, food, mining, chemistry, and textile cannot meet the needs of humankind since the world's population continues to grow exponentially. Furthermore, the reduction in natural resources forced researchers to produce new synthetic products by utilization of technology and led them to study recycling of existing natural resources. This study compares some properties of yarns and fabrics produced by virgin and recycled polyester and cotton fibers. Virgin cotton, recycled cotton, virgin polyester, recycled polyester fibers, and blends of these fibers were used to manufacture open end rotor yarns. Single jersey fabrics were knitted from these yarns. Physical properties of yarns and fabrics such as tensile strength, unevenness, yarn imperfections, burst strength, pilling and coefficient of kinetic friction were measured and statistically compared. Although generally the properties of yarns and fabrics produced from virgin fibers were better than that of produced from recycled fibers, producing textile products with optimum quality is stressed in this study.
Cotton is one of the primary resources in many modern industries and with increasing demand rates the current challenge is to find other sources of cotton production with lower prices and higher quality whereas cotton produced only by agriculture is not sufficient for these needs. This is focused on developing a new strategy to make the textile waste a new sustainable source of recovered cotton to face this shortage. This strategy is summarized as development of a chemical technology using sustainable and commercial chemicals to recover cotton from waste textile. The technology consists of three sequential processes: a) textile dye leaching using Nitric Acid as a pretreatment of the original waste, b) dissolution process using Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) as the main treatment to dissolve the organic materials from the treated fabric, including polyester and remaining organic part from textile dyes, and c) bleaching process using sodium hypochlorite and diluted hydrochloric acid for final recovered cotton purification. Preliminary experiments were performed at a laboratory scale to determine the optimum conditions on a few grams of two different types of denim fabric. To simulate the pilot scale, the main experimental work was conducted for full-size blue and black waste jeans trousers in a developed reactor with capacity 1 kg based on the preliminary experimental results. To close the lifecycle loop of the suggested strategy, rotary evaporator was used to extract the polymeric part and regenerate the spent DMSO, while the acid was regenerated by activated carbon. Additionally, suggestions on treatment of the water contaminated by acid and solvent (obtained after washing) were given. Morphology, thermal behavior, and chemical structure of the recovered cotton, regenerated acid, solvent, and recovered polyester were investigated. Based on the recycling rate (93%), profitability (1466 $/ tonne), greenhouse gas emissions (-1,534 CO2-eq/ tonne), and sustainability assessment, the developed strategy can be seen as a high-potential approach for recovery of cotton.
The market for recycled cotton appears to be growing; however the main obstacle for cotton recycling is the lower quality of the resultant products. Therefore, detailed investigation of recycled cotton processes from separation/shredding to finishing is of great importance. This contribution reveals the effects of the type of cotton based textile wastes on recycled fibre properties after shredding. For this purpose, pre-consumer knitted cotton textile wastes were collected in a systematic way and sorted according to fabric tightness (loose/single-jersey and tight/interlock) and previous finishing treatments (untreated greige cotton fabrics and dyed cotton fabrics). The effect of the size of the waste fabric pieces fed to shredding was also investigated. Waste ratio of recycled fibres, recycled fibre length, spinnability of recycled cotton fibres and properties of produced yarns were tested. Results showed that lower waste ratio of recycled fibres and higher yarn breaking strength values was obtained by the recycling of cotton fibres from wastes composed of single-jersey greige cotton fabrics. In general recycled cotton fibres from dyed fabrics showed lower quality values. As a conclusion, it was indicated that better values for resultant material could be achieved by the selection of loosely knitted greige cotton fabrics.
The textile/apparel industry is of great importance to the economy in terms of trade, employment, investment and revenue all over the world. This sector is however characterised by substantial losses, due to production excesses on the one hand, and the “throw away” culture on the other. This state of affairs suggests that textile recycling is needed. Apart from the environmental and ecological advantages which can be brought about by the re-use and recycling of textiles, there are many benefits of a socio-economic nature. This paper analyses current trends on textile recycling, the barriers impeding greater recycling, and outlines the socio-economic advantages of moving towards a circular economy. Some examples of on-going initiatives are discussed, together with some of the measures that may be used to further reduce the current waste deriving from the apparel sector.
Understanding the environmental profile of a product computed from the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) framework is sometimes challenging due to the high number of environmental indicators involved. The objective here, in guiding interpretation of LCA results, is to highlight the importance of each impact category for each product alternative studied. For a given product, the proposed methodology identifies the impact categories that are worth focusing on, relatively to a whole set of products from the same cumulated database. The approach extends the analysis of Representativeness Indices (RI) developed by Esnouf et al. (2018). It proposes a new operational tool for calculating RIs at the level of impact categories for a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) result. Impact categories and LCI results are defined as vectors within a standardized vector space and a procedure is proposed to treat issues coming from the correlation of impact category vectors belonging to the same Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method. From the cumulated ecoinvent database, LCI results of the Chinese and the German electricity mixes illustrate the method. Relevant impact categories of the EU-standardized ILCD method are then identified. RI results from all products of a cumulated LCI database were therefore analysed to assess the main tendencies of the impact categories of the ILCD method. This operational approach can then significantly contribute to the interpretation of the LCA results by pointing to the specificities of the inventories analysed and for identifying the main representative impact categories.
Any industry have significant impact on environment and textile manufacturing is one of the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. This paper summarizes and discusses the ecofriendly achievements within development of textile industry dealing with three main contributors: production, consumption and recycling. It shows that although significant environmental friendly technological improvements were made in primary textile production whereas, recycling and consumer awareness have low sustainability level for textile industry. The emphasis was also made on comparison of textile industry with other ones (paper, aluminium, glass) showing significantly higher recycling rate. Waste management regulation for textiles and the lack for standardization for global textile waste management are also discussed. Low recycling rate and continuously increasing demand in textile production makes it difficult to establish the balance between industrial and environmental systems necessary to increased life cycle for textile products. Importance of simultaneous involvement and development of customer awareness, sustainable manufacturing and high recycling level should, therefore, be in focus.
Plastics, used in countless consumer products that our daily lives depend on, have become indispensable materials essential for modern life and the global economy. At the same time, currently unsustainable practices in the production and disposal of plastics continue to deplete our finite natural resources and create severe worldwide environmental consequences. In the search for feasible solutions to these issues, significant recent advances have been made in developing chemically recyclable plastics, which allow for recovery of the building-block chemicals via depolymerization, for repolymerization to virgin-quality plastics, or for creative repurposing into value-added materials. Among such recyclable plastics, polyesters derived from renewable cyclic esters possess real potential to meet these challenges. Hence, this review highlights the plastics derived from common four-, five-, six-, seven-, and eight-membered cyclic esters by covering synthetic strategies, material properties, and, particularly, chemical recyclability. Such studies have culminated a recent discovery of infinitely recyclable plastics with properties of common plastics.
One of the biggest threats to living species is environmental damage and consequent global warming. Industrialization in every field is responsible for these issues. We know that the textile industry is a gigantic industry and a huge polluter. Fiber is the basic raw material for textiles. It is necessary to initiate utilization of eco-materials to produce eco-textiles. Based on these facts, we briefly describe the eco-fibers used in textiles and their recent developments. Currently, cotton is the world’s most popular natural fiber, accounting for 80% of all natural fibers used, but the cultivation of cotton is such a thorough environmental and health disaster as to be almost unbelievable. But all of these environmental and health hazards can be taken care of by cultivation of organic cotton. Activities related to organic cotton cultivation are increasing in cotton-growing countries worldwide. Chemical processing of naturally colored cotton is not essential, and environmental pollution due to its chemical processing is thereby eliminated. Lyocell is produced by using the eco-friendly solvent N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. Apart from that, we know that synthetic fibers are nondegradable and nonrenewable, and also significantly increase consumption of hydrocarbons (petroleum products) and translocation of carbon from the ground into the atmosphere. This chapter deals with various eco-fibers used in textiles – namely organic cotton, colored cotton, lyocell, bamboo, and other naturally based eco-fibers – and synthetic polyester based on polymerization of lactic acid obtained from corn.
The textile finishing industry, which is the backbone of the fashion clothing sector, creates the highest volume of waste water compared with other stages in textile manufacturing. The expectations of modern consumers regarding the textile products they use have increased dramatically; consumers want textiles that suit their taste and are health-friendly. It is now very important for the textile industries to reconsider the technologies and chemicals used, so that they can satisfy environmental and consumer requirements. Enzymes, nature-based finishing agents, nanotechnology and disruptive technologies such as plasma finishing are gradually replacing conventional systems for finishing textile materials. Enzymes are used in textile finishing processes such as bio-stoning and are good alternatives to toxic chemicals because they are specific in action and can be broken down into simple by-products. Herbal textiles use plant extracts for finishing and are becoming popular. This chapter discusses eco-friendly finishing of textile materials using nanotechnology, plasma treatment, enzymes, biopolymers and other nature-based finishing agents. We also discuss worldwide environmental regulations and schemes for textile products and their production processes.
Textiles release fibres to the environment during production, use, and at end-of-life disposal. Approximately two-thirds of all textile items are now synthetic, dominated by petroleum-based organic polymers such as polyester, polyamide and acrylic. Plastic microfibres (<5 mm) and nanofibres (<100 nm) have been identified in ecosystems in all regions of the globe and have been estimated to comprise up to 35% of primary microplastics in marine environments, a major proportion of microplastics on coastal shorelines and to persist for decades in soils treated with sludge from waste water treatment plants. In this paper we present a critical review of factors affecting the release from fabrics of microfibres, and of the risks for impacts on ecological systems and potentially on human health. This review is used as a basis for exploring the potential to include a metric for microplastic pollution in tools that have been developed to quantify the environmental performance of apparel and home textiles. We conclude that the simple metric of mass or number of microfibres released combined with data on their persistence in the environment, could provide a useful interim mid-point indicator in sustainability assessment tools to support monitoring and mitigation strategies for microplastic pollution. Identified priority research areas include: (1) Standardised analytical methods for textile microfibres and nanofibres; (2) Ecotoxicological studies using environmentally realistic concentrations; (3) Studies tracking the fate of microplastics in complex food webs; and (4) Refined indicators for microfibre impacts in apparel and home textile sustainability assessment tools.
All over the world, environmental considerations are now becoming vital factors during the selection of consumer goods which include textiles. According to the World Bank, 20% of water pollution globally is caused by textile processing, which means that these industries produce vast amounts of wastewater. Generally, these effluents contain high levels of suspended solids (SS), phosphates, dyes, salts, organo-pesticides, non-biodegradable organics, and heavy metals. Increase in water scarcity and environmental regulations has led to textile industries to seek for sustainable wastewater treatment methods which help to reduce their water footprint as well as reduce their operational costs. Therefore, sustainable wastewater treatment could be the best choice for the textile industries with respect to the current issues. So, it is important to discuss and champion awareness mechanisms which help to reduce the current issues with respect to the textile wastewater. Therefore, this chapter intends to discuss the various sustainable wastewater treatments, namely granular activated carbon (GAC), electrocoagulation (EC), ultrasonic treatment, an advanced oxidation process (AOP), ozonation, membrane biological reactor (MBR), and sequencing batch reactor (SBR).
Due to their superior properties, plastics derived from petroleum have been extensively used almost in everyday life since last few decades. Because of lack in the manageability of plastic solid waste, their volume is increasing steadily in the natural world. Unfortunately, the disposal of plastics wastes in the oceans and land filling has led to a global issue. To effectively and efficiently deal with plastic solid waste is becoming a great challenge for the society as plastic solid waste creates big threat to our environment. Recycling of plastics solid waste should be performed to produce products having same quality to original plastics. This review article gives an overview of plastics solid waste with particular emphasis on the recent progress in polystyrene based plastics.
The denim sector is booming worldwide, because of the spread of denim culture. All over the world it has brought with it a trend of fast-changing fashion. Denim washing has emerged as one of the important production routes toward meeting the fast-changing demands of the fashion market. There are huge ecological concerns, as this sector is enormous. Approximately 1500 gallons of water is needed to produce 1.5 pounds of cotton to make one pair of jeans. If this continues, soon it will pose a serious problem to drinking water supplies. It is therefore important to study the environmental impact of denim and find alternative processes. This chapter starts by describing the different types of denim washing techniques. In addition, it discusses the environmental impact of denim dry and wet washing techniques, and the importance of environmentally friendly washing techniques. It also describes the latest denim finishing technologies, comparing their impacts on the environment with those of the classic techniques. Further, the environmental aspects of auxiliaries and washing chemicals are reviewed, followed by a discussion of garment washing and finishing processes.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an important tool to evaluate environmental ‘hot spots’ in livestock systems and recommend production improvements. However, it is common for livestock LCA to investigate only a narrow subset of environmental impacts to simplify results for decision-makers, which makes it difficult to fully understand the tradeoffs among environmental impacts and identify the most relevant mitigation options. We completed a systematic review of the livestock LCA literature to better understand the impact categories included and the progress made towards more comprehensive LCA. Our search of publications between 2000 and 2016 identified 173 relevant peer-reviewed papers. Nearly all the publications (98%) included climate change as an impact category and almost one-third of the publications (28%) focused solely on that one category. Biodiversity, ionizing radiation, and particulate matter were the least common categories addressed. Cattle LCA, including dairy or beef, were the livestock species most frequently evaluated. Our analysis shows that while the number of multi-category livestock LCA (LCA with 4 or more impact categories) increased over time, LCA including 1–3 impact categories (which we define as “simplified LCA”) increased at a higher rate than multi-category LCA. Simplified LCA therefore remain the most prevalent in the literature. Publications that included multiple impact categories were better able to identify environmental impact tradeoffs among livestock production systems and management scenarios. To compare results across livestock LCA studies, it is necessary to increase the standardization of system boundaries, functional units, impact frameworks and mandatory inputs. The optional steps of normalization and weighting in the life cycle impact assessment can also help decision-makers prioritize which environmental impacts to address. More work that includes a greater number of impact categories in livestock LCA is sorely needed to more fully understand and to harmonize the communication of the environmental performance of livestock production systems.
This book discusses in detail the concepts of recycling and upcycling and their implications for the textiles and fashion sector. In addition to the theoretical concepts, the book also presents various options for recycling and upcycling in textiles and fashion. Although recycling is a much-developed and widely used concept, upcycling is also gaining popularity in the sector.
Polymer concrete (PC) has superior mechanical properties in comparison with cement concrete. In this research, the mechanical behavior of polyester polymer concrete (PPC) and its polyester resin were studied at different loading rates. Special specimens for testing the PPC and the polyester resin under low strain rate loading conditions were fabricated. Experiments were performed under different strain rates, from 0.00033 to 0.15 s⁻¹, and results for the PPC and the polyester resin were compared. Furthermore, the influence of strain rate on the mechanical response of the neat polyester and the PPC was investigated. The results show a maximum 40% increase in tensile strength of the neat polyester, while the elastic modulus does not change significantly. The compressive strength of the PPC increases by 25%. These results show that the mechanical behavior of the polyester resin and its PC is extremely sensitive to the strain rate.
This work describes the composition of the products from solvolysis of thermoset polyester in an acetone/water mixture. A qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the compositions of the aqueous and oil phases was achieved by the combination of liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and total organic carbon (TOC). Close to 100% of the organic carbon in the aqueous phase was explained by the monomers phthalic acid and dipropylene glycol, co-solvent acetone, and a secondary reaction product, isophorone. In the oil, the most abundant compounds were isophorone, 3,3,6,8-tetramethyl-1-tetralone, and dihydroisophorone. While the first two compounds were intermediates in the self-condensation of acetone, dihydroisophorone has not been reported previously as the by-product of the conventional acetone self-condensation reaction pathway. The quantification results have shown that solvolysis can be successfully used to close the loop in the polymer life cycle while producing a broad spectrum of high-value products that could be recycled for production of polymers, used as a building blocks, or as fine chemicals.
Cradle to Cradle (C2C) offers a positive vision of a future, where products are radically redesigned to be beneficial to humans and the environment. The idea is not to reduce negative impacts (as in LCA), but to increase positive impacts. This chapter presents the C2C concept and its relationship with the circular economy, the C2C certification and examples of C2C certified or inspired products and systems. This is followed by a comparison of C2C with eco-efficiency and LCA. Because of their important differences, we conclude that care should be taken when combing C2C and LCA, e.g. using LCA to evaluate products inspired by C2C. We then provide an in-depth analysis of the conflicts between C2C and LCA and offer solutions. Finally, we reflect upon how LCA practitioners can learn from C2C in terms of providing a vision of a sustainable future, creating a sense of urgency for change and communicating results in an inspiring way.
The consumer phase of the life cycle is a term used to describe the progression of steps a customer goes through when considering, purchasing, using and maintaining a product (here it is jeans). The purpose of this chapter is to propose a rating model that measures the consumer phase of the life-cycle assessment (LCA) for denim, specifically during washing, drying and ironing of textile products. However, various consumer phase activities such as home laundering, pressing and drying were shown to be significantly responsible for environmental impacts. This chapter mainly focuses on the consumer phase of the life cycle, including the major denim producers, global market potentials, denim consumption per capita and consumer phase of the LCA. The consumer phase of the LCA was discussed according to the LCA report by Levi Strauss & Co. In it, they conducted studies in China, France, the United Kingdom and the United States to understand differences in washing, pressing and drying habits. Overall results showed that in the overall life cycle, the consumer phase alone consumes 37% of energy, which causes a huge impact on global climate change. This report also concluded that Americans use more water and energy to wash their jeans than do consumers in China, France and the United Kingdom.
The textile industry has one of the largest environmental impacts in the world. Owing to ecological concerns, it is necessary to find ways to reduce these environmental impacts. This is true of denim because it is made of cotton, which in most cases is a polluting crop dyed with indigo, a dye with a damaging degree of fixation which initiates huge ecological problems. Life-cycle assessments provide data from every stage of a product's life, from the cradle to the grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through cultivation, manufacturing, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). These data can be considered one of the first ways to reduce environmental impacts. Therefore, it is important to know the life-cycle assessment of denim and how it affects the ecosystem. This chapter provides some ideas about the life-cycle assessment and its importance, the life cycle of denim, the life-cycle assessment tool, phases of the life-cycle assessment and a life-cycle assessment of denim with actual data.
The production of denim garments requires a number of processes such as spinning, colouration, weaving and garment finishing. However, there are several health and hazard issues associated with this industry; the hazards and risk involved are high compared with other manufacturing industries. This chapter will look at issues involving threats to the environment and the health hazards of the denim industry, from raw materials to finished products. It first provides an overview of pollution caused by the denim industry. Then it elaborates on health problems and hazards in the denim industry, with a case study. The effects of different chemicals on human health are discussed. Furthermore, it describes different types of denim processing with respect to health concerns. Finally, it describes the responsibilities of brands and designers, which help to save the environment as well as human lives.
Glycerol esters and ethers, as well as polyglycerols (PGs) and polyesters are amongst the most important glycerol derivatives. The higher stability of the ether compared to the ester bond makes, e.g., glycerol ethers, preferable to esters as bioderived surfactants. Direct production of glycerol carbonate from glycerol seems within reach, whereas the straightforward route to bio-based polyurethane (PU) foams of high performance using biopolyols derived from crude glycerol remains of significant industrial interest. Linear PGs are rapidly emerging as precursors of biocompatible polyglycerol esters (PGEs) in great demand. Finally, glycerol polyesters include poly(glycerol sebacate), lately commercialized as new generation biomaterial, and the first bio-based thermoset from glycerol and citric acid, a versatile resin already commercialized (Plantics-GX) as alternative to replace PUs, polystyrene, and epoxy resins.
Sustainability and its assessment are highly critical to industries, governments and even to customers. Every industrial sector, company, individual and even government and different nations have sustainability goals and commitments. It is inevitable to measure the level of sustainability achievement by all these above-mentioned players and for this, a tool to assess sustainability is highly desirable. Assessment of sustainability is an important topic in any field. Choosing a right tool to suit the needs of different players in the field of sustainability is very much crucial. As mentioned in earlier chapter, sustainability focuses on three major elements namely environmental, economic and social aspects and any assessment technique needs to focus on this triple-line thinking. Sustainability can be assessed for a product/process, project and also for a sector and a country. Assessment tools are classified by various ways. Various authors have classified these tools in various ways according to the ruler/scale/method. Not all tools can be used for textiles and clothing supply chain, and some of the tools are highly evident to assess the sustainability of textile products. This chapter deals with various sustainability tools and their implications in textile industry.
As the textile, apparel, fashion, and retail industries move to become more sustainable, an area of interest is the use of recycled fiber, yarn, fabric, and product content in the development and production of new products. The decision to use recycled materials in products must occur during design and product development and continue throughout the manufacturing processes. There are several recognized stages in recycling collection, processing, and then use in a new product. Recycled materials used in textile and apparel products can be obtained throughout the textile and apparel supply chain and post-consumer collection methods. The use of recycled raw materials aligns with the larger movements of global industries toward a circular economy (vs. linear) and working to achieve a closed-loop production cycle. This chapter reviews the textile and apparel industry, factors that have influenced the generation and use of waste and recycling processes currently used today. Selected brands that have programs and products that contain recycled content are identified here.
The world production of synthetic polymers exceeds 100 million tons per year - the quantity sufficient to annually wrap the Earth in a foil about one micron thick. In the foreseeable future this quantity will increase by a factor of ten. Thus, it is becoming increasingly important to recycle plastics. The methods of recycling must differ, depending on the polymer types and locations. Recycling within the resin manufacturers’ plants is the easiest, more difficult is that in processing plants where commingled polymeric scrap is generated, but the most difficult is recycling of post-consumer polymers.
Clothing, or "the second skin," not only provides an additional shield for most parts of the body, but also creates a portable living microclimate that improves human survival. A growing interest in the use of antimicrobial active textiles/clothing has being developed as a desirable goal of prevention and nonpharmacological treatment for the management of atopic dermatitis and skin infective diseases.This review focuses on new development of antimicrobial active textiles using appropriate natural or special-treated fabrics coated with antimicrobial agents or using nanotechnology and nanomaterial in the care of atopic dermatitis or other skin diseases. Clinical evaluations of current available antimicrobial active textiles were summarized according to the aim, design, human subjects, intervention/control, duration, and SCORAD index and other outcomes. Lastly, evaluation of the safety of antimicrobial textiles for humans and the environment is also discussed.
Treatment of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle wastes is one of the ways of utilizing solid household garbage accumulated in dumps worldwide, including in Russia. A large part of the utilized PET bottles in the form of washed flakes is processed into staple fibre for nonwoven materials and fillers. The German company BBE offered equipment and technology that allow conversion of PET flakes into a product akin to a standard primary polymer, which makes it possible to cast polyester textile filaments of the desired quality and thereby not only to expand the sales market, but also to solve important ecological and economic problems.
A study was conducted to report the properties of lyocell nonwovens which benefited nonwovens producers and consumers. Comparisons of lyocell with viscose and other cellulosic fibers in laboratory and test markets proved that the fibers were sufficiently different to deserve separate marketing strategies. Lyocell fiber strength could be efficiently translated into fabric properties in needle felt technology with a significant increase in wet strength and viscose. Lyocell formed more open and bulkier needled structures than viscose and this coupled with the higher wet-resilience of lyocell gave increased absorbent capacities. Fibrillated lyocell fibers were used in the production of a wide range of special purpose papers. Lyocell also generated sub-micron fibrils that improved mechanical properties and enhanced the fine pore structure and filtration characteristics.
Effect of reprocessing on poly(ethylene terephthalate), PET, is studied. While mechanical properties show slight decrease, the weight-average molecular weight, M̄W, drops more notably. Blends of 20 w/w % recycled PET with virgin PET show practically the same mechanical properties with its M̄w slightly lower than virgin PET. The results suggest that mechanical blending can be used for recycling purposes without sacrificing useful properties of the virgin PET, and to reduce raw material cost in bottle fabrication.