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D. Bhandari and B. Bista (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(2): 167-173
DOI: 10.3126/ijasbt.v7i2.24647
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org&http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT
Permaculture: A Key Driver for Sustainable Agriculture in Nepal
Devashish Bhandari
1
*, Bishal Bista1
1Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
Abstract
Our study primarily focused on permaculture for sustained agriculture. Permaculture can be a best alternative for modern
industrial and commercial based agriculture which has given a good yield at present but, it is deteriorating soil quality and other
environmental aspects. More ever it can lead to a global threat in the future due to overuse and somewhere due to unutilized
resources which may give rise to the food and economic insecurity. By compiling the different literatures, we reviewed that
permaculture enriches soil quality by increasing organic matter in soil thus increasing water retention capacity, infiltration,
nutrient availability, microbial activities and decreasing the erosion. Thus, it increases physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil. It provides food and economic safety by providing diverse crops, increasing yield and income of farm and
providing least cost inputs with increasing output. It is an efficient in terms of resource use as it utilizes renewable resources
and makes connections like a web among resources. This review can be useful information for students, research topic for
permaculturists for making it smoother and other environmental enthusiast.
Keywords: Permaculture; Sustained agriculture; Soil organic matter; diverse crop; Web among resources
Introduction
Permaculture was developed in the early 1970 by two
Aussies ecologists Bill Mollison and David Holmgren. It is
used alternatively with agroforestry but we are not familiar
more with term permaculture although it is practiced from
long ago (Tomczak, 2007). The term permaculture has itself
3 words permanent, agriculture and culture (Tomczak,
2007). It is bounded with the principle that a stable,
sustainable culture is possible only if we integrate it with a
system of sustainable agriculture (Holmgren, 2002;
Whitefield, 2004). It is principally focused on developing
the strong relation between community and agriculture with
secured status of food and economy for long term
agriculture. Permaculture system seeks for ameliorating the
danger and destructiveness resulted by modern agro
Cite this article as:
D. Bhandari and B. Bista (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(2): 167-173. DOI: 10.3126/ijasbt.v7i2.24647
*Corresponding author
Devashish Bhandari,
Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
Email: bhandaridevashish20@gmail.com
Peer reviewed under authority of IJASBT
© 2019 International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology
This is an open access article & it is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
industrial products such as fertilizer, pesticide, herbicide,
insecticide (Gever et al., 1991; Holmgren, 2002). The four
assumptions on which permaculture is based are (1) The
environmental crisis is real and if its magnitude increases it
will threaten the existence of a society (2) Humans are
subjected to some natural laws that teach them to govern the
universe (3) The industrial era and population explosion can
be attributed to exploitation of cheap abundant fossil fuels
(4) The energy resources are scarce but human has
unlimited desires so resources will be depleted and human
society will return to preindustrial era (Holmgren, 2002). In
permaculture humans and nature cannot be isolated from
each other as they are closely linked therefore caring the
earth means fulfilling the objectives of people (Holmgren,
2002; Mollison et al., 1991). Permaculture is a philosophy,
Mini Review
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D. Bhandari and B. Bista (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(2): 167-173
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a sustainable practice and an act based on ethics of 1. care
for earth 2. care for people 3. setting limits to consumption
(Tomczak, 2007). Principles on which permaculture is
based as described by Holmgren (2002) are listed below:
1. Observing and interacting: Beauty is in the eye of
beholder.
2. Catching and storing energy: Make hay while the
sun shines
3. Obtaining a yield: you can’t work on empty
stomach.
4. Applying self-regulation and accepting feedback:
Sins of feathers are visited on the children onto 7th
generation
5. Using and valuing renewable energy sources: Let
nature takes it course
6. Producing no waste: Waste not, want not.
7. Designing from patterns to details: Can’t see the
wood for the trees
8. Integrating rather than segregating: Many hands
make light work
9. Using small and slow solutions: Slow and steady
wins the race
10. Using and valuing diversity: Don’t put all your
eggs in one basket
11. Using edges and valuing the marginal: Don’t think
you are on right path just because it is easily
travelled
12. Creativeness for using and responding to change:
Vision is not seeing things as they are but as they
will be.
“Permaculture is the conscious design and maintenance of
agriculturally productive ecosystem that is characterized by
sustainable, diversified, stable and resiliency with
integration of all components of ecosystem so that various
objectives of a community are fulfilled in a sustainable
way” (Mollison et al., 1991). The primarily understood and
applied designed tools in permaculture are zone and sector
analysis (Hemenway, 2000; Holmgren, 2002; Mollison et
al., 1991; Whitefield, 2004). There are 6 zones in
permaculture and the components of each is applied at
different scales, both physically and conceptually. For
example on a household scale, zone 0 would be at inside
home, zone 1 intensively managed gardens and landscape
just outside the home, zone 2 less intensively managed
orchards, zone 3 field crops, zone 4very low management
grazing and zone 5 the wilderness (Whitefield, 2004).
Rationale of Study
After the Green Revolution period, with increased crop
yield due to high use of modern agro inputs, the Asian
agriculture has also suffered from many problems like
sustainability, stagnant yield, water logging, soil erosion,
fluctuation in prices and severe natural calamities
(MahendraDev, 2012). In Nepal about 65.6% people are
engaged in agriculture and agriculture constitutes about 33
% of GDP (MoAD, 2017).It is reported that Soil organic
carbon has been depleted due to long term nutrient
exhaustive farming system and transformation of existing
natural ecosystem to cropping and grazing lands
(MahendraDev, 2012) .It is revealed that most agricultural
soils have lost 30 to 40 MT of carbon per hectare and their
current reserves of soil organic carbon are much lower than
their potential capacity (Lal, 2009). Most of the researchers
believed that urea based fertilizer leads to more nitrous
oxide gas emissions than ammonium or nitrate fertilizers.
But from the recent research it is reported that both
environmental factors such as soil conditions and climate
and management factors such as tillage operations and
cropping culture play a key role in nitrogen loss from field
as nitrous oxide (Flynn, 2009). It is reported that land
degradation and soil erosion in South Asia are mainly due
to unscientific land use practices, rapid rate of deforestation,
poor irrigation and drainage, inadequate soil conservation,
steep slopes and overgrazing (Vasudeva, 2002). Shifting
cultivation for farming has also resulted in impacts on
environment. It is shown that recent trend for keeping
fallow for short period has also resulted in declined soil
fertility, decreased crop yield and threatened food security
(Grogan,2012). It is reported that high land fragmentation
and accelerated rate of conversion of agricultural land as a
result of urbanization are two main threats for food security
in Nepal (Paudel, 2014). Agricultural technologies also
attribute for environmental degradation.
Soil nutrient loss has become a serious issue in Nepalese
agriculture. Pesticide related health problems are common
in developing countries reaching to extremity and it is
affected by various factors like poverty, illiteracy, lack of
health facilities or ignorance (Devi, 2009). Many problems
such as food insecurity, poverty and demographic dynamics
are caused by environmental degradation due to lowered
agricultural productivity (Acharya and Kafle, 2009).
Pesticides residues are also causing environmental
degradation. The impact of pesticides on agricultural goods
vary according to the type of pesticides used but, it was
revealed that all pesticide residue caused nutrient imbalance
and decreased quality of agricultural produce (Prescott,
2002). Unsafe pesticide application has caused harm to the
health of applicator along with the health of other farm
residents (Nicole, 2003).It is reported that long-term
exposure to pesticides causes asthma (Hoppin et al., 2002)
,sterility (Tuc et al., 2007). Scholars believed that pesticide
catalysed the development of cancer and pesticide
poisoning was more significant in developing countries as
compared to developed countries (Hou, 2010). All these
problems are encountered mostly as well in Nepalese
agriculture due to our unscientific farming practices but, we
have ample resources which can build a good permaculture
design and rectify these problems of Nepalese agriculture.
This review article is written from review of different
168
D. Bhandari and B. Bista (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(2): 167-173
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org&http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT
literatures so that it can be a useful information for students,
a good research topic for permaculture specialists and other
environmental enthusiasts who are trying to do research in
environmental sectors integrating agriculture.
Permaculture for Sustained Agriculture
Amelioration of Soil Quality
Permaculture is a good approach for ameliorating soil
quality. Permaculture is a new opportunity for soil
protection and its nourishment as well as it is an alternative
way to save natural resources thus, ensuring greater self-
sufficiency (Korze, 2018). Soil is a medium for all plant
growth and life in the earth is healthy only if the soil is
maintained healthy. Permaculture varies from other soil
management practices which links resources found in our
communities and ecosystems and requires less inputs
(Korze, 2018). Beneficial effects of permaculture with soil
quality can be proved through increased organic matter of
soil, improved soil structure, root penetration, increased
moisture content, increased rate of infiltration and
decreased soil susceptibility to compaction, erosion and
landslides which can conserve soil and its nutrient reserve
(Korze, 2018). Mulching in the soil has kept humidity in the
upper horizon of soil and it has significant effect in soil
moisture retention in extreme climatic conditions so that
crop cannot face moisture stress (Korze, 2018).The darker
color in upper horizon of soil after two years of
permaculture research was due to weathered organic matter
which was in the soil (Korze,2018).He too found decreased
skeleton in soil, lumpy soil structure and loamy textured soil
with less clay in two years of permaculture research.
Utilization of compost manure, vermicompost, green
manure and slurry have an attribute for increasing soil
fertility. They also enhanced microbial activities in soil.
Soil management through organic farming techniques play
key role in increasing soil resistance against wind and water
erosion and other damage which may result from climatic
stress (Bird and Drizo, 2009). Soil fertility enhancing and
quality promoting practices such as crop rotations,
intercropping, symbiotic associations, cover crops, organic
fertilizers, minimum tillage are main elements of organic
practices (Banjara, 2016). Agroforestry is linked with many
practices such as farming with trees on contours in slopy
sides, intercropping, multiple cropping, bush and tree
plantation, keeping fallows, establishing shelter belts and
windbreak and buffer strips which can improve land
productivity by securing a favourable microclimate,
providing permanent cover, improved soil structure and
increased organic carbon content and infiltration of soil
thus, reducing erosion (WOCAT 2011). According to
(Ramesh et al., 2010) there is lower soil bulk density,
slightly increased soil pH and electrical conductivity,
increased organic carbon content and increased availability
of both macro (N, P, K) and micro nutrient (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn)
in organic farms as compared with conventional farms.
When compared with conventional farms, farms which
were organically managed had higher levels of
dehydrogenase (By 52.35 %), alkaline phosphatase (28.4%)
and microbial biomass carbon (33.4%). This indicates high
microbial activities in organically managed soils than in
conventional farms which is vital and utmost important for
nutrient transformations and thus increasing nutrient
availability for plants. It is reported from long term field
experiments in West African agro ecosystems that use of
mineral fertilizers without recycling of organic materials
resulted in high yields but, there was severe loss of soil
organic matter by 5 % and 2% per annum on sandy soils and
more textured soils respectively (Bationo et al., 2012). It
was found that the plantation of stem cuttings and flooding
resulted in greater biological nitrogen fixation, 307 & 209
kg nitrogen per hectare by Sesbania rostrata and Sesbania
cannabina respectively for restoring fertility of soil
(Pandey, 2007). Leaf litter promotes the soil fertility by
adding organic matter, tree leaf controls the speed of rain
drops and allow them to go to the land surface slowly and
thus decrease soil loss, increases infiltration, high potential
of source of water reservoir in future due to accumulation
of excess leached water and such conditions are very
suitable for growth of microorganisms and plants in the soil
(Pandey, 2007). In organic fertilizing study, the interaction
of Compo Guano and lime together was not clear but, in
long term it could be declared as a best solution because it
had positive consequences on both soil pH and available
nitrogen and also preserving microbial biomass level with
labile organic matter in soil (Mursec, 2012). Tree root hold
soil within the rhizosphere region, loosen compact soil and
improve porosity of soil through root decaying (Sanchez,
1997). Diversified and healthy soil flora and fauna created
stable soil (Sanchez, 1997). Fungal colonization in soil is
due to trees with their symbiotic relation with fungi known
as mycorhiza. Mycorhiza enhances nutrient uptake from
different region of soil and reduces the negative impacts
resulted by many soil pathogens (Borowicz 2001; Newton
and Pigott 1991). Extensive network of fungal hyphae in
soil helps to allow forested systems to maintain their
integration during any external disturbances (Perry et al.,
1990). Nutrients which are mined at depth in the soil that
couldn’t be uptake by small plants are taken up easily by
trees and they deposit on the soil surface in the form of leaf
litter where then it is readily available to shallow rooted
species (Sanchez, 1997). Sheet mulching which
corresponds to the leaf cover found in forest floors serves
as nutrient banks and thus slowly make the nutrients
available to the plants for longer time. They also attract the
earthworms which result in best fertilizer known as
vermicomposting. It is reported that when Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) strains and permaculture soil
were used as an inoculant resulted in increased nutrient
uptake efficiency of naranjilla plant and also reduced the
application of mineral fertilizers during cultivation process
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(Symanczik, 2017). The Increased phosphorus uptake with
permaculture soil as an inoculant was attributed to
abundancy of AMF strains in permacultured soil
(Symanczik, 2017). Long term studies depict that legumes
and manure based fertilized system takes comparatively
more time to reach in a state of its full potential when
compared within organic fertilized system but in long term
legume and manure based fertilized system is more
productive and has ability to cope with adverse climatic
condition such as drought (Krebs and Bach, 2018).
Food Security and Economic Security
Permaculture is a key driver of food and economic security.
Permaculture is an old practice and new emerging issue for
sustainability in agriculture and one of its creator defines it
as a “consciously designed landscapes which mimics the
pattern and relation found in the nature by yielding an
abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of local
needs and other services “ (Lovell, 2014). The most distinct
concept in permaculture is that multiple level of crops are
typically grown in the same area thus creating more
biodiversity (Thomas, 2017). It is reported that utilization
of diverse group of crops may require an additional manual
labour during harvests but, this is a beneficial approach
because there is a mutually benefitted relationships between
a diverse group of crops as disease resistance, companion
plants having different nutritional requirements and acting
as repellent or showing antibiosis (Thomas, 2017). The
preference for perennial food crops which may yield less
edible mass per season but it is beneficial as it benefits farm
by reducing the cost of annual planting labour and soil
tillage operations (Kelsey, 2014; Toensmeier, 2007). It is
revealed that along with increasing farmer’s potential
economic output, Maltese trees will provide wider habitat,
different microclimates and also help to control disease and
pest(Vella,2010). It was reported from a research that maize
supported few number of Striga weed which is a root
parasite when it was grown in permaculture system than
sole grown maize and yield was also significantly higher in
maize grown in permaculture rather than sole grown maize
(Tera, 2013). In permaculture, “food forest” or edible forest
garden is defined for perennial food production system that
integrates tree crops which needs little human management
practices and providing harvest from various crop species
year round (Van Bemmel, 2017). Wild asparagus
(Asparagus acutifolius) holds high potential as a new crop
when grown in combination with olive tree rather than
cultivation of olive only (Mantovani and Rosati, 2014).
Evidence from ecological farming initiatives across the
world shows that ecological farming when sufficiently
supported by policy instruments can be a successful tool in
providing stable financial benefits to small holder farmers
in turn benefitting rural communities and advancing their
rights to a rewarding and securing livelihood. Increasing
yields of crops blindly at any price anywhere in the world is
not a solution of problem existing in other areas because
increasing yields of maize in U. S. doesn’t help for Asian
people. So it should be time and location specific (Reyes,
2015). Permaculture has the potential to maximize the work
that nature does and also reduces the need of human labour,
extra materials and other resources which are positively
associated with economy of farms. Various aspects of
permaculture lend themselves if they are integrated properly
thus making more economic farm (Barrette, 2011). It was
reported by researchers that full organic farmers in the
Philippines grow on average 50% more crops as compared
to conventional farmers and also have net incomes higher
by 1.5 times than those of conventional farmers (Altieri et
al., 2012).
Table 1: Agricultural technologies and their impact on the environment
Agricultural technologies
Impact on environment
Mono-cropping
Decrease in number of insects so increased use of pesticides
Continuous cropping
Soil fertility declines due to nutrient exhaustion
Conventional tillage
Reduces soil organic matter and leads to increased soil
erosion
Intensive hillside cultivation
Increases soil erosion and soil degradation
Inorganic fertilizers
Increased acidification and lower ph.
Irrigation system
Inadequate drainage and over irrigation causes water logging
and salinization in field
New seed varieties
Increased need for inputs due to high input requirement which
reduces soil fertility.
Intensive rice cultivation
Methane production
Salinization and water logging
Nutrient problem
Intensive livestock farming
Increases soil compaction and erosion caused by hoof action
and overgrazing respectively
Source: Killebrew, (2010).
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Richardt (1995) reports that permaculture is economical in
medium to long term but it may not be economical in case
of short run because of high cost of establishing a
productive practice initially along with other resources. It
was reported from FAO (2014) that in most countries small
and medium size farms tends to have high agricultural yield
per hectare when compared to large scale farms but, they
have drawback that labour productivity of farm is low.
Gliessman (1998) states that integrated farming systems
where small farmers simultaneously diverse group of crops
such as grains, fruit, vegetables, fodder, animal products,
there the yield advantages can range from 20% to 60 %
because polycultures have the compensation benefit which
is associated with less loss due to weed, pest and pathogens.
It was reported that training in permaculture in the
communities contributed significantly for poverty
alleviation and ensuring food security in South African
communities (Arko-Achemfuor, 2014).Permaculture is
unlocked with a potential to produce diverse group of crops
including about600 indigenous edible plants (Thornton,
2008) which obviously broaden an individual’s diet,
providing required nutrients and physiological fuel which
are needed for healthy diets and performing daily activities
thereby protecting malnutrition and stunting (Conrad,
2010). It is revealed that permaculture can purposefully
utilize all 12 months of the year and thus reducing food
deficit situation (Conrad, 2010). It was reported that after
the first few years of permaculture which required
significant physical labour and cost to rejuvenate the land ,
cost would be minimized because of self-regulated system
which enhanced food production (Nordin, 2008).
Permaculture becomes more economic as it reduces the cost
for seeds, fertilizers and other resources which would be
self-produced after a period of time (Conrad, 2010).
Utilization of Local Resources and Knowledge
We have abundant resources in Nepal for a permaculture.
Many resources around us just go unseen or unutilized due
to our orientation towards commercial based agriculture or
due to our transition from subsistence to modern industrial
agriculture. Permaculture not only uses the natural
resources around us but also create a link among resources
that is single resource used for many purpose but in a
sustainable way. Permaculture is always inspired from
naturally occurring ecosystems existing in the local area and
permaculture specialist aim to design permaculture so that
crops are planted making base on those ecosystem (Thomas,
2017). It was reported that permaculture was beneficial for
local environment which mimics with natural ecosystems in
a place, it required adequate resources such as soil and other
environmental resources (Thomas, 2017). Permaculture
provides a holistic approach on how farmers should
understand their surrounding environment ,use available
resources and work in harmony to produce diverse organic
produce, increase energy output ,reduce waste , protect their
existing ecosystem which all are associated positively with
resource use efficiency (Jacke, 2005).The crucial role of
Permaculture is that it reduces the sink and cost of inputs in
agriculture by reducing energy inputs and recycling of
resources existing within the system and has motto to
increase biodiversity (Madeley, 2002). Permaculture finds
and exploits indigenous foods which are given less
importance in society or neglected long years ago
(Thornton, 2008). Permaculture is implemented through the
concept of zone and guilds where Zone refers to spatial
function of land and space that is similar with particular
agricultural activities in order to optimize energy and
resource usage (Nordin 2005). Guilds are means of
organizing crops within each zone and ideally each guild
will have crops that perform 7 functions to maximize use of
resources (Nordin, 2007). For example, a variety of tree can
perform 6 functions at once by providing edible fruits,
fixing nitrogen in soil, being a climber, being a supporter of
climber, being a biological plough and acting as a protective
bar or fence or windbreak (Conrad, 2010). A paradigm shift
is required for today’s problem of energy crisis, decreased
efficacy of available resources and this shifting is possible
if permaculture is taken as an alternative of agriculture
through well maintained policies (Kazakova-mateva, 2015).
It is revealed that renewable energy uses on the rise and it
can be a best key for fostering sustainability (US Energy
Information Administration, 2017). It is very important for
attesting local knowledge as a useful element while
designing a permaculture system as it is a design with nature
rather than design against nature to go in a sustainable way
(Salleh, 2018). Permaculture specialist always aim to work
with nature rather than against the nature and without
altering the ecosystems such as biocides and conservation
tillage, thus using resources in a judgeful way (Miller,
2014). It is reported that ecosystems always cope with
limiting inputs by providing a path that produces renewable
resources, provide provision and acts as regulatory system.
Therefore, the effort concentrated to use and value
renewable resources is a core principle of permaculture
(Holmgren, 2011). Permaculture is not only about the
natural resources but, also mutual connections among the
resources with the environment to work as multidirectional
functional system (Meech, 2016). It is revealed that for
changing modern agriculture to permaculture in a practical
way is possible through the conservation of indigenous
vegetation, resources, rearing of free range of local farm
animals, installing solar and wind energy devices, solar
water heater, greenhouses, vermicomposting, water
catchment system and grey water purification systems as
suggested by MOAM in Malta (Vella, 2010).
Conclusion
Our review was focused on the sustained agriculture
through permaculture based on soil nourishment, food and
economic security and efficient utilization of local
resources. There was limitation in research and literatures
regarding permaculture but compiling different literatures
171
D. Bhandari and B. Bista (2019) Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(2): 167-173
This paper can be downloaded online at http://ijasbt.org&http://nepjol.info/index.php/IJASBT
we came to conclude that permaculture enriches soil quality
by increasing organic matter of soil thus increasing water
retention capacity, infiltration, nutrient availability,
microbial activities and decreasing the soil and nutrient
erosion. Thus, it increases physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil. It provides food and economic safety by
providing diverse group of crops, increasing yields and
income of farm and providing least cost inputs with
increasing output. It has high resource use efficiency as it
utilizes local renewable resources and makes connections
like a web among the resources.
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