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Integrating cleaning studies with industrial practice: Case study of an effective cleaning program for a frozen meat patties SME factory
Abstract
Cleaning of process equipment is a necessity in the food industry. There is no standard cleaning program formulated for all food industries. Thus, in order to achieve economic objectives and to comply with food hygiene regulations, specific cleaning problems need to be solved to achieve an optimal solution. In this work, a cleaning program was proposed for a local frozen meat patties Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) factory, X. Several cleaning tools such as a portable cleaning unit and industrial cleaning brushes with different functionality were used to ensure the effectiveness of the cleaning program. The portable cleaning unit was used to evaluate the impact of water jet with different nozzle distances (10 cm and 20 cm), cleaning times (30 s and 120 s), and temperatures (35 °C and 65 °C) in reducing different foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enteritidis). Two places of food processing equipment with two different stainless steel surfaces were tested. First, a former of meat patties (mesh wire surface), and second, a mixer (smooth surface). The results were then compared with factory X's current cleaning program and have shown that this new cleaning program can achieve physical clean level and helped to reduce microorganism to non-detectable level (less than 2.0 CFU/cm²). For the evening cleaning, the suggested cleaning program is using the portable cleaning unit at 65 °C, 120 s, 10 cm nozzle distance, and 5.2 bar. For the morning cleaning before production, the same parameters are suggested except for the temperature which is slightly higher at 75 °C.
... mixer, flaker, mincer and former) and environment (e.g. floor, walls) [10], [11]. Cleaning efficiency depends on the influence of cleaning parameters such as temperature [12], [13], fluid velocity [14], [15] and chemical concentration [16]- [18]. ...
... Cleaning at higher angle of 120° can clean wider dirty area and at the same time reduce cleaning times and cleaning costs (includes water volume, cleaning chemicals and energy) [20]. Hot water rinse is essential to melt and eventually lead to fat-based fouling deposit removal [10]. However, investment on boiler is seem like a burden, as they will also have to hire a boiler man. ...
... There are numerous studies on cleaning-in-place (CIP) for food industries [1], [23]- [25]. However, most of the SMEs Malaysian food factories used batch processing unit and manual cleaning are more suitable [10]. Study on manual cleaning is still lacking. ...
High temperature-induced water jet has important cleaning factors for effective cleaning at food industries because it can provide mechanical, heat, and chemical effects during cleaning. It can also reduce cleaning time, labor load, and utility consumptions, hence reducing the operating costs and enhance sustainability. However, it has not been used widely in small and medium food industries due to a lack of cleaning awareness and small budget allocation for cleaning and disinfection. In this article, we evaluated the performance of a portable water jet in the laboratory before it was introduced to the frozen meat industry. Removal of invisible fat-based fouling deposits which remained on the surfaces of the meat processing equipment is quite a challenge. In this work, stainless steel surfaces were fouled with the fat-based fouling deposit. The fouled stainless-steel surfaces were used for the cleanability tests. The tests were conducted at different parameters which were cleaning parameters (temperature (35 °C and 65 °C) and cleaning detergent presence), cleaning operations (nozzle distances (5 cm and 30 cm) and surface geometries (vertical and horizontal) which representing the different equipment's geometry. Physical cleanliness (visual and touch) and protein residue swab test was used as the cleaning indicators. The target cleanliness was achieved at a high cleaning temperature of 65°C and with the presence of cleaning detergent. Results from these tests will be used as a guide to design an optimal cleaning program for SMEs frozen meat patty factory.
... These levels were higher than the accepted microbial criteria for FCSs after routine cleaning and sanitizing, although the criteria varied among studies. The APC ranged from 1 CFU/cm 2 for direct contact with prepared food to 10 3 CFU/cm 2 for cutting boards and knives in restaurants [31]. The coliform count ranged from 0 per slide to 1 log CFU/cm 2 [32]. ...
To understand better the high microbial load in dried laver (Porphyra yezoensis or nori), this study analyzed the aerobic plate count (APC), coliform count, temperature change, and microbiota of processing water, laver materials, and food contact surface (FCS) samples from three processing plants during the dried laver processing season from December 2023 to April 2024. The seawater used for the first washing had a low microbial load (APCs < 1–2.85 log CFU/g; coliform < 1 log CFU/g) and was dominated by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteroidota. The microbial load of fresh laver (4.21–4.76 log CFU/g) remained unchanged after seawater washing, but significantly increased after continuous shredding, sponge dehydration, first drying, and with the seasonal temperature rise. The microbiota of laver before drying was vulnerable between processing steps and seasons, but consistently shifted back to fresh laver microflora and was dominated by Flavobacteriaceae after drying. The FCSs (except for the curtain), which had a high microbial load (APCs 5.25–8.26 log CFU/g; coliform 1.52–4.84 log CFU/g) with similar microbiota to seawater, caused the secondary contamination of laver during processing. This study revealed the microbial proliferation of laver and seawater microflora in the continuous processing line with high nutrients and with the seasonal processing water temperature rise caused by the local weather, highlighting the need for routine cleaning and sanitizing, better washing of fresh laver, and low temperature control for future dried laver production.
... The microbiological growth was feasible in the GC samples since the aw was relatively high on Day 12, reaching 0.86, as in Figure 2. Although the count did not exceed the microbiological limit set at 1 × 10 6 CFU/g by the Ministry of Health Malaysia, this finding indicates poor hygiene practices and could lead to higher microbial growth (Khalid et al., 2019). A reformulation was also needed to reduce aw to below or around 0.7 to inhibit microbial growth. ...
This study explored the potential of fortified pomegranate gummy candies (GC) as a solution for insufficient vitamin C and phenol intake. It entailed two objectives: assessing the impact of ambient storage (20±2 ℃) on various GC properties and developing kinetic models to predict vitamin C and phenol degradation during storage. The study involved the preparation of GC using a modified formulation and examined moisture content, water activity, texture, vitamin C, total phenolic content, and microbiological counts during 15-day-storage. Findings revealed that the moisture content decreased from 21.82% to 13.41%, potentially affecting texture. Water activity remained high (0.84-0.86), posing potential microbiological risks. The textural analysis indicated high hardness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness, which may impact consumer acceptance. Adhesiveness remained minimal. Vitamin C decreased from 2,176.90 mg AA/100g to 1,419.10 mg AA/100g, possibly influenced by moisture and oxygen. Phenolic content decreased from 2,845.97 mg GAE/100g to 2,183.70 mg GAE/100g, remaining remarkably high. Kinetic modeling revealed that zero-order kinetics best described degradation, with constant degradation rates. In conclusion, fortified pomegranate GC demonstrate potential as functional food. However, further research is necessary to optimize texture properties, improve formulation and understand complex interactions between gelatin and phenolic compounds for enhanced consumer acceptance and health benefits.
... The factory produced different types of burgers (beef, lamb and chicken). The manufacturing process of the factory includes weighing, flaking, mincing, pre-mixing, mixing, burger forming, blast freezing, packing and frozen storage (Khalid, Saulaiman, Nasiruddin et al., 2019). Questions related to cleaning and sanitation process were asked during the interviews. ...
Green cleaner and disinfectant can provide a better environment and they can reduce cleaning cost by eliminating the cost of harsh cleaning chemicals, minimizing cleaning chemicals storage space, reducing cost for wastewater treatment and reducing logistics cost for chemical supply. This study explored the personal view of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) top to bottom workers towards the challenges during cleaning and disinfection process and their readiness in accepting a green cleaner and disinfectant. In this work, the advantages and disadvantages of electrolyzed water (EW) as green cleaner and disinfectant were discussed. A lab-scale batch ion-exchange membrane electrolysis unit was used to produce acidic electrolyzed water (AcEW) and alkaline electrolyzed water (AlEW). The stability of AcEW and AlEW was also studied based on its physical changes (pH, oxidative-reduction potential (ORP), chlorine content and hydrogen peroxide content) in 7 days of storage, whereby measurements were taken daily. The pH maintained for both AcEW and AlEW during the 7 days of storage. The ORP maintained at plateau for the first 5 days of AcEW storage. After 5 days, AcEW showed a decreasing trend. While ORP for AlEW increases drastically between day 1 and 2. Then, the ORP reaches a plateau after three days. The amount of free chlorine, total chlorine and hydrogen peroxide content was 10 mg/L, respectively, on the day of production. However, all the properties decreased gradually and there were no chlorine and hydrogen peroxide detected on the 7th day. The results from this study can be used as a guideline to store the EW and to understand the stability of the EW, which can benefit the SME food manufacturers.
... All Supplementary Information to this article is referred to in the paper as "SI". References used in the SI: [42,[49][50][51][52][53][54][55] ...
This study presents two food waste prevention measures focusing on the interface between the food service sector and its food suppliers. Through a case study on procuring salmon by a hotel kitchen, the use of food products with different convenience grades is examined. The convenience grade of the fish bought (whole salmon, fillets or portions) determines where along the food chain filleting and/or portioning takes place and thus where food waste from cut-offs occurs. To reduce food waste, we propose purchasing filleted or portioned salmon rather than whole salmon. For both measures, effectiveness is calculated by looking at food waste reductions along the food chain, achieved by a better use of filleting and portioning cut-offs. Next, sustainability across the environmental, economic and social dimension is evaluated by calculating (a) avoided embodied environmental impacts and economic costs, (b) avoided food waste disposal environmental impacts and economic costs and (c) environmental, economic and social impacts and costs associated with implementing the measures. Purchasing fillets or portions instead of whole salmon leads to food waste reductions of −89% and −94%, respectively. The interventions further lead to net climate change impact savings along the salmon chain of −16% (fillets) and −18% (portions). Whereas the kitchen saves costs when switching to fillets (−13%), a switch to portions generates additional net costs (+5%). On a social level, no effects could be determined based on the information available. However, good filleting skills would no longer be needed in the kitchen and a time consuming preparation can be sourced out.
Biofilms are of great concern for the meat industry because, despite the implementation of control plans, they remain important hotspots of contamination by foodborne pathogens, highlighting the need to better understand the ecology of these microecosystems. The objective of this paper was to critically survey the recent scientific literature on microbial biofilms of importance for meat safety and quality, also pointing out the most promising methods to combat them. For this, the databases PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were surveyed in a 10-year time frame (but preferably papers less than 5 years old) using selected keywords relevant for the microbiology of meats, especially considering bacteria that are tolerant to cleaning and sanitization processes. The literature findings showed that massive DNA sequencing has deeply impacted the knowledge on the species that co-habit biofilms with important foodborne pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, pathogenic Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus). It is likely that recalcitrant commensal and/or spoilage microbiota somehow protect the more fastidious organisms from harsh conditions, in addition to harboring antimicrobial resistance genes. Among the members of background microbiota, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Enterobacteriales have been commonly found on food contact and non-food contact surfaces in meat processing plants, in addition to less common genera, such as Psychrobacter, Enhydrobacter, Brevundimonas, and Rothia, among others. It has been hypothesized that these rare taxa may represent a primary layer in microbial biofilms, offering better conditions for the adhesion of otherwise poor biofilm formers, especially considering their tolerance to cold conditions and sanitizers. Taking into consideration these findings, it is not only important to target the foodborne pathogens per se in cleaning and disinfection plans but the use of multiple hurdles is also recommended to dismantle the recalcitrant structures of biofilms. In this sense, the last part of this manuscript presents an updated overview of the antibiofilm methods available, with an emphasis on eco-friendly approaches.
The aims of this review were twofold, namely 1) to analyze the main operational inefficiencies in food
manufacturing and 2) to identify the main IIoT-related technologies with their potential operational improvement for the
food manufacturing sector. An analytical literature review was performed using the main scientific literature databases as
the secondary data source. The review has found nine major operational issues that are most frequently reported in the food
manufacturing sector namely 1) too long manufacturing lead time, 2) low productivity, 3) absence of systematic quality
management, 4) low compliance to food safety requirements, 5) lack of innovations in product development, 6) lack of
training, 7) unsustainable marketing strategies, 8) poor traceability and 9) lack of documentation along the supply chain.
While IIoT is relatively new, it is important to embrace that food manufacturing can have many of these operational issues
solved when incorporating digital technologies. The key starting point is the identification of the correct and effective
application that suits the industry’s requirements in their pursuit of an improved level of operational efficiencies,
productivity and a higher level of quality. In this regard, this review intended to clarify the identified seven groups of IIoT
technologies that could improve the above-identified operational issues, whereby these are 1) smart manufacturing
technologies, 2) Big Data, Analytics and Artificial Intelligence, 3) robotics, 4) additive manufacturing, 5) augmented
reality, 6) manufacturing simulation, and lastly 7) the cloud. The study concluded that food manufacturers could only
benefit from the IIoT advantages when the purpose of the technology fulfils their operational objectives and requirement
as well as fits within their constraints.
The meat industry faces significant challenges regarding removing fat, oil, and grease (FOG) residues from meat processing stainless steel surfaces, compounded by limited resources and inadequate cleaning knowledge. As an innovative solution to these difficulties, alkaline electrolyzed water (AlEW), a sustainable green degreaser, is proposed to replace the traditional alkaline wash. AlEW is produced through two–chamber (membrane) electrolysis at the cathode. AlEW with a strong reducing potential (−800 to −900 mV), high pH (10.0–11.5), and high dissolved oxygen are used to remove FOG residues from meat processing stainless steel surfaces. Our comprehensive analysis highlights the advantages of AlEW as a sustainable alternative to conventional degreasers for the meat industry, including ease of use, no storage requirements, and reduced costs for wastewater treatment. Our findings underscore AlEW's potential to improve the meat industry's quality, safety, and environmental sustainability. This review contributes to ongoing discussions about sustainable food industry solutions, aligning with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development goals. In conclusion, AlEW is a promising alternative to conventional degreasers, advancing sustainability in the meat industry.
Practical Applications
This research introduces an innovative solution to a significant challenge in the meat processing industry—effective removal of fat, oil, and grease residues from equipment surfaces. Traditional methods involving costly and environmentally harmful chemicals have drawbacks. Our study proposes the use of alkaline electrolyzed water (AlEW) as a green degreaser. AlEW, generated by passing electric current through saltwater, exhibits high alkalinity that dissolves residues efficiently. This eco‐friendly approach not only ensures thorough cleaning but also reduces costs and addresses environmental concerns. By offering a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative, AlEW has the potential to revolutionize cleaning practices in the meat industry, enhancing food safety, operational efficiency, and sustainability. This advancement holds promise for wider adoption, benefiting both producers and consumers alike.
Despite the increasing evidence that small processors have a low rate of food safety compliance, primarily due to the lack of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) implementation, only a limited number of research studies have been conducted to understand their challenges. The aims of this review were twofold, namely 1) to analyse the GMP’s most frequent nonconformance aspects in small food processing and (2) to elucidate the key factors that lead to the nonconformance aspects. The review was carried out based on twenty peer-reviewed publications between the years 2012 to 2021, which collected studies related to GMP and small-scale processors. Inadequate sanitary design and facilities were identified as the most frequent GMP nonconformance aspect (85% of the total number of publications), followed by poor personal hygiene (55%), inadequate or absence of documentation (55%), poor cleaning and maintenance programs (50%), lack of operation control (50%), lack of training (35%), inadequate product information (15%) and lack of workers’ health control (15%). Such nonconformances were found to result in incidences of foodborne diseases, unacceptable microbial growth in products and ambient areas, quality degradation as well as findings of filthy matters. The factors that led to nonconformance were the lack of on-site supervision, financial constraints, lack of knowledge, lack of managerial support, the gap in authority's enforcement and workers' resistance to food safety practices. The review concludes with a suggestion for future work to formulate a cohesive program that integrates multiple strategies in addressing the identified key factors and subsequently, enabling GMP adoption among SMEs.
In food establishments, cleaning and disinfection programmes contribute to provide the environmental conditions that are necessary for the production of safe and healthy food. Compliance with validated programmes is evaluated through verification activities, in order to establish, through objective evidence, if they are implemented as they were written and if they are effective, achieving continuous improvement of the sanitation programmes. In accordance with the specific guidelines of each country, food companies set up their technical specifications and develop their own cleaning and disinfection programmes. Depending on the analytical method used, one of the main challenges was to establish a reasonable limit of acceptability according to the impact that each surface has on the safety and hygiene of the food that is prepared. This review was focused on the procedures implemented to verify the cleaning and disinfection programmes in food establishments. In particular, this study examines the methodologies used (audits and analytical methods), sites for the collection of samples, acceptance criteria and main findings. The results of the analysed studies constitute a scientific basis for designing or improving sanitation procedures and their verification in food companies, and also provide relevant information for food safety authorities.
This research study proposes a method to assess the dimensions of service quality in an industrial tank washing company, articulating a control chart and a new multivariate quality indicator. The concepts of multivariate statistical control, service quality, and Six Sigma are used as a theoretical framework. The primary information corresponds to five quality dimensions in the cleaning service for 12 months to monitor service performance periodically and indicator capacity globally. Hotelling's T2 chart periodically assesses the quality dimensions and showed the greatest performance variability in: tank arrangements, cleaning, and polishing. In conclusion, the multivariate quality indicator proved to be adequate to globally assess service dimensions and to specify whether service performance is consistent and stable.
This study seeks to examine the awareness of food handler personal hygiene on food hygiene practices. Using quantitative approach, self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 400 mobile handlers in Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia and only 320 questionnaires were collated. Although food handlers may be aware of the need for personal hygiene, they do not understand critical aspects of personal hygiene such cleaning work surface and control food temperature value while cooking. In order to prevent food borne illnesses, mobile food owners need to access and improve operator's knowledge, personal hygiene and the hygiene practices on food safety to consumer.
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) of pink guava puree (PGP) fouling deposits is not well known compared to dairy deposits which is well established. Lab-scale cleaning test rig has been used to investigate the cleaning performance of PGP deposits. Removal mechanism during alkaline-based cleaning of PGP deposits were investigated using NaOH concentrations (1.0 wt% -2.0 wt%), temperatures (35 - 70 °C) and fluid velocities (0.6-1.5m/s) over a range of Reynolds number (Re= 4x104 - 1.8x105). Cleaning rate was quantified by measuring the remaining area of the deposits at sample holder at every 1 min. The efficient CIP process for PGP fouling deposit can be obtained at 1.5m/s, 70 °C, with concentration of (1.0 - 2.0wt%).
A competent food factory cannot be achieved if the factory is poorly designed. This paper identified the difficulties experienced by Malaysian small and medium enterprises (SME) in designing a food factory due to challenges faced by them. Two important manufacturing issues were analyzed and discovered to be related with poor factory design i.e. unsatisfactory food hygiene and lacking in sustainability. The analysis was based on a review of Malaysian data and literature. It is concluded that early considerations on food hygiene and sustainability can help SMEs to comply with hygiene standards, reduce cost and increase profit margin.
A cleaning‐in‐place ( CIP ) test rig is commonly used to investigate the cleanability of food apparatus. The main focus of this work was to design a laboratory‐scale cleaning test rig that operates at a fluid velocity of up to 2 m/s ( Re = 2.5 × 10 ⁵ ) and that is capable of withstanding contact with detergents and disinfectants at temperatures from 20 to 70C. The design followed the standard design of a recirculating water tunnel that includes a test section. Computational fluid dynamic simulation was performed to find the minimum entry length to obtain fully developed flow at the test section. Cleanability of a flat stainless steel plate was investigated using pink guava puree as a physical fouling deposit model. The CIP process only considered the alkaline cleaning stage at cleaning condition of 0–2.0 wt % NaOH , 35–70C and 0.6–1.5 m/s. In general, removal of fouling deposit increased with increasing chemical concentration, temperature and velocity. These findings may be used to improve the CIP for real conditions in the food industry.
Practical Applications
Cleaning‐in‐place ( CIP ) process is a routine technique in food manufacturing industries to clean the surface of food process equipment and piping from fouling deposits and food residues from previous batch production. There is no standard CIP process that was formulated for all food industries. Short CIP process is favorable to food industries as food industries incur downtime when cleaning is performed. Thorough investigation of CIP performance on different fouling deposits is a must to obtain effective cleaning, and the rig enables this investigation to be carried out economically. Hence, this paper presents an innovative laboratory‐scale cleaning test rig for fouling cleaning research. This rig was designed to closely mimic typical industry flow environment in food piping and has the capability to perform visual inspection. This rig can be used to find an economical CIP process of any food fouling deposits before any formulated process is being implemented at industry levels.
Fouling of food process plant surfaces and the subsequent cleaning needed is a significant industrial problem, and as the cost of water and chemical disposal increases, the problem is becoming more significant. Current literature on water-based cleaning is reviewed here according to the classification of 3 types of cleaning problems. By doing this, it is hoped that new knowledge can be highlighted applicable to improving industrial cleaning. (i) For type 1 deposits (that can be cleaned with water alone)—Cleaning time appears related to Reynolds number and surface shear stress. An increase in Reynolds number seems to decrease cleaning time. Cleaning temperatures greater than 50 °C do not appear beneficial. (ii) For type 2 deposits (biofilms)—Removal behavior of biofilms seems to be dependent on the microbial aging time on the surface. Keeping a material hydrated on a surface enables easier removal of it with water. a. Water rinsing: Temperature and wall shear stress have varied effects on removal. b. Chemical rinsing: Flow and temperature were seen to have the biggest effect at the start of cleaning, but contact time was more important as cleaning progressed at a given sodium hydroxide solution flow and temperature. (iii) For type 3 deposits (that require a cleaning chemical)—For specifically, protein-based systems excessive chemical forms a deposit difficult to remove. Increasing wall shear stress and temperature was most beneficial to cleaning rather than concentration. The action of temperature can reduce the use of a chemical for type 2 and type 3 soils. The findings suggest that the right combination of flow characteristics at a given temperature and concentration is crucial to achieving fast cleaning in all cases. There are a number of cleaning monitoring methods at various stages of commercialization that may be capable of monitoring bulk cleaning and cleaning at the surface. To optimize cleaning will require integration of measurement methods into the cleaning process.
The aim of this research was to establish a rationale for the cleaning of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes fouled by whey. Wheywas processed using a hydrophilic polyamide FT30 RO membrane. The effects ofoperating conditions such as transmembrane pressure, temperature and cross-flow velocity on flux behavior were elucidated before studying the cleaning. A wide variety of cleaning agents including acids, bases, enzymes and complexing agents was used. Resistance removal and flux recovery were used for demonstrating the cleaning efficiency. Hydrochloric acid (0.05 w%) resulted in maximum flux recovery and complete resistance removal. Although sodium hydroxide showed high cleaning efficiency, it may damage the membrane, predominantly at a high pH. Nitric acid and ammonia showed high but not complete resistant removal. Other acids (phosphoric acid and oxalic acid), ammonium chloride, urea and surfactants (SDS, Triton-X100 and CTAB) exhibited moderate effects while EDTA was of low efficiency. The cleaning effectiveness depends on the cleaner concentration. Using sulphuric acid, higher concentration caused lower resistance removal. For HCl the cleaning efficiency increased with the cleaner concentration, passed a maximum and decreased afterwards. Operating conditions such as cleaningtime and temperature affect cleaning efficacy. A longertime and higher temperature provide higher resistance removal. However, the effects are somewhat limited.
Finally, an up-to-date guide to cleaning and disinfection for the food preparation and processing industries. It discusses a host of examples from various food industries as well as topics universal to many industries, including biofilm formation, general sanitizing, and clean-in-place systems. Equally, the principles related to contamination, cleaning compounds, sanitizers and cleaning equipment are addressed. As a result, concepts of applied detergency are developed in order to understand and solve problems related to the cleaning and disinfection of laboratories, plants and other industrial environments where foods and beverages are prepared. Essential reading for food industry personnel.
The effect of beeswax (BW) concentration (5, 7.5, 10%) and cooling temperature (4, 25 °C) on the properties of sesame oil oleogel was evaluated and compared with the extracted fats from beef flank and shank. Acid and peroxide values, fatty acid composition, color, texture, thermal properties and crystal morphology were studied. Then, 0, 25 and 50% of animal fat in beef burger were replaced by the oleogel (10% BW, cooled at 4 °C). Proximate composition, texture, color, fat absorption, cooking loss, shrinkage, microstructure, oxidative stability and sensory acceptance were determined for the burgers. Results indicated that acid value and thermal properties of the oleogels were affected by the BW concentration; however, peroxide value and fatty acid profile of the oleogels did not change as a function of the variables. The oleogels had less hardness than the animal fats which in turn decreased the hardness, gumminess and chewiness of the raw burgers to <50% of control sample. This is while cooked burger color did not significantly change. The 11% reduction of cooking loss and 1.6% reduction of fat absorption was considered as pros aspects of the oleogel incorporation to beef burger. However, cooking shrinkage and lipid oxidation increased significantly.
Cleaning-in-place is a process used in food industries to maintain the hygiene in the process. This work analyses the effect that different cleaning protocols exert on the cleaning of starch adhering to stainless-steel surfaces. The objective is to optimize the cleaning process reducing its environmental impact by diminishing the consumption of reagents and the energy consumption. These protocols include different processes (ozonation, enzyme recovery), experimental conditions (pH, temperatures, time, recirculation flow, ozone gas concentration) and composition of the washing solutions (enzyme, surfactant, silica microparticles). In the absence of enzyme, the maximum detersive effectiveness (61.9%) was obtained using a protocol that includes ozone and fatty ethoxylated alcohol at 45 °C. In the presence of the enzyme, the maximum detergency (97.0 ± 4.7%) was obtained using the highest enzyme concentrations (1.00 g/L), 60 °C and 45 min. Finally, the viability of reusing the enzyme was confirmed after different washing cycles that incorporated intermediate centrifugation stages.
CIP cycles provide an effective method of ensuring dairy plant is clean. However, empirically derived cycles rarely operate at optimal conditions. This study analyzes a typical multi stage acid/alkali dairy CIP cycle to examine the effect of detergent temperature, flow rate and concentration upon the cost of cleaning. Results show that the selection of cleaning agent concentration and temperature influence costs most, whilst flow rate selection requires process specific down time cost knowledge prior to optimization.
Devices used in food industry that are connected by pipelines are usually cleaned using Clean In Place method. Such a system of cleaning generates high consumption of energy, water and requires the use of chemical cleaning solutions. In this study, we aimed to activate the physical factors in the process of cleaning and minimize the energy consumption. The variable factors considered within this study were flow velocity, pressure, temperature of the cleaning medium (pure water), and cleaning time. The effects of cleaning efficiency and the energy consumed in the cleaning process were taken as the criteria for the evaluation of the cleaning process in Clean In Place station. For the purpose of optimization, these evaluation criteria were opposed to each other; namely, they sought a high cleaning efficiency with a minimal input of energy. Both functions were based on a set of experimental results using the technique of experimental design. A 5-level experimental design, orthogonal and rotatable, was employed. These equations were used in multi-objective optimization process. A polyoptimal model of cleaning conditions was developed. Results were calculated by using Matlab scripts and showed a set of acceptable solutions on the plane of controllable variables (cleaning factors) because of accepted criteria (energy and cleanliness). The dominated and non-dominated points were appointed. These points described cleaning conditions for which it was possible to obtain a better cleanliness without increasing the amount of energy (the dominated points) and conditions for which we were not able to improve any of the tested criteria (the non-dominated points). Finally, the polyoptimal results defining the favorable effects of a cleaning fluid without the use of chemical agents were determined. The results obtained during this study are important from an ecological aspect of the effectiveness of the Cleaning in Place system and may be applied in real conditions for the development of cleaning programs of the analyzed objects (e.g. in a dairy industry for which these experimental studies have been carried out). The obtained set of optimal solutions constitute a basis for further studies in the aspect of energy consumed and an effectiveness of the cleaning process in Clean In Place system.
Liquid jets are widely used in cleaning operations in the food sector. Morison and Thorpe (2002) reported an experimental investigation of the flow patterns and cleaning behaviour of horizontal jets impinging on vertical walls. The Wilson et al. (2012) model, which described Morison and Thorpe's flow pattern data well, is extended to describe the flow pattern generated by a liquid jet, approaching a surface at a given angle to the horizontal, impinging on a plate inclined at a known angle to the vertical. The results are compared with experimental data collected for horizontal water jets impinging on inclined Perspex and glass plates. Tests employed nozzle diameters of 1, 2 and 3 mm at room temperature, using flow rates of 0.78-2.23 g s−1, 3.7-9.9 g s−1 and 7.1-17.3 g s−1 (0.025-0.062 m3 h−1) respectively. These are lower than industrial cleaning flow rates. The angle at which the horizontal jet impinged on the plate was varied from 30° to 120°. Two important dimensions are evaluated: (i) the width of the fast moving radial flow zone on the plate (the region bounded by the film jump, the feature similar to a hydraulic jump) at the plane of impingement; (ii) the distance on the plate to which the radial flow zone extends above the point of impingement. Both are described reasonably well by the model. Empirical relationships are reported for the width of the wetted region at the level of impingement, and the maximum width of the draining film. A short study of cleaning of layers of washable paint on glass, similar to the tests reported by Morison and Thorpe, show that the cleaning model recently developed by Wilson et al. (2014) gives a good description of the initial cleaning of such layers using an impinging stationary coherent water jet.
Cleaning of process equipment is a necessity in the pharmaceutical and food industry. Recently, the efficiency of these cleaning processes has come more into focus due to increasing economical and ecological demands. Different approaches to assess cleaning processes in terms of their cleaning effectiveness, cleaning efficiency, cleaning rate and cleaning performance are discussed.
Stainless steel sheets soiled with Xanthan gum were cleaned by a moving impinging water jet in a laboratory scale test rig. Different assessment criteria (time, fluid consumption and energy) to determine the related cleaning performance indicators were studied. The influence of operating parameters (nozzle diameter, gauge pressure and jet moving speed) on these performance indicators was quantified. Experiments showed that the cleaned area width, used as a quantitative criteria of cleaning, decreased with jet moving speed. The influence of the three operating parameters on the performance indicators was evaluated. The experimental results reveal that there is no parameter combination which optimises the performance indicators simultaneously: the best combination depends on the priority given to each indicator.
There is considerable scope for the optimization of processes subject to fouling by effective management of cleaning. The cleaning cycle starts with the (often complex) material generated during the fouling cycle. The nature of the deposit determines the most appropriate cleaning method, which can often be optimized significantly via the knowledge of the key mechanisms involved in deposit removal. Links between deposit aging and cleanability need to be established and quantified. There is a wide range of cleaning methods available, and attention is focused here on cleaning-in-place (CIP) techniques. Modern instrumentation allows cleaning (and deposit materials behavior) to be probed to greater degree than ever before, but the removal technology is only part of the cleaning process. Monitoring and validation of cleaning are equally important, particularly for the process plant used in flexible manufacture or subject to batch assurance requirements. Individual sensors are unlikely to meet all monitoring criteria, so future approaches will require the reconciliation and interpretation of online data from multiple devices. Many industries stand to learn from the practice and approaches in the food, pharmaceuticals, and electronics sectors, where these concepts are well established. The definition of cleanliness will vary from sector to sector, but the needs of minimizing environmental impact, accurate monitoring, assurance, and suitable training for operators are common to all.
The use of stationary waterjet for the removal of coating material from the substrate is investigated analytically and experimentally. In the analysis, the cleaning width as a function of standoff distance, water pressure, and nozzle radius is derived by considering the structure of waterjet and the cleaning mechanism. Also derived are the relations of the optimal cleaning standoff distance and maximum cleaning width to the critical cleaning standoff distance, and how the water pressure and nozzle radius affect this critical standoff distance. These derived analytical relations are verified with experimental results.
Nanofiltration membranes play an important role in the desalination of brackish and seawater as well as membrane mediated waste water reclamation and other industrial separations. Fouling of nanofiltration (NF) membranes is typically caused by inorganic and organic materials present in water that adhere to the surface and pores of the membrane and results in deterioration of performance (reduced membrane flux) with a consequent increase in costs of energy and membrane replacement.Natural organic matter (NOM) fouling of NF membranes involves interrelationship between physical and chemical interactions and is described in this review. Inorganic fouling due to scale formation of sparingly soluble inorganic salts occurs whenever the ionic salt concentration stream exceeds the equilibrium solubility. Scale formation takes place by homogenous or heterogeneous crystallization mechanisms. Biofilm formation also becomes an issue when its thickness and surface coverage reduces permeability.There are two strategies that are usually employed to minimize the effect of fouling. The first group includes minimizing of fouling by using adequate feed pretreatment, membrane treatment and membrane modification. The second group involves membrane remediation by chemical cleaning which is carried out to restore membrane fluxes.A large number of chemical cleaning agents are commercially available, and the commonly used ones fall into six categories: alkalis, acids, metal chelating agents, surfactants, oxidation agents and enzymes. In general, these cleaning agents do improve the membrane flux to certain extent. Combination of these chemical agents has also been tried in order to improve the flux restoration. Even though, many of these cleaning agents can restore the flux over 100% (enhanced flux), they can also impair the selectivity of the membrane reducing of the product water quality.There are many traditional assessment methods for cleaning and at present these are being supplemented by methods using modern surface analysis techniques. These are being now rapidly developed to give a more precise assessment and a better understanding of cleaning processes. Generally, cleaning is assessed by flux, zeta potential measurement, atomic force microscope (AFM) and Fourier transforms infrared technique (FTIR). Atomic force microscope and related techniques are particularly employed in order to evaluate the cleaning efficiency and other surface phenomena.There are several factors that can affect the chemical cleaning process which include temperature, pH, concentration of the cleaning chemicals, contact time between the chemical solution and the membrane and the operation conditions such as cross-flow velocity and pressure. The role of temperature and pH in cleaning are membrane dependent. These factors play very important role in flux recovery. A critical review of these factors is also presented.It appears from the literature that only very few papers on cleaning of NF membrane to regenerate membrane performance have been published up to date, and there is an urgent need for extensive research work to investigate fouling mechanisms in order to obtain fundamental understanding of fouling to provide more feasible, cost-effective cleaning and performance restoration procedures. This also provides further strategies for the avoidance of fouling through better pretreatment and more appropriate membrane fabrication and modification.
The application and efficacy of cleaning and disinfection methods are reviewed, together with the relevant European and French legislation. European Commission Hygiene Directive 93/43/EEC of 14 June 1993 proposes the adoption of hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) for the meat industry, and this includes cleaning and disinfection. It is necessary to organise a team for washing, cleaning, rinsing, disinfection and final rinsing; three different types of organisation are compared. Application of HACCP and its contribution to the shelf life of products and their contamination with Listeria monocytogenes is discussed in the light of practical experience with poultry meat and cured pork products. Various means of verifying the efficacy of cleaning and disinfection (turbidimetry, adenosine triphosphate assay and macroscopic observation) are compared with the techniques of conventional microbiology. The authors conclude that cleaning and disinfection are essential for application of HACCP to the meat industry.
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