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Toward a Social Ecology of Prosociality: Why, When, and Where Nature Enhances Social Connection
Abstract
A vast literature in social psychology documents that people's actions are influenced by their social environment (e.g., other people). But how are people affected by the relatively 'asocial' natural environment? We review a growing body of evidence finding that nature can enhance social connection. Incidental exposure to the natural environment can increase attention to others, facilitate collective engagement, and enhance prosociality--tendencies to care for, help, and assist others. We discuss how nature enhances connecting to others, in part, via awe and beauty. We conclude by analyzing boundary conditions, discussing the social implications of environmental decline, and outlining pressing questions for future research.
... Supporting this premise, Stellar et al. (2017) state that the self-transcendent emotions such as awe have evolutionary fitness benefits related to greater co-operation and enhanced social co-ordination. Goldy and Piff (2020) state that awe-inspiring natural scenes can lead to greater social connections that motivate increased pro-social behaviors such as caring for other community members. This stream of research on awe clearly shows that awe is a pro-social emotion that encourages ethical behavior. ...
... Awe is commonly generated through images of nature (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Guo et al., 2018), particularly in advertising contexts (Rudd et al., 2018;Septianto et al., 2023). Colors that convey thoughts of nature should reinforce the effects of awe emanating from images of nature. ...
The demand for ethical fashion products has grown in recent years, with consumers caring more about how the product is made. Based on the deontological underpinnings of ethical fashion, the present research provides recommendations to ethical fashion brands by leveraging the emotion of awe through visual representations. This research examines 5362 Instagram posts of five ethical fashion brands and shows that the presence of awe-inspiring visual elements increases consumer engagement on social media for ethical fashion brands. Further, this research identifies the moderating roles of the color green and the size of the visual elements in this context. Two follow-up experiments provide causal evidence for these relationships. Experimental evidence for the role of deontological beliefs as a mediator of the relationship between feelings of awe and social media engagement with ethical fashion brands is also provided. Overall, the findings offer a more nuanced understanding of how ethical fashion brands can develop effective visual advertising campaigns on social media and the underlying process driving the effect, which is consistent with deontological ethics.
... Yet, reviews show that, in particular, exposure to nature environments, like forests or parks, has been shown to benefit social connectedness when compared with urban environments. 12,13 For example, horticulture therapy, such as gardening, has social benefits for older adults in general and for people with dementia, in particular. 14,15 Furthermore, persons with dementia and their caregivers acknowledge the importance of nature experiences for social aspects and reminiscing. ...
... Moreover, spacious nature environments are linked to the emotion of awe, which in turn is related to a sense of connectedness to others and the world at large. 12 In nature environments, such as parks and forest, spaciousness can be related to tree density, with more spacious environments having a lower tree density. 29 Relevant for storytelling, more spacious nature environments can enhance social aspirations and parks with a spacious layout stimulate personal reflection when visitors are invited to write down their thoughts. ...
Objective
Counteracting feelings of loneliness among older adults underscores the need to improve social well-being, for example, by sharing small stories. Interestingly, virtual representation of nature (VN) can stimulate social aspirations and trigger associations, which could be used as conversational material. Especially nature's characteristics of mystery and spaciousness seem promising. Therefore, it was investigated whether VN can elicit small stories in older adults using a randomized 2 (mystery: low vs. high) × 2 (spaciousness: low vs. high) design.
Methods
In total 118 participants (60 years and older) were recruited. Small stories, nature-relatedness, available nature opportunities and demographics were measured. The small stories were analysed with respect to story elements (sum range: 0–4) and storytelling characteristics (ease of storytelling, valence, social intention).
Results
The VN were able to elicited small stories: 97% (N = 115) contained at least one story element. Moreover, when participants felt more related to nature and assigned more positive valence to their story, they also had stronger intentions to use their story for social interaction. The VN characteristics of mystery and spaciousness showed no effects.
Conclusion
Not so much the characteristics of nature (mystery and spaciousness) as the characteristics of the participants (nature-relatedness) played an important role in eliciting and sharing small stories.
... Awe is more generally defined in terms of two appraisal dimensions: the perception of vastness (both literal and figurative) and the need for cognitive accommodation (incorporating unexpected experiences into one's mental schemata) 128,129 . Awe has been investigated across several triggers, such as natural scenery, virtual reality, videos (for example, nature documentaries) and witnessing other people engaging in acts of excellence and virtue 75,[130][131][132][133] , and has been found to promote learning 134,135 and decrease dependence on internal knowledge (what an individual already knows) 136 . In psychedelic research contexts, awe has been proposed as a major therapeutic mechanism of psychedelics 125,126 . ...
... Connectedness is a sense of relatedness and enhanced feelings of association with the self, others and/or the wider world (aspects of one's environment or broader context) 77,139 . Connectedness is not merely an emotion; there is a low correlation between feelings of connection and emotions 5 , but connectedness is related to positive emotions, including awe 125,131,132 . A sense of connectedness is explicit in most measures of the acute subjective effects of psychedelics, such as the 11-Dimensional and 5-Dimensional Altered State of Consciousness scales' experience of unity and oceanic boundlessness factors, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire's mystical factor and measures devoted entirely to feelings of connectedness like the Watts Connectedness Scale. ...
The administration of classic psychedelics has been associated with well-being and mental health benefits as well as risks and adverse events. The acute subjective effects of psychedelics might have a causal role in these risks and therapeutic benefits, but inconsistencies and limitations in the conceptualization and measurement of these acute subjective effects hinder research and clinical advances. In this Review, we outline current characterizations and psychometric examinations of the acute subjective effects of psychedelics, evaluate the construct validity of commonly used measures and describe findings showing that specific acute subjective effects predict certain outcomes. We discuss how to balance the limitations of existing measures with methodological advances in practice and elaborate on well-known methods and other psychological processes that can help inform the creation of new measures. We suggest actionable recommendations for how the field can transcend current conceptualizations and provide guidance on best practices until the next generation of measures is validated. Sections
... However, it should be noted that the current study utilized a visual exposure paradigm that did not involve interactions with real environments, such that the restorative effects of viewing landscape scenes may have been limited. Finally, prior research has shown that exposure (or connectedness) to nature is associated with an increased tendency toward prosocial behavior, particularly in the context of nature that is awe-inspiring or beautiful (for a review, see Goldy & Piff, 2020). Thus, we acknowledge the possible importance of feelings of awe and perceptions of beauty in the effects of exposure to natural versus urban scenes on sociality (Goldy & Piff, 2020) and delinquent behavior. ...
... Finally, prior research has shown that exposure (or connectedness) to nature is associated with an increased tendency toward prosocial behavior, particularly in the context of nature that is awe-inspiring or beautiful (for a review, see Goldy & Piff, 2020). Thus, we acknowledge the possible importance of feelings of awe and perceptions of beauty in the effects of exposure to natural versus urban scenes on sociality (Goldy & Piff, 2020) and delinquent behavior. ...
Objectives
We conducted two experiments to test the possibility that exposure to natural (versus urban) landscapes is associated with a lower tendency to perform delinquent acts.
Methods
Participants were randomly assigned to either the nature or urban exposure condition in both experiments. A discounting measure was then administered. The likelihood of cheating in a matrix task (Experiment 1) and the tendency toward delinquent choices (Experiment 2) served as the dependent measures.
Results
Participants in the nature exposure condition were less likely to cheat in a matrix task (Experiment 1), and less inclined to make delinquent choices (Experiment 2), compared with participants in the urban exposure condition. The discounting tendency mediated the link between exposure to nature and the inclination to engage in delinquent behavior.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that exposure to urban landscapes is more closely associated with delinquent behavior than previously thought.
... One empirically supported method for promoting self-transcendence and connectedness towards others is through experiences of awe. Awe is often experienced when viewing grand natural landscapes (Goldy, 2020). Imagine looking out at magnificent massive mountains-the view takes your breath away and evokes a sense of wonder. ...
... Thus, it is possible that exposure to the transcendent qualities of awe led people to experience other-oriented processes, which then promote prosocial behavior. Not only can awe minimize self-salience but it can also encourage a sense of connectedness, allowing people to consider the perspective of others more easily (Goldy, 2020;Perlin & Li, 2020). Perspective taking is a necessary component of other-oriented emotions such as empathy and concern for others (van Kleef & Lelieveld, 2022). ...
This study aimed to understand how the relationship between awe and prosociality is impacted by empathic concern and emotion regulation. Witnessing others in need and feeling a sense of connectedness towards them may elicit empathic concern and lead to prosocial behavior.
However, emotion regulation impacts the capacity to focus on others. Greater emotion regulation
difficulty has been associated with greater self-focus and may interfere with considering the
perspective of others. Experiences of awe have been shown to not only decrease self-focus but
may also increase connectedness to others, promoting empathic concern, and subsequently
prosocial outcomes. We predicted that eliciting awe would increase empathic concern and
prosocial behavior. We also predicted that the relationship between awe and prosocial behavior
would depend on the level of emotion regulation difficulty, such that participants with greater
emotion regulation difficulty would experience a greater magnitude of the effect of awe on
prosocial behavior than those with less emotion regulation difficulty. Participants completed a
measure of emotion regulation, watched an awe inducing or neutral video, read a story depicting
human suffering and rated the degree of empathic concern felt before making a prosocial
decision. We aimed to investigate empathic concern as a mediator between awe and prosociality
and emotion regulation as a potential moderator. Neither of our hypotheses were supported in the
current study. Possible explanations, limitations, and future directions are discussed.
... This adds to a growing evidence base demonstrating the positive effect of greenspaces on mental health and loneliness (Larson et al., 2022). Developing research shows that spending time in natural settings may motivate and support social bonding, social cohesion, and openness towards social relationships (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Oh et al., 2022). For example, the presence of trees or green space near one's home has been associated with greater trust in neighbors and increased neighborhood social cohesion (Holtan et al., 2015;Kuo et al., 1998). ...
... For example, the presence of trees or green space near one's home has been associated with greater trust in neighbors and increased neighborhood social cohesion (Holtan et al., 2015;Kuo et al., 1998). Feeling a connection to nature has been associated with greater perspective taking-seeing the world from others' points of view (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Mayer & Frantz, 2004). A field study found that participants sitting in a park for 5 min increased feelings of interconnectedness with a world larger than oneself (Neill et al., 2019). ...
We reviewed 38 articles on how nature-based group interventions affect loneliness. • Quantitative studies had small sample sizes and small or moderate effects. • Qualitative studies showed more clearly how these interventions reduce loneliness. • Group-based activities including natural elements cultivate connectedness and belonging. • Longer interventions showed greater promise in reducing loneliness. • Linking landscape with public health promotes and amplifies the value of urban nature. A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Loneliness Social connectedness Nature-based Greenspace Social prescribing Systematic review A B S T R A C T Loneliness is increasingly recognized as an urgent public health issue due to its impact on mental and physical health, and well-being. Yet, we lack comprehensive, proven strategies for confronting this global problem. There is evidence that contact with nature and greenspace reduces loneliness by facilitating belonging, social connections , and social cohesion. This review aimed to explore whether such positive outcomes can be enhanced via group-based interventions in nature. We used a mixed-methods systematic review approach to evaluate and characterize literature on nature-based social interventions for their effectiveness in reducing loneliness. We included all age groups, in populations with or without reported health problems. Using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, we assessed the quality of included qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods studies. The 38 studies identified describe a wide variety of interventions and target groups. The quantitative studies included mostly small sample sizes with small or moderate effects. The qualitative studies, however, showed more clearly that these interventions can reduce loneliness. Group-based activities including natural elements cultivated connectedness and belonging, which are key mechanisms to reducing loneliness. Specifically, longer interventions showed greater promise. Policy and practice recommendations include loneliness screening, the need to describe loneliness more precisely, and the need to evaluate intervention effectiveness over time. This review provides perspectives to inform policymakers, urban planners, and researchers on how group-based interventions Landscape and Urban Planning 248 (2024) 105071 2 in nature can alleviate feelings of loneliness. By linking landscapes with public health concerns, municipalities can further promote and amplify the value of urban nature to the public.
... For instance, interpersonal connectedness and self-disclosure are greater in spacious rather than confining indoor settings, 32 creativity and positive affect are boosted when people are exposed to wide-open, rather than dense, park and forest settings, 12 and vast nature settings are associated with the experience of awe 33 ; an emotion which brings along a high level of perceived connectedness with others and the world at large, and that stimulates prosocial behavior. 19,34 For instance, a spacious nature setting resembling an open field was associated with higher levels of social aspirations compared to a dense digital nature setting. 35 However, a follow-up study with older adults could not replicate these findings, 24 arguably because spacious settings lack the more intimate, secure character associated with more secluded nature settings. ...
... These preferences are furthermore in line with literature in awe research stating that vast nature in general is associated with high levels of (perceived) connectedness with others and the world at large, and that it stimulates prosocial behavior. 19,34 Considering that preferences for spacious (vs dense scenery) vary widely across older adults, incorporating transitions from spacious to dense scenery and vice versa seems advisable. Interestingly, this is in line with a suggestion by Appleton 48 who, in a revision of his prospect-refuge theory, points out the emotional impact of contrasting experiences "involving the successive experiences of exposure to strongly contrasting landscape types" (p. ...
Objective
Loneliness and social isolation are pressing issues that can seriously impact the mental health and well-being of older adults. Interacting with nature can stimulate a feeling of connectedness. However, for older adults, access to nature is often troublesome because of physical limitations and mobility restrictions.
Methods
In the present mixed-method study, 37 older adults (62–99 years old) with varying care needs and mobility restrictions watched a video presenting a walkthrough of a simulated digital nature landscape.
Results
Quantitative results show a significant increase in social connectedness scores and enhanced peacefulness after experiencing a digital nature. Qualitative results stress the importance of variations in nature scenery and highlight the influence of contextual and person-related factors including nature experiences throughout the life span and mobility constraints that older adults may face.
Conclusion
These findings testify to the potential of using digital nature as a complementary strategy when interactions with outdoor nature become increasingly difficult due to old age.
... Research has shown that experiencing awe can promote social connectedness and corresponding behaviors Shiota et al., 2007;Yang et al., 2021). Intimate contact with nature can lead to greater social connectedness and solidarity (Goldy & Piff, 2020), as well as being a typical trigger for awe (Keltner & Haidt, 2003;Shiota et al., 2007). People experiencing awe have a heightened awareness of common humanity (Piff et al., 2015) and thus perceive a greater sense of connectedness to others (Van Cappellen & Saroglou, 2012). ...
... Additionally, the need for accommodation accompanied by awe enhances openness to new experiences and blurs one's perceived boundaries between self and others (Keltner & Haidt, 2003), which is a characteristic of connectedness (Fan et al., 2020). Consistent with those above, Bonner & Friedman (2011) revealed, from the perspective of hermeneutic phenomenology, that people experiencing awe had a heightened sense of connectedness to the universe, nature, and all living entities (Goldy & Piff, 2020). ...
Abstract
Short-term rentals (STRs) are of great significance to the hospitality industry, but suffered heavy losses due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, how to increase individuals’ intention to book STRs has appeared as a major
issue. This research responded to the issue from an emotional perspective by examining the fueling role of awe. Our
hypotheses were tested through four experimental studies using various awe manipulations, divergent assessments
of booking intention, involving samples from different sources, and testing participants both in laboratory and field
settings. The results showed that participants exhibited a heightened booking intention in STRs after being primed with
awe (vs. neutral emotion or happiness). Moreover, such occurrences of the phenomenon were revealed to be driven
by social connectedness, and two alternative accounts were ruled out. Beyond theoretical contributions to the existing
literature, our findings offered managers some insights into how to leverage individuals’ emotions in short-term rental
marketing.
Keywords
short-term rentals, awe, booking intention, social connectedness
... Thinking about oneself is not inherently bad, however orientation towards others and prosocial purpose may improve health and reduce loneliness (Bains & Turnbull, 2019). Exposure to natural environments, on both acute and long-term bases, has been shown to positively influence pro-social behaviors and attitudes (Goldy & Piff, 2020). For example, a study in which people were directed to either notice natural or human-built elements of their environment found that those in the nature group reported greater pro-social orientation and connection to others at the end of a two-week period (Passmore & Holder, 2017). ...
... Our results are in line with previous work showing that exposure to natural environments may increase orientation towards others (Goldy & Piff, 2020), but extend the work to include conscious thoughts and feelings. Broadly, these results suggest a pattern of thoughts and feelings while in a natural space that is less self-focused and instead more focused on, and connected to, both people and other things in the surrounding environment. ...
Research has shown differences in pro-social and pro-environmental attitudes after exposure to different physical environments. It is unclear whether these perspective shifts are associated with changes in conscious thoughts and feelings about other people and the environment. In Study 1, we used a within-subject experiment to measure social and environmental thought content throughout one-hour environmental explorations of a nature conservatory and an indoor mall. At three survey time points, participants (N = 86, undergraduates and community members) reported whom they were thinking about and how connected they felt to the physical and social environment. Using Bayesian multi-level models, we found that while visiting the conservatory, participants were less likely to think about themselves, felt closer to people nearby and around the world, and felt higher connectedness to their social and physical environment. In Study 2, we used a correlational design to investigate the association between perceived naturalness of city parks and feelings of connection to nearby others and the physical environment while visiting. Participants (N = 303, Chicago residents) reported feeling higher levels of connection to nearby people and the physical environment when they were visiting city parks rated as more natural. These studies further our understanding of the ways in which natural environments influence conscious thoughts and feelings about the social and physical environment.
... Outdoor education can be crucial in developing positive social relationships and individual interactions (Germinaro et al., 2021). Interaction with the outdoors can enhance adolescents' social relationships and increase sensitivity to social relationships (Goldy & Piff, 2020). Outdoor education has shown socialemotional benefits, including increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and resilience (Mygind, 2019). ...
Introduction: This study aims to describe the setting of contexts, types of environments, and barriers through rock climbing that promote positive youth development in Physical Education at one of the High Schools in Pandeglang Regency, Banten, Indonesia. Objective: Based on the theoretical framework of outdoor adventure education and the positive youth development model. Methodology: Researchers interviewed nine teachers with and without experience in rock climbing adventure education through semi-structured interviews regarding the setting of contexts and environments that promote positive youth development. Results: The teachers conveyed the influence of considering the contexts and types of environments that promote positive youth development, such as physical, emotional, and community aspects. Potential barriers include the risk of falling or injury, the nature of rock climbing activities, infrastructure, and safety. Discussion: The teachers stated that they can facilitate positive youth development by considering the contexts and types of environments through rock climbing adventure education. Conclusions: The setting of contexts and types of environments for positive youth development through rock climbing adventure education has the potential to generate synergies with positive impacts.
... However, in parallel with rapid urbanisation, mental health conditions are rising (Patel et al., 2018;World Health Organization, 2022). Empirical evidence suggests that exposure to nature can help to counteract these challenges as nature is linked to multiple psychological and physiological pathways, and is associated with mental health, such as restoration, physical activity, and social interaction, as well as immune function, brain development and cognition (Beukeboom et al. 2012;Engemann et al., 2019;Goldy & Piff, 2020;Kim et al., 2023;Kühn et al., 2017Kühn et al., , 2020Li, 2010, Li et al., 2009, 2011McCoy & Evans, 2002;Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014;Ulrich et al., 1991;Ulrich, 1992). As a result of emerging empirical evidence in scientific research, design disciplines outside academia have started to acknowledge the potential of implementing biophilic characteristics in architectural design and built environments (Camargo et al., 2018). ...
... EGBs are considered one of the essential components of organizational environmental sustainability (Ones & Dilchert, 2012). Engaging with nature can also have positive effects on social relationships, enhancing connections, and fostering a sense of unity among people (Goldy & Piff, 2020). Therefore, pro-environmental behaviors offer multiple benefits, enhancing employee well-being, organizational performance, and environmental protection. ...
As the environmental degradation and hazards caused by Information Technology (IT) industry is reaching its peak, promoting pro-environmental behaviours in IT firms is crucial. Pro-environmental behaviours not only reduce the operational costs, but also enhance the productivity of the employees in their organisation. The primary objective of the study was to assess the role of Consideration of Future Consequences, Nature Relatedness and Organisational Commitment as determinants of Employee Green Behaviour. The results revealed that there is a significant relationship between Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) and Employee Green Behaviour. CFC-Future has a significant positive relationship with EGB and CFC-Immediate has a significant negative correlation with EGB. The relationship between EGB and Nature Relatedness is significant and positive. A significant and positive correlation exist between EGB and Organisational Commitment. Furthermore, regression results of the psychological variables revealed that the percentage of variance in EGB is 29% (i.e., explained collectively by CFC-Future, NR-6 and Continuance OC).
... However, in parallel with rapid urbanisation, mental health conditions are rising (Patel et al., 2018;World Health Organization, 2022). Empirical evidence suggests that exposure to nature can help to counteract these challenges as nature is linked to multiple psychological and physiological pathways, and is associated with mental health, such as restoration, physical activity, and social interaction, as well as immune function, brain development and cognition (Beukeboom et al. 2012;Engemann et al., 2019;Goldy & Piff, 2020;Kim et al., 2023;Kühn et al., 2017Kühn et al., , 2020Li, 2010, Li et al., 2009, 2011McCoy & Evans, 2002;Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014;Ulrich et al., 1991;Ulrich, 1992). As a result of emerging empirical evidence in scientific research, design disciplines outside academia have started to acknowledge the potential of implementing biophilic characteristics in architectural design and built environments (Camargo et al., 2018). ...
The human brain evolved in adaptive response to natural environments. However, urbanisation has led to the majority of humanity now living in cities, which differ profoundly from the landscape in which our species originated. At the same time, mental health conditions are increasing rapidly worldwide. Studies suggest that city living impacts brain function and structure, activates the stress response to a greater extent, and increases the risk of multiple mental health conditions. Recently, the close-to-nature concepts of biophilia and biophilic design have emerged as a potential approach to counteract these challenges. They may play a pivotal role in achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Here, we explore the potential of biophilic design to balance urban stressors, protect mental health and support sustainable living on a global scale.
... The research found that WHM facilitated connectedness to others and increased the propensity for prosocial behaviour (e.g., volunteering), key determinants of individual wellbeing (47,48). This may be due to nature exposure, which is known to promote social connectedness and prosocial behaviour (49,50). Aside from benefiting individual wellbeing, prosocial acts, such as vaccination to protect others, also contribute to collective health and wellbeing (51). ...
Amidst global challenges like the COVID-19 pandemic and the unfolding climate crisis, there's a pressing need for strategies that improve wellbeing. This study investigates the Wim Hof Method (WHM) as a potential tool for enhancing wellbeing and its influence on related aspects including nature connectedness and health attitudes, including vaccine uptake. We conducted a mixed-methods study involving an online survey with 137 UK-based WHM practitioners and in-depth interviews with 15 of these participants. The focus was on their wellbeing, perceptions of climate change, and decisions regarding vaccine use during the COVID pandemic. The findings revealed significantly higher levels of wellbeing among WHM practitioners compared to pre-pandemic and pandemic-era benchmarks. Notably, nature connectedness significantly mediated the relationship between WHM practice and enhanced wellbeing. Thematic analysis yielded seven main themes: the cultivation of positive psychological states, experience of challenging climate-related emotions, improved distress management, heightened sense of connectedness, perceived vulnerability to COVID-19, moral and social responsibility, and the recognition of opportunities for positive change. These themes underscore WHM's role in not only bolstering human wellbeing during adversity but also highlight opportunities for promoting environmentally sustainable behaviours by reconnecting people to nature. This dual benefit highlights WHM's potential in fostering human flourishing as well as environmental stewardship.
... Insofar as discrete positive emotions are associated with different cognitive and behavioral outcomes, they may underlie psychedelics' various therapeutic outcomes and benefits. To name a small subset of emotions and their respective specific outcomes: joy increases subjective well-being (Watkins et al., 2017;Zeng et al., 2019), compassion facilitates care for others (Batson et al., 1981;Goetz et al., 2010;Saslow et al., 2013), gratitude strengthens social ties (Bartlett & DeSteno, 2006;Emmons & McCullough, 2003;McCullough et al., 2008), and awe has effects on beneficial personal and interpersonal processes (Bai et al., , 2021Goldy et al., 2022;Goldy & Piff, 2020;Piff et al., 2015;Stellar et al., 2018). Such relationships may be important to consider, as some studies indicate that psychedelics' acute subjective effects can predict positive therapeutic responses. ...
... Social connection is important because it predicts numerous aspects of wellbeing such as fulfilment, motivation, persistence, and self-esteem (Holt-Lunstad, 2021;Patrick et al., 2007;Walton et al., 2012;Yang et al., 2016). Few studies have investigated the effect of time in nature on social connection, and those that have done so have primarily used correlational designs (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Hartig et al., 2014). Our study used an innovative experimental design to investigate the impact of shared time in nature on social connection. ...
... A large body of evidence documents the physical and mental health benefits of time spent in nature (see recent reviews by Silva, Matos, & Gonçalves, 2023;White et al., 2023). These benefits include better immune system functioning (Andersen, Corazon, & Stigsdottir, 2021;Kuo, 2015), less self-perceived stress (Corazon, Sidenius, Poulsen, Gramkow, & Stigsdotter, 2019;Litt, Alaimo, et al., 2023), emotional well-being (Bratman et al., 2019;Litt, Alaimo, et al., 2023;Tillmann, Tobin, Avison, & Gilliland, 2018;Zhang, Mavoa, Zhao, Raphael, & Smith., 2020), social connection (Goldy & Piff, 2020), and reduced loneliness general use conceals significant differences between ''nature prescribing'' and ''nature programming.'' It makes the case that it is useful to distinguish nature prescribing and nature programming, based on the levels of resources that they require and people's levels of need, to identify which approach best serves people's needs in different contexts. ...
There is extensive evidence that when people have parks, gardens, and greenery near their homes, they gain mental and physical health benefits. As a result, there are a number of health care initiatives to motivate people to spend time in local green spaces. This article proposes a network of access and engagement with nature to support health and well-being: Equitable access to nearby nature spaces; nature prescriptions to encourage people to integrate time in nature into their lives; and nature programming that involves people in organized activities in nature to address health challenges. This article defines nature prescribing and nature programming and provides examples of each, with an emphasis on initiatives that support mental health. It compares these approaches according to four criteria: Participant engagement, program leadership and community partnerships, the role of health care providers, and financial sustainability. Considering nature prescribing and programming in this ordered way can help identify strategies to increase time in nature, which are compatible with health system resources and participant needs. The article closes by considering implications for practice and research.
... In fact, built environments play crucial roles in the establishment of prosocial responses within communities. For instance, Goldy and Piff (2020) found that exposure to surrounding environments, including parks embedded within residential landscapes, is crucial in facilitating community services (e.g., charitable events, healthcare outreach, homelessness services). As a result, these residential settings can enhance social cohesion and encourage individuals to engage in prosocial responses, such as sharing, cooperation, offering help, and volunteering. ...
... Social or interpersonal interactions can be influenced by nature-based experiences (Litt et al. 2015, Goldy andPiff 2020). Studies have shown that small regular group meetings and groups where members participate actively and are able to influence the content of group meetings are among the most effective interventions at reducing loneliness (Dickens et al. 2011, Reinhardt et al. 2021, Wakefield et al. 2022). ...
... The results linking time spent in nature with the satisfaction of relatedness as a basic psychological need are consistent with research findings connecting time spent in nature and increased social interaction (Anderson & Fowers, 2020;Hartig et al., 2014). Time spent in nature not only increases social interaction but increases prosocial behavior -intent to benefit others, and awareness of the needs of others (Goldy & Piff, 2020). ...
Despite a broad array of research linking nature engagement to health and well-being, people seem to be spending less time in nature now relative to previous decades. The ways in which nature engagement does or does not fulfill needs for individuals across the lifespan may impact their proclivity toward spending time in nature, but little is known about how people conceptualize the development of their attitudes and habits related to nature engagement. Using Self-Determination Theory as a guiding framework, this qualitative study relied on semi-structured interviews to examine the subjective experiences of twenty adults in Mississippi who were diverse in age and race to explore their nature engagement as a developmental phenomenon (Mage = 45.8, SD = 21.56). Reflexive thematic analysis was used to construct themes from the data and to reveal rich insight into people’s experiences in nature, and how their current engagement related to their experiences as a child, teenager, and adult. These perspectives were interpreted in relation to the ways in which satisfaction of the fundamental needs of relatedness, autonomy, and competence may have guided the developmental aspects of nature engagement. These findings may support efforts to encourage healthy nature engagement via nature-focused education and intervention practices.
... Mundane nature pictures, however, evoked equivalent ratings for self-transcendent emotions such as spirituality and connectedness. This pattern is not entirely consistent with the hypothesis that exposure to nature increases prosocial behavior through self-transcendent emotions, except perhaps the specific emotions of awe and beauty, as suggested by several researchers (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Meidenbaur et al., 2020;Piff et al., 2015;Prade & Saroglou, 2016;Zhang et al., 2014). However, increased prosociality has been observed for self-transcendent emotions other than awe or beauty in other studies (e.g., Castelo et al., 2021). ...
... In our study, increased self-esteem and self-confidence appeared to be achieved through three key elements: a) the 'no right or wrong' approach which helped children to embrace 'creative accidents' and making 'mistakes'; b) working with professional artists; and c) teamwork. These findings come in agreement with previous studies which found that arts engagement play a crucial role in shifting cultural norms and values, such as normalising 'mistakes' and creating space for new relationships to emerge (Arbuthnott & Sutter, 2019), thereby enhancing prosocial behaviours (Goldy & Piff, 2020). Previous studies also found that contact with professional artists who address children as serious artists maximise the benefits of arts-in-nature (Gray & Birrell, 2015), facilitate personal and cultural expression (Brolles et al., 2017), and support the development of children's identity as artists (Hay, 2019). ...
Background
Nature can weaken the negative effects of deprivation on health, shifting away from pathogenic models of health and supporting the wellbeing of disadvantaged groups. Nevertheless, children living in deprived areas are nine times less likely to have access to nature compared to more affluent children. Schools can facilitate equity of access to nature, thereby playing a crucial role in addressing health inequities. What has received scant attention in existing literature is how access to, and engagement with, nature can be facilitated through arts experiences.
Methods
‘Eco-capabilities’ is a pilot study exploring the impact of the arts-in-nature practice - ‘Artscaping’ - on the wellbeing of 101 children (aged 7–10) living in areas of high deprivation. Qualitative and arts-based methods were used to understand children's, artists' and teachers' experiences of participating in the intervention. Quantitative methods were used to gain preliminary information on children's self-reported measures of wellbeing pre- and post-intervention.
Findings
Children's wellbeing was supported by the development of: self-confidence and self-esteem; agency; slowliness and calmness; and connectedness with nature. Although children's self-reported measures of wellbeing did not reach statistically significance, the most noticeable changes were that children felt happier with their life as a whole, spending time outdoors and doing things away from home, and more optimistic about what future holds for them.
Conclusions
This study developed the proof of concept for the arts-in-nature intervention. Future research should focus on scaling-up this intervention in primary, secondary and special schools in a wider range of geospatial contexts. Future research should also prioritise the collaboration between artists and teachers to ensure the sustainability of this practice beyond the scope of the research.
... Furthermore, grand nature prototypically evokes awe [67], a self-transcendent emotion that pulls people into the social collective via the salience of one's large-group identity [68][69][70]. Results from numerous studies have demonstrated that exposure to awe-evoking nature boosts social connections (see [71] for a review). These boosts to social connection presumably enhance a sense of social significance/mattering aspect of meaning in life. ...
Much academic and media attention has been focused on how nature contributes to psychological health, yet, most of this focus has been on happiness or hedonic well-being. Although numerous writers and researchers have linked connecting with nature as a pathway to meaning in life, an integrated overview has not yet (to our knowledge) been offered. Our manuscript is thus of both theoretical and practical importance with respect to finding meaning in life. In this hybrid commen-tary/review paper, we examine the link between meaning in life and relating to the beyond-human natural world. Through presenting supportive empirical research and interdisciplinary insights, we make the case that connecting with the natural world provides us with meaning in various ways. We discuss how nature is a common source of meaning in people's lives and how connecting with nature helps to provide meaning by addressing our need to find coherence, significance/mattering, and purpose (the three aspects comprising the tripartite model of meaning life). We also consider how connecting with nature enhances our experiential appreciation for life, a fourth aspect of meaning in life recently proposed. Our discussion then expands to examining nature as a place of attachment. Going beyond how nature provides us with meaning, we consider how engaging in nature-based activities provides an avenue for many people to build meaningful lives. We close by considering how threats to nature are a threat to meaning in life.
... Studies by [8,12] showed that connection to nature is the link that contributes to the conversion of prosocial propensity into ecological behaviour. Moreover, connection to nature has been shown to predict both ecological behaviour [8] as well as altruistic behaviour [12,13], and, similarly, connection to other people has been shown to predict both altruistic [14,15] and ecological behaviour [16,17]. ...
Both altruistic and ecological behaviours are considered prosocially driven behaviours, but our understanding of what motivates action in either the human or ecological domain is still in its infancy. Our goal was to assess connection to nature, connection to people, and connection to country as mediators of the relationship between prosocial propensity and prosocial behaviours in both the ecological and human domains. This study used honesty-humility as an indicator of prosocial propensity. Data for the study were collected through online surveys in Spanish. The survey was answered by 438 adolescent participants aged 11-19 years. The present study demonstrates that personal prosocial propensity can be directed to a particular domain of prosocial behaviour (ecological or altruistic) through the individual's connection to the relevant domain. Specifically, the effect of prosocial propensity on ecological behaviour was positively mediated by connection to people and connection to nature, but negatively mediated by connection to country. For altruistic behaviour, the effect of prosocial propensity was positive via connection to people, nature, and country. Future research is called for, in particular, to examine the role of connection to country in ecological behaviour.
... Children who engage in such prosocial behaviors are also generally more liked and accepted by their peers (Guo, Zhou, & Feng, 2018). Although the literature on the benefits of nature on prosocial behavior in children is limited, experimental research in adults has demonstrated that natural environments may enhance social connection among people (Goldy & Piff, 2020;Schertz et al., 2022), as well as stimulate intrinsic aspirations and generosity (Weinstein, Przybylski, & Ryan, 2009), which are important aspects of prosocial behavior and social bonding. ...
Contact with nature during early childhood has many benefits, both in the short and the long term. However, explanatory mechanisms remain understudied. This study examined the long-term association of the time children spend outdoors in daycare with attentional control and academic achievement by early adolescence. It was also tested whether cognitive (i.e., inattention-hyperactivity symptoms, working memory) or social (i.e., prosocial behavior, peer acceptance) pathways during early childhood can explain such associations. We used a multi-informant longitudinal design to follow 555 children over 10 years (45% retainment rate). Working memory was assessed using the digit span test, peer acceptance was assessed using peer ratings, while children's inattentive-hyperactive and prosocial behaviors were rated by teachers. Registry data with results from national standardized test scores were used to assess academic achievement, and adolescents provided self-report ratings on attentional control. Time spent outdoors and relevant control variables were based on information provided by daycare managers and parents. Structural equation analyses showed a direct positive association between outdoor time in daycare and attentional control in adolescence, and an indirect cognitive pathway linking outdoor time in daycare to academic achievement in adolescence via enhanced working memory in early childhood. In conclusion, time spent outdoors may be an accessible way to enhance children's social, cognitive, and academic functioning, with potential long-term benefits.
... Connection with nature is considered one of the fundamental needs of humans, and its' merits are being investigated by many scholars (Hergül andGöker, 2021, Salazar et al., 2021). Improving mental well-being and physical health (Houlden et al., 2018), enhancing social life (Goldy & Piff, 2020), and affecting people's visual preferences (Mousavi & and Shahhosseini, 2021) and experiences (Chawla, 2020) are among the various benefits of human-nature connectedness. Due to the urban area's densification, building small green spaces such as SUP has interested policymakers (Kerishnan et al., 2020;Saeedi & Dabbagh, 2021). ...
Small Urban Parks (SUP) are vital parts of cities that can enhance the quality of the public environment. Visual Preferences (VP) in SUPs, which consist of diverse stimuli, are affected by multisensory perception, including the combination of auditory, olfactory, and tactile stimuli. However, the relationship between sensory stimuli integration (sound, smell, touch) and people’s VP has been neglected during the design process, which can influence the assessment of an environmental aesthetic and preferences. The present study’s main objective is to evaluate how multisensory can affect the VP of visitors through textual and photo questionnaires. Structural Equations Model and Regression were studied on 394 participants, chosen from 16 SUPs located in different parts of Tabriz, Iran. Results identified the “Human and Natural sounds, Human-Body and Natural smells” as influencial factors on visitors’ VP; however, touch stimuli had no significant impact. In this regard, paying attention to the visitors’ experience of Natural Sound-Smell Stimuli and the Human-body Sound-Smell Stimuli are essential in designing SUPs. The outcomes of the current research provide a guideline for city planners and landscape designers regarding the relationship between senses and their practical implications in SUPs in order to promote people’s VP and visitation.
... Finally, given that awe promotes virality (Berger & Milkman, 2012) and enhances social connection Goldy & Piff, 2020;Piff et al., 2015), imaginary worlds may be powerful motivators of collective lifeas evidenced by the expansive close-knit communities observed among fans of imaginary worlds across the globe. As an emotion that sparks sharing and helps individuals fold into cohesive collectives , awe aroused by imaginary worlds may help explain why these gatherings exist and prosper, binding individuals together in their collective awe of their favorite stories, characters, and contexts. ...
Why has fiction been so successful over time? We make the case that fiction may have properties that enhance both individual and group-level fitness by (a) allowing risk-free simulation of important scenarios, (b) effectively transmitting solutions to common problems, and (c) enhancing group cohesion through shared consumption of fictive worlds.
One possible explanation for the lack of pro‐environmental behavior among the public is that the benefits of combating climate change are long‐term and distant. Temporal discounting is a pervasive tendency to prefer small immediate gains to large delayed benefits, which may lead to a lack of motivation to engage in pro‐environmental behavior. However, exposure to nature can reduce this tendency and by extension may promote pro‐environmental behavior. Two behavioral experiments were conducted to investigate whether exposure to natural (vs. urban) scenes would induce lower discounting and increase the tendency toward pro‐environmental behavior. We demonstrated that exposure to natural (vs. urban) scenes was associated with a lower level of discounting and a greater tendency toward pro‐environmental behavior, including energy‐saving use of air conditioning (Experiment 1), willingness to participate in beach cleaning (Experiment 2), and choosing meals with less environmental impact (Experiment 2). Mediation analysis indicated that the discounting tendency mediated the relationship between exposure to natural scenes and pro‐environmental behavior. This study provides the first experimental evidence that temporal discounting accounts for the association between exposure to natural (vs. urban) scenes and the tendency toward pro‐environmental behavior. Our findings support the development of a novel strategy for promoting pro‐environmental behavior.
People use social media to gratify various needs, one of which is the need to affiliate with mediated nature. By combining the uses and gratifications approach and the biophilia hypothesis, this study coins this gratification as biophilia gratification. We computationally analyzed three million Facebook posts to test whether user reactions (likes, shares, loves, and cares) reflect biophilia gratification derived from human-created nature on social media, that is, mediated nature. Ten percent of posts that are image-based (approximately 170,000) were also randomly selected and analyzed. The results showed that social media users were more likely to react to most posts (particularly image-based posts) of mediated nature compared with nonmediated nature posts. These findings may imply that user reactions on social media may serve as indicators of biophilia gratification fulfilled through engagement with mediated nature.
Numerous studies have reported that the built environment plays a key role in promoting prosocial behaviors. However, to date, the potential positive psychological mechanisms underlying the association between built environment and prosocial behaviors in urban adult residents have not been well examined. To fill this research gap, the present study explored the mediation pathway from the perceived built environment to prosocial tendencies from a positive psychology perspective. Moreover, the present study focused on the moderating effects of depression and anxiety on this mediation pathway. A sample of 1150 urban community-dwelling adults completed questionnaires that assessed the perceived built environment, flourishing, prosocial tendencies, depression symptoms, and severity of anxiety. The results of the mediation model analysis demonstrated that the positive effect of perceived built environment on prosocial tendencies was partially mediated by flourishing. Furthermore, using a moderated mediation model analysis, we found that depression and anxiety moderated the link between perceived built environment and prosocial tendencies via flourishing. More specifically, the effect of the perceived built environment on flourishing was stronger for residents who experienced high levels of depression and anxiety than for those who experienced low levels of depression and anxiety. Additionally, we found that depression and anxiety moderated the mediating effect of flourishing. Compared with residents without a risk of depression and anxiety, individuals experiencing high levels of depression and anxiety obtained more psychosocial benefits derived from the high quality of the built environment. Overall, these findings provide an empirical contribution to the human-environment interaction research field and increase the precision of urban-based interventions and policies for the promotion of human well-being in urban contexts.
When we start with a practice-first approach, we are stepping into the unknown; we do not have a map; instead, we notice, connect with, feel and make sense of the territory as we journey along the path. Thus, this chapter addresses the broad policy themes of emotion and kindness. It deliberately and purposefully aims to reflect that way of travelling a practice-first journey with the aim of being compassionate in a higher educational setting. It is a chapter of questions, curiosity and stories where the reader is invited to engage with an active dialogical attitude. However, the chapter also provides the reader with a map to aid practice using Johns’ six dialogical movements’ reflective narrative methodological framework. The chapter deliberately aims to shine a light on university practices that could be seen as both compassionate and uncompassionate depending on the lens and position through which one is viewing. The chapter explores, through reflective narrative, some of the conflicting raison d’etre by those who inhabit higher education. Ultimately, the chapter is intended as a potential cartography guide for individuals and policymakers as they embark on a practice-first approach to being and becoming a compassionate citizen in higher education and beyond.
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Nature connection is a common construct in research examining relationships between the natural environment and human well‐being. The multidimensionality of the concept is often described but rarely reflected in existing unidimensional measures, which can also be limited by poor psychometric characteristics. This research aimed to develop and validate a new brief (9‐item) multidimensional self‐report measure: The Nature Experiences Questionnaire (NEQ). Scale items were formulated from a review of relevant literature and in consultation with experts. Study 1 investigated the underlying structure using exploratory factor analysis in a sample of 142 undergraduate psychology students. The resulting three‐factor solution was replicated in Studies 2 and 3 using confirmatory factor analyses in independent samples of community members ( n = 231) and workers ( n = 2629). The NEQ was positively correlated with two existing measures of nature connection, and the three subscales ( nature affect , cognitions and behaviour ) predicted more variance in well‐being. The NEQ demonstrated robust psychometric properties over time and was predictive of worker well‐being, relaxation from work and job satisfaction. The implications and recommendations for the use of this measure are discussed.
Previous studies have focused more on the facilitating effect of nature exposure on positive behavioural consequences. However, less attention has been paid to whether nature exposure can inhibit internalized problem behaviours, such as Internet addiction. Within the framework of the stimuli‐organism‐response theory, the present study examined the relationship between nature exposure and Internet addiction and investigated the mediating roles of anthropomorphism of nature and awe. In China, we recruited 1469 adolescents (mean age = 13.90 years old, SD = 0.59, 53.2% girls). Mediation analyses indicated that awe partially mediated the relationship between nature exposure and adolescents' Internet addiction. The anthropomorphism of nature and awe served as sequential mediating roles in the relationship between nature exposure and adolescents' Internet addiction. This study provides a nature‐based perspective on the prevention and intervention of adolescents' Internet addiction.
This study discusses the essential need of re-naturalizing the built environment, focusing on schools. Leveraging research on the impact of nature on health, children’s development, and learning, we analyze case studies from America, Asia, and Europe with distinct trajectories of interplay between architecture and pedagogy. Using a theoretical framework on plant-architecture relationship, we identify effective re-naturalization solutions in some applications of biophilic design in rural and urban contexts, cautioning against superficial nature incorporations in schools. Our study asserts that technological sustainability is needed but insufficient, emphasizing the necessity of concurrent efforts in architecture and education to create meaningful student-nature connections.
Contact with nature has emotional benefits, but the psychological mechanism and potential moderator underlying the association between nature contact and emotion regulation remain unclear. The present study investigated how self-reported frequency of nature contact is associated with the use of emotion regulation strategies and explored the mediating role of nature connectedness (i.e., psychological connection to nature) and the moderating role of engagement with natural beauty. Employing mediation and moderated mediation analyses, in a cross-sectional sample of 2097 young adults aged 18–35 years old ( M = 24.01, SD = 4.80) residing in urban China, we obtained three major findings. First, nature connectedness mediated the associations between direct/indirect nature contact and cognitive reappraisal as well as expressive suppression. Second, engagement with natural beauty moderated the path from direct/indirect nature contact to cognitive reappraisal in the mediation models. Third, engagement with natural beauty moderated the path from indirect nature contact to nature connectedness in the mediation models. Our study is the first to reveal mediating and moderating factors in the relationships among direct/indirect contact with nature, nature connectedness, engagement with natural beauty, and emotion regulation strategies. These findings provide support for the emotional health of nature contact and have implications for nature-based education and urban planning.
The role of nature in promoting both affective and cognitive benefits has been extensively studied in the field of environmental psychology. Two well-established theories, Stress Recovery Theory (SRT) and Attention Restoration Theory (ART), are commonly used to explain these restorative benefits. However, despite their popularity, both theories face important challenges. To address these challenges, in the current paper, we propose an alternative goal-discrepancy account of restorative nature experiences. In our account, we consider individuals as goal-directed agents and argue that the to-be-restored states that are central to SRT and ART-stress and negative affect (in SRT) and declines in cognitive performance (in ART)-can be interpreted as discrepancies between an individual's goals and their current situation, instead of drained affective and/or cognitive resources. We propose that affective (see SRT) and cognitive nature benefits (see ART) both arise from a process of discrepancy reduction, where nature helps individuals to reduce discrepancies between their current situation and their goals. Nature can facilitate this discrepancy reduction process through three pathways: (a) by modifying goals (i.e., accommodation), (b) by modifying interpretations of the situation (i.e., immunization), or (c) by affording actions that can fulfill thwarted goals (i.e., assimilation). We compare our account to SRT and ART, highlighting similarities and differences between our proposal and the two theories, and illustrate how it can guide empirical studies and real-life interventions.
Scholars have long upheld the notion that exposure to nature benefits individuals. Recently, organizational researchers have theorized that these benefits extend to the workplace, leading to calls for organizations to incorporate contact with nature into employees’ jobs. However, it is unclear whether the effects of nature are strong enough to meaningfully impact employee performance, thereby justifying organizations’ investments in them. In this research, we draw on self-determination theory to develop a theoretical model predicting that exposure to nature at work satisfies employees’ psychological needs (i.e., needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence) and positively affects their subsequent task performance and prosocial behavior. In addition, we theorize that the effects of nature on need satisfaction are weaker in employees higher on speciesism (i.e., the belief that humans are superior to other forms of life). We test these predictions with a mixed-method approach comprised of an online experiment in the United States (Study 1), a field experiment in Hong Kong (Study 2), a multiwave, multisource field study in Taiwan (Study 3), and a multiwave, multisource field study (with objective performance scores) in New Zealand (Study 4). Overall, our findings largely support our theoretical model.
National health guidelines provide policy makers and the public with recommendations for various behavioral factors known to promote health and reduce disease risk, such as diet and physical activity. Given public health concerns about social isolation, loneliness, and other forms of lacking social connection, the evidence supports establishing national health guidelines for “social connection.” The aggregate body of scientific evidence demonstrates social connection protects health and reduces health risks, pointing to clear relevance for public health. Taken together with national trends suggesting greater social disconnection, there is a compelling case for national preventative efforts. This article summarizes evidence on the health relevance of social connections, potential opportunities, and challenges in establishing and implementing guidelines, the process of establishing guidelines, and provides illustrative evidence-based examples of potential recommendations.
Loneliness, or perceived social isolation, is a leading predictor of all-cause mortality and is increasingly considered a public health epidemic afflicting significant portions of the general population. Chronic loneliness is itself associated with two of the most pressing public health epidemics currently facing the globe: the rise of mental illness and metabolic health disorders. Here, we highlight the epidemiological associations between loneliness and mental and metabolic health disorders and argue that loneliness contributes to the etiology of these conditions by acting as a chronic stressor that leads to neuroendocrine dysregulation and downstream immunometabolic consequences that manifest in disease. Specifically, we describe how loneliness can lead to overactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and ultimately cause mitochondrial dysfunction, which is implicated in mental and metabolic disease. These conditions can, in turn, lead to further social isolation and propel a vicious cycle of chronic illness. Finally, we outline interventions and policy recommendations that can reduce loneliness at both the individual and community levels. Given its role in the etiology of the most prevalent chronic diseases of our time, focusing resources on alleviating loneliness is a vitally important and cost-effective public health strategy.
This study investigates how physical and psychological distance from one's surroundings may influence one's perception of connectedness with the servicescape and, ultimately, perception of value. It also examines the effect of consumers’ techno-psychological differences and interaction modes on this distance–closeness relationship. The researchers develop and test a conceptual framework of how personal cognitive traits and technological intervention may alter consumers’ perceived connectedness to the servicescape and influence their perceived value in different service settings. Via a quasi-experiment design in three service scenarios, this research shows a synthetical effect of contactless technology in the distancing setting that may work more effectively on high self-efficiency customers to change their perceived closeness to the servicescape and further change their evaluation of the service. The findings reveal the practical implications of social distancing for different types of consumers in service encounters during or after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Urban living is becoming increasingly predominant, with 55% of the world’s population currently living in cities and 68% projected to do so by 2050 (1). While megacities with more than 10 million inhabitants command much attention, they account for less than 10% of the world’s urban population. In contrast, nearly half of all urban residents – over 2 billion people – live in cities with populations under 500,000 (Table 9.1). It is in these smaller cities where population growth rates tend to be highest. The USA, Latin America, and Japan are very highly urbanized but both Africa as a whole and India remain well below 50% urbanized (Figure 9.1). Many low- and lower-middle-income countries in particular are projected to urbanize rapidly in coming decades, with a projected increase of 2.5 billion people in urban areas by 2050 – accounting for essentially all projected human population growth through mid-century.
As healthcare workers, we are used to putting others first. But how can we effectively care for our patients if our own mental and physical health is suffering? Plagued by long and irregular work shifts, short staffing and inadequate equipment and supplies, increased documentation and administrative demands resulting in less time to provide direct care to patients, continuous exposure to disease and human suffering, and poor work-life balance, we face a myriad of stressors on a daily basis. Stressors that directly affect our mental, physical, and spiritual health, can spill over into our personal lives, and put us at risk for professional burnout. These issues have been further exacerbated by the COVID pandemic. Earlier this year, the Surgeon General declared addressing burnout among healthcare workers to be a national priority¹. In the midst of this crisis, it is increasingly imperative that we invest more in our own self-care. There is a growing body of research that supports how spending time interacting with, and connecting to, nature can elicit profound healing and may be just the prescription we need.
There is empirical evidence suggesting a positive link between direct experiences in nature and people’s environmental attitudes (EA) and behaviors (EB). This has led researchers to encourage more frequent contact with nature, especially during childhood, as a way of increasing pro-environmentalism (i.e., pro-EA and pro-EB). However, the association between experiences in nature and EA/EB is complex, and specific guidelines for people’s everyday contact with nature cannot be provided. This article offers an overview of the research conducted until know about the relation between experiences in nature and pro-environmentalism, and opens up new inquiries for future research. We begin with an introduction to people’s current tendency toward an alienation from the natural world and set out the objectives of the article. It is followed by three main sections. The first one reports on what experiences in nature refer to, how and where they occur. The second section describes the different approaches used to investigate and interpret the experiences in nature-EA and EB relation. The last section provides suggestions for future research. We close by making some final remarks about the importance of (re)stablishing a greater interaction with nature for people’s pro-EA and EB.
A growing number of studies demonstrate significant associations between nature experiences and positive mental health outcomes (e.g., improved mood, decreased stress). However, implementation of this research by practitioners in fields such as urban design or public health has been limited. One reason for this is that it remains unclear what elements of nature and types of participant experience are consistently associated with mental health benefits. As a result, decision-makers who aim to enhance mental health in cities have little guidance about which elements of nature and types of experiences in natural areas may lead to positive mental health outcomes. We reviewed 30 studies with 41 distinct exposures in nature that elicited positive mental health benefits and characterized the elements of nature found at these sites, as well as aspects of participants’ experience. Elements of natural areas considered include: forest, managed grass, and water as dominant land cover types, specific water features (e.g., small ponds, fountains) and built features (e.g., trails, paths). The majority of the studies we reviewed assessed the experiences of individuals (vs. in groups) participating in walks during warmer seasons. Most studies did not describe the “nature of the nature” associated with positive mental health outcomes. We contacted authors and used Google Earth imagery to reconstruct the specific natural elements, landscape typology, and site adjacencies present in past studies. We recommend specific ways researchers could better and more transparently document important elements of nature and participant experience in study design and reporting that will enhance the planning and design relevance of their work.
Background
The urban environment has been criticized for promoting ‘nature-deficit’ and ‘child-nature disconnectedness’. Keeping in mind the importance of nature exposure and its extensive health benefits, many environmental programs around the world hope to (re)connect children with nature. To evaluate the effectiveness of such efforts, valid tools to measure Connectedness to Nature (CN) are needed but do not exist today, especially for use with pre-schoolers.
Methods
The original CN Index was modified and tested among the Parents of Preschool Children (CNI-PPC) in an urban setting (Hong Kong) for its internal consistency (n = 299) and external validity (n = 194). The ‘Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire’ (SDQ) was chosen for divergent and convergent analysis. Conventional recommendations for test adaptation and translation were used.
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed that the 16-item scale adequately captured four major dimensions: enjoyment of nature, empathy for nature, responsibility toward nature, and awareness of nature (Cronbach’s α were respectively .86, .87, .75 and .80). When tested against the SDQ, a validated measure for child psychological functioning, and identification of children’s problem behaviours, three CNI-PPC factors influenced the SDQ outcomes: (1) the more enjoyment of nature children displayed the less overall distress and impairment they exhibited (β = -.64); (2) greater responsibility toward nature in children was associated with less hyperactivity (β = -.50), fewer behavioural and peer difficulties (β = -.62 and β = -.65 respectively) and improved prosocial behaviour (β = .77); (3) the more aware children were of nature, the less emotional difficulties they exhibited (β = -.51). The variance explained was large (range R² = .42 to .80).
Conclusions
Thus, CNI-PPC factors have meaningful and substantive associations with the strengths and difficulties parents perceive in their children. This indicates that the CNI-PPC is a valid and reliable instrument to measure CN at an age when children cannot respond for themselves. Further, this simple tool can help researchers/practitioners to better understand how connectedness to nature affects child psychological functioning and wellbeing.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02715544. Registered 8 March 2016.
The ongoing emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is triggering changes in many climate hazards that can impact humanity. We found traceable evidence for 467 pathways by which human health, water, food, economy, infrastructure and security have been recently impacted by climate hazards such as warming, heatwaves, precipitation, drought, floods, fires, storms, sea-level rise and changes in natural land cover and ocean chemistry. By 2100, the world’s population will be exposed concurrently to the equivalent of the largest magnitude in one of these hazards if emmisions are aggressively reduced, or three if they are not, with some tropical coastal areas facing up to six simultaneous hazards. These findings highlight the fact that GHG emissions pose a broad threat to humanity by intensifying multiple hazards to which humanity is vulnerable.
“Awe” is a category of emotion within the spectrum of self-transcendent experiences. Awe has wellness benefits, with feelings of social interconnectivity and increased life satisfaction. However, awe experiences remain rare in our everyday lives, and rarer in lab environments. We posit that Virtual Reality (VR) may help to make self-transcendent and potentially transformative experiences of awe more accessible to individuals. Here, we investigated how interactive VR as a positive technology may elicit awe, and how features of aesthetic beauty/scale, familiarity, and personalization (self-selection of travel destinations) may induce awe. In this mixed-methods study, participants used an interactive VR system to explore Earth from ground and orbit. We collected: introspective interviews and self-report questionnaires with participants’ experience of awe; information on personality traits and gender; and we recorded physiological goose bumps on the skin (using an arm-mounted goose bump camera instrument), which is a documented marker of an awe experience. Results showed that on a scale of 0–100 for self-reported awe, four different interactive VR environments yielded an average awe rating of 79.7, indicating that interactive VR can indeed induce awe. 43.8% of participants experienced goose bumps: awe ratings positively correlated with the occurrence of goose bumps with those who experienced goose bumps having showed significantly higher ratings of awe than those who did not. Most (64%) of the goose bumps occurred when participants self-selected their VR environment. Participant statements from the interviews were characteristic of an awe-inspiring experience, revealed themes of social connection, and usability problems with the VR interface. Personality traits yielded no clear correlation to awe ratings, and females appear to experience more goose bumps than males. In summary: (1) Interactive VR can elicit awe, especially within familiar, self-selected environments; (2) Physiological goose bumps can be recorded to provide reliable, non-intrusive indications of awe; (3) Care must be taken to design interaction interfaces that do not impede awe; and (4) While personality traits are not correlated to awe ratings, goose bumps were experienced more frequently among females. We aim to conduct future studies using custom VR environments, interfaces, and additional physiological measures to provide further insight into awe.
Recent research suggests that engagement with natural beauty (EWNB) is key to the well-being benefits of nature connectedness. The Wildlife Trust’s 30 Days Wild campaign provides a large-scale intervention for improving public engagement with nature and its beauty. The effect of 30 Days Wild participation on levels of EWNB and the relationship between EWNB, nature connectedness and happiness was evaluated during the 2017 campaign. Of the 49,000 people who signed up to the campaign, 308 people fully completed measures of EWNB, nature connection, health, happiness, and conservation behaviors at baseline, post-30 days and post-2 months. There were sustained and significant increases for scores in nature connection, health, happiness, and conservation behaviors. In addition, 30 Days Wild was the first intervention found to increase EWNB. Further, the significant increase in EWNB mediated the relationship between the increases in nature connectedness and happiness. In a supplementary study to understand the well-being benefits further (n = 153), emotional regulation was found to mediate the relationship between nature connectedness and happiness, but EWNB and emotional regulation were not related. The links between nature’s beauty, nature connectedness and well-being are discussed within an account of affect-regulation.
Background:
The health benefits of greenspaces have demanded the attention of policymakers since the 1800s. Although much evidence suggests greenspace exposure is beneficial for health, there exists no systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesise and quantify the impact of greenspace on a wide range of health outcomes.
Objective:
To quantify evidence of the impact of greenspace on a wide range of health outcomes.
Methods:
We searched five online databases and reference lists up to January 2017. Studies satisfying a priori eligibility criteria were evaluated independently by two authors.
Results:
We included 103 observational and 40 interventional studies investigating ~100 health outcomes. Meta-analysis results showed increased greenspace exposure was associated with decreased salivary cortisol -0.05 (95% CI -0.07, -0.04), heart rate -2.57 (95% CI -4.30, -0.83), diastolic blood pressure -1.97 (95% CI -3.45, -0.19), HDL cholesterol -0.03 (95% CI -0.05, <-0.01), low frequency heart rate variability (HRV) -0.06 (95% CI -0.08, -0.03) and increased high frequency HRV 91.87 (95% CI 50.92, 132.82), as well as decreased risk of preterm birth 0.87 (95% CI 0.80, 0.94), type II diabetes 0.72 (95% CI 0.61, 0.85), all-cause mortality 0.69 (95% CI 0.55, 0.87), small size for gestational age 0.81 (95% CI 0.76, 0.86), cardiovascular mortality 0.84 (95% CI 0.76, 0.93), and an increased incidence of good self-reported health 1.12 (95% CI 1.05, 1.19). Incidence of stroke, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, asthma, and coronary heart disease were reduced. For several non-pooled health outcomes, between 66.7% and 100% of studies showed health-denoting associations with increased greenspace exposure including neurological and cancer-related outcomes, and respiratory mortality.
Conclusions:
Greenspace exposure is associated with numerous health benefits in intervention and observational studies. These results are indicative of a beneficial influence of greenspace on a wide range of health outcomes. However several meta-analyses results are limited by poor study quality and high levels of heterogeneity. Green prescriptions involving greenspace use may have substantial benefits. Our findings should encourage practitioners and policymakers to give due regard to how they can create, maintain, and improve existing accessible greenspaces in deprived areas. Furthermore the development of strategies and interventions for the utilisation of such greenspaces by those who stand to benefit the most.
Awe is a little-studied emotion with a great transformative potential. Therefore, the interest toward the study of awe’s underlying mechanisms has been increased. Specifically, researchers have been interested in how to reproduce intense feelings of awe within laboratory conditions. It has been proposed that the use of virtual reality (VR) could be an effective way to induce awe in controlled experimental settings, thanks to its ability of providing participants with a sense of “presence,” that is, the subjective feeling of being displaced in another physical or imaginary place. However, the potential of VR as awe-inducing medium has not been fully tested yet. In the present study, we provided an evidence-based design and a validation of four immersive virtual environments (VEs) involving 36 participants in a within-subject design. Of these, three VEs were designed to induce awe, whereas the fourth VE was targeted as an emotionally neutral stimulus. Participants self-reported the extent to which they felt awe, general affect and sense of presence related to each environment. As expected, results showed that awe-VEs could induce significantly higher levels of awe and presence as compared to the neutral VE. Furthermore, these VEs induced significantly more positive than negative affect. These findings supported the potential of immersive VR for inducing awe and provide useful indications for the design of awe-inspiring virtual environments.
Humility is a foundational virtue that counters selfish inclinations such as entitlement, arrogance, and narcissism (Tangney, 2000). We hypothesize that experiences of awe promote greater humility. Guided by an appraisal-tendency framework of emotion, we propose that when individuals encounter an entity that is vast and challenges their worldview, they feel awe, which leads to self-diminishment and subsequently humility. In support of these claims, awe-prone individuals were rated as more humble by friends (Study 1) and reported greater humility across a 2-week period (Study 2), controlling for other positive emotions. Inducing awe led participants to present a more balanced view of their strengths and weaknesses to others (Study 3) and acknowledge, to a greater degree, the contribution of outside forces in their own personal accomplishments (Study 4), compared with neutral and positive control conditions. Finally, an awe-inducing expansive view elicited greater reported humility than a neutral view (Study 5). We also elucidated the process by which awe leads to humility. Feelings of awe mediated the relationship between appraisals (perceptions of vastness and a challenge to one's world view) and humility (Study 4), and self-diminishment mediated the relationship between awe and humility (Study 5). Taken together, these results reveal that awe offers one path to greater humility. (PsycINFO Database Record
Background:
At a time of increasing disconnectedness from nature, scientific interest in the potential health benefits of nature contact has grown. Research in recent decades has yielded substantial evidence, but large gaps remain in our understanding.
Objectives:
We propose a research agenda on nature contact and health, identifying principal domains of research and key questions that, if answered, would provide the basis for evidence-based public health interventions.
Discussion:
We identify research questions in seven domains: a) mechanistic biomedical studies; b) exposure science; c) epidemiology of health benefits; d) diversity and equity considerations; e) technological nature; f) economic and policy studies; and g) implementation science.
Conclusions:
Nature contact may offer a range of human health benefits. Although much evidence is already available, much remains unknown. A robust research effort, guided by a focus on key unanswered questions, has the potential to yield high-impact, consequential public health insights. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1663.
Awe has been theorized as a collective emotion, one that enables individuals to integrate into social collectives. In keeping with this theorizing, we propose that awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns. In testing this hypothesis across 6 studies (N = 2137), we first validate pictorial and verbal measures of the small self; we then document that daily, in vivo, and lab experiences of awe, but not other positive emotions, diminish the sense of the self. These findings were observed across collectivist and individualistic cultures, but also varied across cultures in magnitude and content. Evidence from the last 2 studies showed that the influence of awe upon the small self accounted for increases in collective engagement, fitting with claims that awe promotes integration into social groups. Discussion focused on how the small self might mediate the effects of awe on collective cognition and behavior, the need to study more negatively valenced varieties of awe, and other potential cultural variations of the small self.
Individualism appears to have increased over the past several decades, yet most research documenting this shift has been limited to the study of a handful of highly-developed countries. Is the world becoming more individualistic as a whole? If so, why? To address these questions, here we examine 51 years of data on individualistic practices and values across 77 countries. Our findings suggest that individualism is indeed rising in most of societies we tested. Despite dramatic shifts towards greater individualism around the world, cultural differences remain sizeable. Moreover, cultural differences are primarily linked to changes in socioeconomic development, and to a lesser extent to shifts in pathogen prevalence, disaster frequency, and climatic stress.
Introduction
Experimental studies have reported associations between short-term exposure to natural outdoor environments (NOE) and health benefits. However, they lack insight into mechanisms, often have low external and ecological validity, and have rarely focused on people with some psycho-physiological affection. The aim of this study was to use a randomized, case-crossover design to investigate: (i) the effects of unconstrained exposure to real natural and urban environments on psycho-physiological indicators of people with indications of psychological distress, (ii) the possible differential effects of 30 and 30+180 minutes exposures, and (iii) the possible mechanisms explaining these effects.
Material and methods
People (n = 26) with indications of psychological distress were exposed to green (Collserola Natural Park), blue (Castelldefels beach) and urban (Eixample neighbourhood) environments in Catalonia. They were exposed to all environments in groups for a period of 30+180 minutes between October 2013 and January 2014. During the exposure period, participants were instructed to do what they would usually do in that environment. Before, during (at 30 and 30+180 minutes) and after each exposure, several psycho-physiological measures were taken: mood (measured as Total Mood Disturbance, TMD), attention capacity (measured as backwards digit-span task), stress levels (measures as salivary cortisol), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, autonomous nervous system (assessed as heart rate variability and the indicators: low frequency power (LF), high frequency power (HF), ratio between LF and HF (LF:HF), and coefficients of component variance of LF, HF, and LF:HF). We also measured several potential mediators: air pollution, noise, physical activity, social interactions, and self-perceived restoration experience.
Results
When compared with responses to urban environment, we found statistically significantly lower TMD [-4.78 (-7.77, -1.79) points difference], and salivary cortisol [-0.21 (-0.34, -0.08) log nmol/L] in the green exposure environment, and statistically significantly lower TMD [-4.53 (-7.57, -1.49) points difference], and statistically significant favourable changes in heart rate variability indicators (specifically LF:HF and CCV-LF:HF with around -0.20 points of difference of the indicators) in the blue exposure environment. Physical activity and self-perceived restoration experience partially mediated the associations between NOE and TMD. Physical activity and air pollution partially mediated the associations between NOE and heart rate variability.
Discussion and conclusions
This study extends the existing evidence on the benefits of NOE for people's health. It also suggests NOE potential as a preventive medicine, specifically focusing on people with indications of psychological distress.
Trial registration
Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02624921
Theoretical conceptualizations of awe suggest this emotion can be more positive or negative depending on specific appraisal processes. However, the emergent scientific study of awe rarely emphasizes its negative side, classifying it instead as a positive emotion. In the present research we tested whether there is a more negative variant of awe that arises in response to vast, complex stimuli that are threatening (e.g., tornadoes, terrorist attack, wrathful god). We discovered people do experience this type of awe with regularity (Studies 1 & 4) and that it differs from other variants of awe in terms of its underlying appraisals, subjective experience, physiological correlates, and consequences for well-being. Specifically, threat-based awe experiences were appraised as lower in self-control and certainty and higher in situational control than other awe experiences, and were characterized by greater feelings of fear (Studies 2a & 2b). Threat-based awe was associated with physiological indicators of increased sympathetic autonomic arousal, whereas positive awe was associated with indicators of increased parasympathetic arousal (Study 3). Positive awe experiences in daily life (Study 4) and in the lab (Study 5) led to greater momentary well-being (compared with no awe experience), whereas threat-based awe experiences did not. This effect was partially mediated by increased feelings of powerlessness during threat-based awe experiences. Together, these findings highlight a darker side of awe.
Nature within cities will have a central role in helping address key global public health challenges associated with urbanization. However, there is almost no guidance on how much or how frequently people need to engage with nature, and what types or characteristics of nature need to be incorporated in cities for the best health outcomes. Here we use a nature dose framework to examine the associations between the duration, frequency and intensity of exposure to nature and health in an urban population. We show that people who made long visits to green spaces had lower rates of depression and high blood pressure, and those who visited more frequently had greater social cohesion. Higher levels of physical activity were linked to both duration and frequency of green space visits. A dose-response analysis for depression and high blood pressure suggest that visits to outdoor green spaces of 30 minutes or more during the course of a week could reduce the population prevalence of these illnesses by up to 7% and 9% respectively. Given that the societal costs of depression alone in Australia are estimated at AUD$12.6 billion per annum, savings to public health budgets across all health outcomes could be immense.
With the 2015 summit on global climate change in Paris, political action will (or will not) be taken to tackle the threats of the global climate crisis. Both social scientists as well as conservationists have come to the conclusion that human activity is one of the main reasons for climate change and nature degradation, and the main target of justice related mitigation and adaptation responses. This article puts human (in)activity into focus, and introduces a social identity perspective on environmental justice. Specifically, it shows how conservation scientists can draw from the idea of a common human identity (CHI). It delineates how the representation of a “common human ingroup” could inform beliefs about environmental justice, which in turn should motivate individuals and groups to act in favor of the natural environment. The review highlights that social identification with all humans may represent a potential path to global environmental justice, and combines recent insights from social identity research with conservation behavior.
Human behaviour is integral not only to causing global climate change but also to responding and adapting to it. Here, we argue that psychological research should inform efforts to address climate change, to avoid misunderstandings about human behaviour and motivations that can lead to ineffective or misguided policies. We review three key research areas: describing human perceptions of climate change; understanding and changing individual and household behaviour that drives climate change; and examining the human impacts of climate change and adaptation responses. Although much has been learned in these areas, we suggest important directions for further research.
Awe is an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that transcend current frames of reference. Guided by conceptual analyses of awe as a collective emotion, across 5 studies (N = 2,078) we tested the hypothesis that awe can result in a diminishment of the individual self and its concerns, and increase prosocial behavior. In a representative national sample (Study 1), dispositional tendencies to experience awe predicted greater generosity in an economic game above and beyond other prosocial emotions (e.g., compassion). In follow-up experiments, inductions of awe (relative to various control states) increased ethical decision-making (Study 2), generosity (Study 3), and prosocial values (Study 4). Finally, a naturalistic induction of awe in which participants stood in a grove of towering trees enhanced prosocial helping behavior and decreased entitlement compared to participants in a control condition (Study 5). Mediational data demonstrate that the effects of awe on prosociality are explained, in part, by feelings of a small self. These findings indicate that awe may help situate individuals within broader social contexts and enhance collective concern. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Theory and correlational research suggest that connecting with nature may facilitate prosocial and environmentally sustainable behaviors. In three studies we test causal direction with experimental manipulations of nature exposure and laboratory analogs of cooperative and sustainable behavior. Participants who watched a nature video harvested more cooperatively and sustainably in a fishing-themed commons dilemma, compared to participants who watched an architectural video (Study 1 and 2) or geometric shapes with an audio podcast about writing (Study 2). The effects were not due to mood, and this was corroborated in Study 3 where pleasantness and nature content were manipulated independently in a 2x2 design. Participants exposed to nature videos responded more cooperatively on a measure of social value orientation and indicated greater willingness to engage in environmentally sustainable behaviors. Collectively, results suggest that exposure to nature may increase cooperation, and, when considering environmental problems as social dilemmas, sustainable intentions and behavior.
Environmental psychology research has demonstrated that exposure to mundane natural environments can be psychologically beneficial, and can, for instance, improve individuals' mood and concentration. However, little research has yet examined the psychological benefits of extraordinary, awe-evoking kinds of nature, such as spectacular mountain scenes or impressive waterfalls. In this study, we aimed to address the underrepresentation of such extraordinary nature in research on human—nature interactions. Specifically, we examined whether watching a picture slideshow of awesome as opposed to mundane nature differentially affected individuals' emotions, mood, social value orientation (SVO), and their willingness to donate something to others. Our analyses revealed that, compared to mundane nature and a neutral condition, watching awesome natural scenes and phenomena had some unique and pronounced emotional effects (e.g., feeling small and humble), triggered the most mood improvement, and led to a more prosocial SVO. We found that participants' willingness to donate did not differ significantly for any of the conditions.
Subjective connection with nature, or nature relatedness, is similar to other environmental worldview measures in predicting sustainable attitudes and behaviors, yet is unique in predicting happiness. In two studies, the authors assessed the overlap between nature relatedness and other subjective connections (e.g., with friends or country) and examined these connections as a possible confound in explaining the link between nature relatedness and happiness. Study 1 adapted a measure of general connectedness and administered it to student (n = 331) and community (n = 415) samples along with multiple nature relatedness and happiness indicators. Study 2 examined more established measures of subjective connections in another community sample (n = 204). General connectedness predicted happiness well, yet nature relatedness remained a significant distinct predictor of many happiness indicators, even after controlling for other connections. Results support the notion that nature relatedness could be a path to human happiness and environmental sustainability, though confirming this causal direction requires additional research.
People seek extraordinary experiences-from drinking rare wines and taking exotic vacations to jumping from airplanes and shaking hands with celebrities. But are such experiences worth having? We found that participants thoroughly enjoyed having experiences that were superior to those had by their peers, but that having had such experiences spoiled their subsequent social interactions and ultimately left them feeling worse than they would have felt if they had had an ordinary experience instead. Participants were able to predict the benefits of having an extraordinary experience but were unable to predict the costs. These studies suggest that people may pay a surprising price for the experiences they covet most.
To what extent does the density of the tree cover in a city relate to the amount of social capital among neighbors? To address this question, we linked social survey data (N = 361) from the Baltimore Ecosystem Study with socioeconomic, urban form, and green space data at the census block group level using a geographic information system. We found a systematically positive relationship between the density of urban tree canopy at the neighborhood block group level and the amount of social capital at the individual level (r = .241, p < .01). Multiple regression analyses showed that tree canopy added a 22.72% increase in explanatory power to the model for social capital. This research adds a new variable—neighborhood tree canopy—to the typologies of green space that affect human social connection. Trees are a relatively inexpensive and easy intervention to enhance the strength of social ties among neighbors.
Aristotle considered moral beauty to be the telos of the human virtues. Displays of moral beauty have been shown to elicit the moral emotion of elevation and cause a desire to become a better person and to engage in prosocial behavior. Study 1 (N = 5380) shows engagement with moral beauty is related to several psychological constructs relevant to moral education, and structural models reveal that the story of engagement with moral beauty may be considered a story of love and connectedness; it is uniquely predictive of caring for, being empathic of, loving, and valuing benevolence toward others. Study 2 (N = 542) demonstrates that the personality trait of engaging with moral beauty moderates sus-ceptibility to elevation. These studies suggest that encouraging students to engage with moral beauty might increase their desire to become better persons and to do good. Conver-gent with other research showing that moral emotions motivate moral behavior, we suggest that moral education programs increase their focus on developing engagement with moral beauty. Who engages with moral beauty? Aristotle viewed human virtues as beautiful, and some have argued that 'an educa-tion in beauty can be a training in the love of virtue' (Iris Murdoch, as cited in Winston, 2006, p. 285). Sachs (2002) noted that to kalon, which means 'the beau-tiful,' has mistakenly been translated as 'noble' in most translations of Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics. Sachs adds that 'the beautiful,' as described by Aristotle, is not simply an object for philosophic contemplation, but is the source of moral action. A person of good character——one who puts the moral virtues into action——can see the truly beautiful in themselves and others, and knows that the beautiful is the end or highest good of human behavior. We term the kind of
An important barrier to enduring behavioural change is the human tendency to discount the future. Drawing on evolutionary theories of life history and biophilia, this study investigates whether exposure to natural versus urban landscapes affects people's temporal discount rates. The results of three studies, two laboratory experiments and a field study reveal that individual discount rates are systematically lower after people have been exposed to scenes of natural environments as opposed to urban environments. Further, this effect is owing to people placing more value on the future after nature exposure. The finding that nature exposure reduces future discounting-as opposed to exposure to urban environments-conveys important implications for a range of personal and collective outcomes including healthy lifestyles, sustainable resource use and population growth.
Attention Restoration Theory suggests that contact with nature supports attentional functioning, and a number of studies have found contact with everyday nature to be related to attention in adults. Is contact with everyday nature also related to the attentional functioning of children? This question was addressed through a study focusing on children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). This study examined the relationship between children’s nature exposure through leisure activities and their attentional functioning using both within and between-subjects comparisons. Parents were surveyed regarding their child’s attentional functioning after activities in several settings. Results indicate that children function better than usual after activities in green settings and that the “greener” a child’s play area, the less severe his or her attention deficit symptoms. Thus, contact with nature may support attentional functioning in a population of children who desperately need attentional support.
In two experiments, we investigated the role of awe in activating the association between religiosity/spirituality and related feelings and behavioral intentions. In Experiment 1, the induction of awe (through the recall of a relevant event), but not the induction of pride or a neutral condition, led religious and spiritual participants to endorse a spiritual (Tibet) but not a hedonistic (Haiti) travel destination. In Experiment 2, the induction (through relevant video clips) of (a) awe of nature and (b) awe at childbirth, but not the induction of humor led religious/spiritual people to express, respectively, feelings of oneness with (a) others in general and (b) friends. Implications of these findings, for instance in understanding the role of self-transcendent positive emotions in religious rituals, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Certain highly emotional experiences have the potential to produce long-lasting and meaningful changes in personality. Two such experiences are spiritual transformations and experiences of profound beauty. However, little is known about the cognitive appraisals or narrative elements involved in such experiences, how they are similar, and how they differ. In a study of emotion-related narratives, these experiences were found to share many features but also differ in their valence. Experiences of profound beauty are almost always positive, but spiritual transformations are both positive and negative. Moreover, spiritual transformations seem to produce long-lasting change, but experiences of profound beauty, although evocative, do not seem to produce long-lasting change. An emotion approach helps to elucidate two understudied but important emotional experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study aimed to explore whether walking in nature may be beneficial for individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD). Healthy adults demonstrate significant cognitive gains after nature walks, but it was unclear whether those same benefits would be achieved in a depressed sample as walking alone in nature might induce rumination, thereby worsening memory and mood.
Twenty individuals diagnosed with MDD participated in this study. At baseline, mood and short term memory span were assessed using the PANAS and the backwards digit span (BDS) task, respectively. Participants were then asked to think about an unresolved negative autobiographical event to prime rumination, prior to taking a 50-min walk in either a natural or urban setting. After the walk, mood and short-term memory span were reassessed. The following week, participants returned to the lab and repeated the entire procedure, but walked in the location not visited in the first session (i.e., a counterbalanced within-subjects design).
Participants exhibited significant increases in memory span after the nature walk relative to the urban walk, p<.001, η(p)(2)=.53 (a large effect-size). Participants also showed increases in mood, but the mood effects did not correlate with the memory effects, suggesting separable mechanisms and replicating previous work.
Sample size and participants' motivation.
These findings extend earlier work demonstrating the cognitive and affective benefits of interacting with nature to individuals with MDD. Therefore, interacting with nature may be useful clinically as a supplement to existing treatments for MDD.
Five studies assessed the validity and reliability of the connectedness to nature scale (CNS), a new measure of individuals’ trait levels of feeling emotionally connected to the natural world. Data from two community and three college samples demonstrated that the CNS has good psychometric properties, correlates with related variables (the new environmental paradigm scale, identity as an environmentalist), and is uncorrelated with potential confounds (verbal ability, social desirability). This paper supports ecopsychologists’ contention that connection to nature is an important predictor of ecological behavior and subjective well-being. It also extends social psychological research on self–other overlap, perspective taking, and altruistic behavior to the overlap between self and nature. The CNS promises to be a useful empirical tool for research on the relationship between humans and the natural world.
We compare the restorative effects on cognitive functioning of interactions with natural versus urban environments. Attention restoration theory (ART) provides an analysis of the kinds of environments that lead to improvements in directed-attention abilities. Nature, which is filled with intriguing stimuli, modestly grabs attention in a bottom-up fashion, allowing top-down directed-attention abilities a chance to replenish. Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car), making them less restorative. We present two experiments that show that walking in nature or viewing pictures of nature can improve directed-attention abilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and the Attention Network Task, thus validating attention restoration theory.
There is robust evidence that contact with the natural world improves human health, including emotional well-being. However, the specific conditions of emotional benefits of nature contact are sparsely understood. Two studies were conducted with university students to examine whether the duration of nature contact influences the magnitude of benefits for both hedonic (positive and negative affect) and self-transcendent emotions. Study 1 investigated whether 5 minutes of sedentary nature contact influenced both emotion types, and Study 2 examined whether mood improvements are sensitive to the duration of nature contact (5 vs. 15 minutes). Results indicate that brief nature contact reliably improved both hedonic and self-transcendent emotions, and that the duration of contact in the range tested had no impact on this improvement.
Low rates of pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in the population have been explained by the declining frequency of experiences in nature due to urbanization and digitalization. Previous research investigated whether increasing salience of nature through virtual nature experiences is suitable to foster PEB, however, the evidence is not fully conclusive. Therefore, we investigated the effects of virtually increased salience of different concepts on behavior in the Greater Good Game, a social dilemma paradigm measuring PEB independently from cooperation. Both Experiment 1 (N = 49) and Experiment 2 (N = 71) showed that increasing the salience of nature per se did not increase PEB. However, Experiment 2 showed that increased salience of the importance of PEB could increase PEB, though only at the cost of cooperation. In summary, virtual exposure to nature can increase PEB, but side effects on cooperation have to be considered.
Humans become more prosocial after nature exposure. We proposed that the prosocial effect pertains to resource (e.g., food, water) and security (e.g., shelter, concealment) features in natural environments. Four studies tested the idea that prosociality changes with variations in environmental resource and security. Study 1 reported that urban greenspace, a resource feature to urban dwellers, predicted more volunteering in low-crime cities, but less so in high-crime cities. Studies 2 and 3 compared prosociality after exposure to natural sceneries in a Resource (high/low) × Security (high/low) design. Participants were more prosocial in the high-resource-high-security and low-resource-low-security conditions. Study 4 compared the four natural environments with two control conditions (urban, shape). It reported that not all natural environments led to higher prosociality, nor did any of them undermine prosociality. The findings supported heterogeneity in nature’s prosocial effect. Implications are discussed in relation to urban greening and the evolutionary basis of nature’s effect.
The power of nature to both heal and inspire awe has been noted by many great thinkers. However, no study has examined how the impact of nature on well-being and stress-related symptoms is explained by experiences of awe. In the present investigation, we examine this process in studies of extraordinary and everyday nature experiences. In Study 1, awe experienced by military veterans and youth from underserved communities while whitewater rafting, above and beyond all the other positive emotions measured, predicted changes in well-being and stress-related symptoms one week later. In Study 2, the nature experiences that undergraduate students had during their everyday lives led to more awe, which mediated the effect of nature experience on improvements in well-being. We discuss how accounting for people’s emotional experiences during outdoors activities can increase our understanding of how nature impacts people’s well-being.
Prospective, longitudinal analyses revealed that over a 12-year period from ages 6 to 18, individuals who grew up with mothers with more proenvironmental attitudes engaged in more proenvironmental behavior as young adults. A similar marginal association was uncovered between mothers’ proenvironmental behaviors and the proenvironmental behavior of their young adult offspring. Maternal educational attainment, but not political ideology, was also associated with more proenvironmental behavior as children matured. Moreover, childhood time spent outdoors was positively associated with increased environmentally responsible behavior in young adulthood. Interestingly, one’s own childhood proenvironmental behavior and attitude, at least as assessed at age 6, bear little on one’s eventual proenvironmental behavior as a young adult. Finally, among this set of childhood factors, maternal education and childhood time spent outdoors were independent predictors of positive changes in environmental behavior from early childhood to young adulthood.
Background:
A growing number of quantitative studies have investigated the potential benefits of outdoor blue spaces (lakes, rivers, sea, etc) and human health, but there is not yet a systematic review synthesizing this evidence.
Objectives:
To systematically review the current quantitative evidence on human health and well-being benefits of outdoor blue spaces.
Methods:
Following PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analysis, observational and experimental quantitative studies focusing on both residential and non-residential outdoor blue space exposure were searched using specific keywords.
Results:
In total 35 studies were included in the current systematic review, most of them being classified as of "good quality" (N=22). The balance of evidence suggested a positive association between greater exposure to outdoor blue spaces and both benefits to mental health and well-being (N=12 studies) and levels of physical activity (N=13 studies). The evidence of an association between outdoor blue space exposure and general health (N=6 studies), obesity (N=8 studies) and cardiovascular (N=4 studies) and related outcomes was less consistent.
Conclusions:
Although encouraging, there remains relatively few studies and a large degree of heterogeneity in terms of study design, exposure metrics and outcome measures, making synthesis difficult. Further research is needed using longitudinal research and natural experiments, preferably across a broader range of countries, to better understand the causal associations between blue spaces, health and wellbeing.
Increasingly, people are becoming less likely to have direct contact with nature (natural environments and their associated wildlife) in their everyday lives. Over 20 years ago, Robert M Pyle termed this ongoing alienation the “extinction of experience”, but the phenomenon has continued to receive surprisingly limited attention. Here, we present current understanding of the extinction of experience, with particular emphasis on its causes and consequences, and suggest future research directions. Our review illustrates that the loss of interaction with nature not only diminishes a wide range of benefits relating to health and well-being, but also discourages positive emotions, attitudes, and behavior with regard to the environment, implying a cycle of disaffection toward nature. Such serious implications highlight the importance of reconnecting people with nature, as well as focusing research and public policy on addressing and improving awareness of the extinction of experience.
Research has consistently found exposure to a natural environment to be associated with health and psychological well-being. However, the effect of such an environment on social behavior and relationships remains in question. In a field experiment, male and female confederates accidentally dropped a glove on the ground while walking in a natural environment. The confederates continued walking, apparently unaware of their loss. Passersby were tested either before or after their immersion in an urban green park with large trees, lawns, and flowers. It was found that passersby tested after immersion in the park helped the confederates more readily than those tested before immersion in the park. In a second study, possible mediating factors of this effect (positive mood and desire to help others) were tested. Mood was found to be a mediating factor, whereas desire to help others partially mediated the relation between immersion in a natural environment and helping behavior.
In this research, we draw on the characteristics of disgust—an affective state that prompts a self-protection response—to demonstrate that experiencing disgust can also increase self-interested, unethical behaviors such as cheating. This series of studies contributes to the literature demonstrating context-specific effects on self-interested, unethical behavior. Specifically, we show that innocuous emotion-eliciting cues can elicit a focus on the protection of one’s own welfare, leading people to engage in self-interested behaviors that are unethical. This research provides evidence that the importance of clean physical environments may extend beyond visual beautification of surroundings to include economic behaviors.
Awe has been defined as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate attempts at accommodation. Four studies are presented showing the information-focused nature of awe elicitors, documenting the self-diminishing effects of awe experience, and exploring the effects of awe on the content of the self-concept. Study 1 documented the information-focused, asocial nature of awe elicitors in participant narratives. Study 2 contrasted the stimulus-focused, self-diminishing nature of appraisals and feelings associated with a prototypical awe experience with the self-focused appraisals and feelings associated with pride. Study 3 found that dispositional awe-proneness, but not dispositional joy or pride, was associated with low Need for Cognitive Closure, and also documented a relationship between dispositional awe and increased emphasis on membership in "universal" categories in participants' self-concepts. Study 4 replicated the self-concept finding from Study 3 using experimentally elicited awe. Implications for future work on awe are discussed.
Past studies have documented interpersonal benefits of natural environments. Across four studies, we tested the hypothesis that exposure to more beautiful nature, relative to less beautiful nature, increases prosocial behavior. Study 1 yielded correlational evidence indicating that participants prone to perceiving natural beauty reported greater prosocial tendencies, as measured by agreeableness, perspective taking, and empathy. In Studies 2 and 3, exposure to more beautiful images of nature (versus less beautiful images of nature) led participants to be more generous and trusting. In Study 4, exposure to more beautiful (versus less beautiful) plants in the laboratory room led participants to exhibit increased helping behavior. Across studies, we provide evidence that positive emotions and tendencies to perceive natural beauty mediate and moderate the association between beauty and prosociality. The current studies extend past research by demonstrating the unique prosocial benefits of beautiful nature.
In this paper we present a prototype approach to awe. We suggest that two appraisals are central and are present in all clear cases of awe: perceived vastness, and a need for accommodation, defined as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. Five additional appraisals account for variation in the hedonic tone of awe experiences: threat, beauty, exceptional ability, virtue, and the supernatural. We derive this perspective from a review of what has been written about awe in religion, philosophy, sociology, and psychology, and then we apply this perspective to an analysis of awe and related states such as admiration, elevation, and the epiphanic experience.
To date, research on the effects of urbanization, which include reduced biodiversity, has focused on changes at particular sites or along gradients of urbanization. Comparatively little work has investigated changes in biodiversity at any citywide—much less global—scale, and no attempt has been made to quantify such changes in human terms. We have developed a novel data set that reveals a systematic pattern of biodiversity: Within cities worldwide, most residents are concentrated in neighborhoods of impoverished biodiversity. This pattern exists despite substantial biodiversity present in cities overall, and becomes more severe when only native species are considered. As humanity becomes increasingly urban, these findings have a tragic and seldom-considered consequence: Billions of people may lose the opportunity to benefit from or develop an appreciation of nature. Because nearby surroundings shape people's baselines of ecological health, our findings suggest adverse consequences for conservation in general as well as for humans' quality of life if the problem remains uncorrected.
Theoretical models suggest that social networks influence the evolution of cooperation, but to date there have been few experimental studies. Observational data suggest that a wide variety of behaviors may spread in human social networks, but subjects in such studies can choose to befriend people with similar behaviors, posing difficulty for causal inference. Here, we exploit a seminal set of laboratory experiments that originally showed that voluntary costly punishment can help sustain cooperation. In these experiments, subjects were randomly assigned to a sequence of different groups to play a series of single-shot public goods games with strangers; this feature allowed us to draw networks of interactions to explore how cooperative and uncooperative behaviors spread from person to person to person. We show that, in both an ordinary public goods game and in a public goods game with punishment, focal individuals are influenced by fellow group members' contribution behavior in future interactions with other individuals who were not a party to the initial interaction. Furthermore, this influence persists for multiple periods and spreads up to three degrees of separation (from person to person to person to person). The results suggest that each additional contribution a subject makes to the public good in the first period is tripled over the course of the experiment by other subjects who are directly or indirectly influenced to contribute more as a consequence. These results show experimentally that cooperative behavior cascades in human social networks.
Four studies examined the effects of nature on valuing intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations. Intrinsic aspirations reflected prosocial and other-focused value orientations, and extrinsic aspirations predicted self-focused value orientations. Participants immersed in natural environments reported higher valuing of intrinsic aspirations and lower valuing of extrinsic aspirations, whereas those immersed in non-natural environments reported increased valuing of extrinsic aspirations and no change of intrinsic aspirations. Three studies explored experiences of nature relatedness and autonomy as underlying mechanisms of these effects, showing that nature immersion elicited these processes whereas non-nature immersion thwarted them and that they in turn predicted higher intrinsic and lower extrinsic aspirations. Studies 3 and 4 also extended the paradigm by testing these effects on generous decision making indicative of valuing intrinsic versus extrinsic aspirations.