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Protestants and Catholics and Educational Investment in Guatemala
Abstract
Recent empirical research on the relation of religion to human capital has focused on the distinction between Mainline Protestantism and Catholicism. Our research emphasizes differential investment in education across types of Protestantism. We apply this framework to Guatemala, a country that was historically dominated by Catholicism but has moved in recent decades toward Protestantism. Our research was motivated by theological differences between Mainline Protestant denominations and premillennialist movements (Evangelical, Pentecostal) that arose at the end of the nineteenth century. These denominations placed less emphasis than Mainline Protestants on investment in education. Consistent with this perspective, literacy is enhanced more by Mainline Protestant schools than by other Protestant schools. Catholic schools have the weakest relation with literacy, likely because the ouster of Catholic orders and schools in the liberal reforms of the 1870s had a lasting influence.
... A significant literature demonstrates that the presence of historic missionary societies -especially Protestant societies -during the colonial period is significantly and positively associated with increased educational attainment and positive economic outcomes (Bolt and Bezemer 2009;McCleary and Barro 2019;Bai and Kung 2015). In most of these works, scholars claim that the transfer of human capital to local populations through the provision of schools, literacy campaigns, and vernacular translations of religious texts explains this relationship. ...
... A related literature argues that the presence of historical missionary societies is associated with an increase in socio-economic standards. In the case of education, missionary investments in literacy and schooling propelled human capital formation within indigenous populations, prompting the intergenerational transmission of both knowledge and aspirations for education, which manifested in strong and persistent effects on increased educational attainment (McCleary and Barro 2019;Calvi, Mantovanelli, and Hoehn-Velasco 2019;Bolt and Bezemer 2009). Furthermore, these works argue that missionaries unequally affected their target male and female populations. ...
A significant literature demonstrates that the presence of historic missionary societies—especially Protestant societies—during the colonial period is significantly and positively associated with increased educational attainment and economic outcomes. However, we know less about the mechanisms underlying the long-run consequences of institutions, as it is commonly very hard to disentangle direct effects from indirect effects. One clear way to do so, however, is to explore the long-term impact of missionary influence in places in which the direct beneficiaries of missionary education are no longer present. The present article considers one such region, the Anatolian region of the Ottoman Empire. Due to the ethnic violence and population movements at the start of the twentieth century, the newfound Turkish nation-state was largely religiously homogenous. This provides us with a unique situation to empirically assess the long-run indirect effects of Christian missionary societies on local human capital. For this purpose, I present an original dataset that provides the locations of Protestant mission stations and schools, Ottoman state-run schools, and Armenian community schools contained within Ottoman Anatolia between 1820 and 1914. Contrary to the common association found in the literature, this study does not find missionary presence to be correlated with modern-day schooling. Rather, I find that regions with a heightened missionary presence and an active Christian educational market perform better on the gender parity index for pretertiary schooling during both the Ottoman and Turkish periods.
... Moreover, denominational differences confirm that economic considerations mattered for missionary expansion. Mainline Protestants depended more on local contributions and valued entrepreneurship and education (Barro and McCleary 2017). As such, their missionaries had to be better trained, which made the issue of their low tropical life expectancy particularly acute. ...
How did Christianity expand in Africa to become the continent’s dominant religion? Using annual panel census data on Christian missions from 1751 to 1932 in Ghana, and pre-1924 data on missions for 43 sub-Saharan African countries, we estimate causal effects of malaria, railroads and cash crops on mission location. We find that missions were established in healthier, more accessible, and richer places before expanding to economically less developed places. We argue that the endogeneity of missionary expansion may have been underestimated, thus questioning the link between missions and economic development for Africa. We find the endogeneity problem exacerbated when mission data is sourced from Christian missionary atlases that disproportionately report a selection of prominent missions that were also established early.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Pentecostalism disrupted the U.S. religion market. Charismatic beliefs and practices, particularly the emphasis on baptism of the Holy Spirit and miraculous physical healing, comingled with the Wesleyan holiness movement. Soon, divisions arose between holiness and Pentecostal movements. Divisions also occurred within Pentecostalism giving rise to distinct types. Within this fluid religion market, with doctrinal debates and controversies, Pentecostal, holiness-Pentecostal, and holiness missionaries entered Guatemala openly competing with existing mainline Protestant, holiness, and evangelical missions. Without regard for doctrinal orthodoxy, independent missionaries proselytized their beliefs throughout the country, converting existing congregations, and introducing Pentecostal beliefs. Likewise, the new denominations’ mission boards were complicit in creating doctrinal heterodoxy by hiring missionaries whose beliefs contradicted the denomination’s doctrinal position. A major legacy of the heterodoxy is the highly schismatic (heterogeneous) nature of the Guatemalan religion market.
This Element engages with recent attempts by economists and political scientists to rigorously estimate impacts of missionary work in sub-Saharan Africa. It argues that, although these efforts contribute to more accurate assessments of the 'true' effects of missionary presence, they also have a tendency to present Christian involvement in the region as a largely apolitical process, that was relatively unaffected by the rapidly evolving geopolitical and socio-cultural contexts of the colonial period. Countering this trend, this Element illustrates aspects of missionary behavior that were inherently more political and context-dependent, such as local struggles for religious hegemony between Protestants and Catholics and interactions between colonial regimes and the church-based provision of goods like education. The Element draws heavily on market-based theories of organized religious behavior. These perspectives are entirely compatible with the analytical language of economists and political scientists. Yet, they played surprisingly limited roles in recent literature on missionary impacts.
Significance
Do people who affiliate with the same religious tradition share cultural traits even if they live in different countries? We found unique patterns of cultural traits across religious groups and found that members of world religions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism) show cultural similarity among coreligionists living in different countries. People who share a particular religious tradition and level of commitment to religion were more culturally similar, both within and across countries, than those that do not, even after excluding overtly religious values. Despite their heterogeneity, religious denominations reflect superordinate cultural identities, and shared traits persist across geographic and political boundaries. These findings inform cultural evolutionary theories about the place of religion and secularity in the world’s cultural diversity.
A significant body of literature argues that American evangelical missionaries working in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century directly contributed to the rise of Armenian nationalism. While acknowledging that missionaries had an effect on Armenian nationalism, this article finds that the impact of missionaries was much more unintended than is commonly assumed and resulted primarily from Armenian reactions to growing missionary influence. Employing new data on the biographies of Armenian nationalist leaders as well as comparative-historical methods, the article offers evidence that missionary influence spurred a backlash among the Armenian community that intensified preexisting local initiatives, increased investment in mass education in the provinces, and modernized its schooling system, all of which popularized and strengthened Armenian nationalism.
This paper studies child health focusing on differences in anthropometric outcomes between Christians and non-Christians in India. The non-Christian group includes Hindus and Muslims. Estimates indicate that young Christian children (ages 0–59 months) are less likely to be stunted as compared to similar aged children of Hindu and Muslim identities. The Christian relative advantage is particularly pronounced for girls. Using representative data on child health outcomes and information on the location of Protestant and Catholic missions, differences in the relative timing of establishment of missions in the same area, political crises that mission-establishing countries were engaged in during India's colonial history, and historical information from the 1901 Census, we find that Christian girls are significantly less likely to be stunted as compared to similarly aged non-Christian girls. We find no relative stunting advantage for Christian boys, which we attribute to son preference and patriarchy among Hindus in particular. An analysis of explanatory mechanisms indicates that elementary and higher education schools, as well as hospitals, pharmacies and print shops associated with the advent of Christianity improved the relative human capital of women with subsequent long-term implications for young Christian girls in India today. Our results survive a series of robustness and specification checks.
Demographics on national, regional, and global Pentecostalism provide an essential backdrop to almost every kind of quantitative or qualitative study done on other aspects of Pentecostalism. This article outlines both the history and the research findings related to the subject of defining, categorizing, and counting Pentecostals. Subjects covered include early attempts to count Pentecostals, the development of taxonomies of different types of Pentecostals and Charismatics, and statistical estimates of Pentecostals and Charismatics by type.
Christian missionaries were crucial to the development of formal education throughout much of the world, including East Asia. They generally provided the first Western formal education, often initially against local resistance. They demonstrated the economic value of this education – which spurred later demand. They trained many of the teachers who staffed non-missionary schools. They pioneered education for women and poor people. They were the major early teachers of European languages, Western science, and Western medicine. These innovations had a number of important social consequences around the world, including East Asia (Woodberry 2004; 2006; Woodberry and Shah 2004; Etherington 2005). For Protestants, mass education was crucial because they wanted people to read the Bible in their own languages. Thus, wherever Protestant missionaries went they almost immediately imported printing technology, created fonts, and began printing Bibles, tracts, newspapers, and other texts for ordinary people. They also rapidly developed mass literacy programs to teach ordinary people to read. This was true even of Protestant missionaries with little formal education themselves. In areas where Catholic missionaries competed with Protestants, they too invested heavily in education and printing, often developing the best elementary and secondary schools (ibid.). In the literate cultures of Asia and the Near East, missionaries also invested in colleges and medical schools. Of course, missionaries founded such institutions in areas where inhabitants were not literate prior to missionary contact, but not nearly to the same extent as in Asia. In Africa and the Pacific missionaries could train the children of the elite by providing elementary schools. However, the dominant cultures of Asia already had extensive literary traditions and educational systems for elite men. Many Asians considered their own systems superior to Western ones. Thus, to get Asian elites to expose themselves to Christian teaching, missionaries had to provide a higher level of service, such as university education (see for example, Covell 1978). Protestant missionaries also generally believed that Western science and legal traditions had developed from Christianity, particularly in its Protestant form, and that science would undermine "superstition". Thus, many missionaries felt that teaching Western science, medicine, law, etc., was a helpful preparation for conversion (Covell 1978; Bohr 2000; Bennett 1983; Drummond 1971; Khalaf 2002). 2
This comment makes a contribution to Becker and Woessmann?s paper on a human capital theory of Protestant economic history eventually challenging the famous thesis by Max Weber who attributed economic success to a specific Protestant work ethic (Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (2) (2009) forthcoming). The authors argue for a human capital approach: higher literacy among Protestants of the 19th century (and not a Protestant work ethic) contributed to higher economic prosperity at that point in history. However, the paper leaves the question open as to whether a Protestant specific work ethic existed or exists at all. Are there observable denomination-based differences in work ethic or is Protestantism only a veil hiding the underlying role of education? We use recent data to explore the role of Protestantism on work ethic. The results indicate that today?s work ethic in fact is influenced by denomination-based religiosity and also education.
According to cross-national research, Protestantism has significantly contributed to global democratization. While Protestantism does not inevitably cause democratization, it often generates social dynamics that favor it. Some of the most important of these are: 1) the rise of religious pluralism; 2) the development of democratic theory and practice; 3) the development of civil society; 4) the spread of mass education; 5) printing and the origins of a public sphere; 6) the reduction of corruption; and 7) economic development. The article explores how Protestant groups, including Protestant missionaries, have promoted these dynamics in the past. It also argues that contemporary Protestant movements—particularly Pentecostalism—are continuing to do so in the present, though with less dramatic results.
This article demonstrates historically and statistically that conversionary Protestants (CPs) heavily influenced the rise and spread of stable democracy around the world. It argues that CPs were a crucial catalyst initiating the development and spread of religious liberty, mass education, mass printing, newspapers, voluntary organizations, and colonial reforms, thereby creating the conditions that made stable democracy more likely. Statistically, the historic prevalence of Protestant missionaries explains about half the variation in democracy in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania and removes the impact of most variables that dominate current statistical research about democracy. The association between Protestant missions and democracy is consistent in different continents and subsamples, and it is robust to more than 50 controls and to instrumental variable analyses.
This study has two purposes. One is to examine the substantive question: Is there statistical evidence that money is "exogenous" in some sense in the money- income relationship? The other is to dis- play in a simple example some time-series methodology not now in wide use. The main methodological novelty is the use of a direct test for the existence of unidirec- tional causality. This test is of wide im- portance, since most efficient estimation techniques for distributed lags are invalid unless causality is unidirectional in the sense of this paper. Also, the paper illus- trates the estimation of long lag distribu- tions without the imposition of the usual restrictions requiring the shape of the dis- tribution to be rational or polynomial. The main empirical finding is that the hypothesis that causality is unidirectional from money to income agrees with the postwar U.S. data, whereas the hypoth- esis that causality is unidirectional from income to money is rejected. It follows that the practice of making causal inter- pretations of distributed lag regressions of income on money is not invalidated (on the basis of this evidence) by the existence of "feedback" from income to money.
The Protestant Reformation is one of the defining events of the last millennium. Nearly 500 years after the Reformation, its causes and consequences have seen a renewed interest in the social sciences. Research in economics, sociology, and political science increasingly uses detailed individual-level, city-level, and regional-level data to identify drivers of the adoption of the Reformation, its diffusion pattern, and its socioeconomic consequences. We take stock of this research, pointing out what we know and what we do not know and suggesting the most promising areas for future research.
Increasingly, evidence has emerged showing that the historical presence of European missionaries is an important factor affecting economic development across the globe today. The causal mechanism that has received the most attention, and the most empirical support, is education. The presence of Christian missionaries, particularly Protestant missionaries, has been shown to be strongly correlated with increased educational attainment, and the effects appear to persist for many generations (Bai and Kung 2011; Grier 1997; Woodberry 2004, 2009). The education-promoting influence of Protestant missionaries is not surprising given the evidence that the rise of Protestantism within Europe had long-term education (and economic growth) promoting effects (Becker and Woessmann 2009, 2008, 2010; Schaltegger and Torgler 2009). This study provides evidence for the long-term impact of colonial missionary activity within Africa. The analysis uses data on the location of Protestant and Catholic missions from a map titled “Ethnographic Survey of Africa: Showing the Tribes and Languages; also the Stations of Missionary Societies” published by William Roome (1924). This information, combined with data on the locations of ethnic groups from Murdock (1959), is used to calculate estimates of the exposure of African ethnic groups to missionary activity. © Emmanuel Akyeampong, Robert H. Bates, Nathan Nunn, and James A. Robinson 2014.
Following Max Weber, many theories have hypothesized that Protestantism should have favored economic development. With its religious heterogeneity, the Holy Roman Empire presents an ideal testing ground for this hypothesis. Using population figures of 272 cities in the years 1300–1900, I find no effects of Protestantism on economic growth. The finding is precisely estimated, robust to the inclusion of various controls, and does not depend on data selection or small sample size. Denominational differences in fertility behavior and literacy are unlikely to be major confounding factors. Protestantism has no effect when interacted with other likely determinants of economic development. Instrumental variables estimates, considering the potential endogeneity of religious choice, are similar to the OLS results.
We provide an account of how Protestantism promoted economic prosperity in China—a country in which Protestant missionaries penetrated far and wide during 1840–1920, but only a tiny fraction of the population had converted to Christianity. By exploiting the spatial variation in the missionaries’ retreat due to the Boxer Uprising to identify the diffusion of Protestantism, we find that the conversion of an additional communicant per 10,000 people increases the overall urbanization rate by 18.8% when evaluated at the mean. Moreover, 90% of this effect comes from knowledge diffusion activities associated with schools and hospitals erected by the missionaries. (JEL: N35, Z12, O18)
On a foggy evening in the spring of 1906, nine days before the San Francisco earthquake, several black saints gathered in a small house in Los Angeles to seek the baptism in the Holy Spirit. Before the night was over, a frightened child ran from the house to tell a neighbor that the people inside were singing and shouting in strange languages.Several days later the group moved to an abandoned warehouse on Azusa Street in a run-down section of the city. Soon they were discovered by a Los Angeles Times reporter. The “night is made hideous … by the howlings of the worshippers,” he wrote. “The devotees of the weird doctrine practice the most fanatical rites, preach the wildest theories and work themselves into a state of mad excitement.”
The coming third millennium of the church is likely to find the majority of its adherents living in the two-thirds world in the Southern Hemisphere and practicing a Pentecostal spirituality. Pentecostal missionizing efforts reflect a spirituality that is characterized by (1) a high value placed on religious experience; (2) a preference for oral communication; (3) spontaneity in personal conduct as well as in corporate worship; (4) otherworldliness as the root of cultural pessimisim, ecclesiastical separateness, belief in spirits and demons, and the eschatological urgency of the return of Christ; and (5) biiblical authority, often expressed in a hermeneutic of biblical precedent. In the final analysis, Pentecostal spirituality is a lifestyle no longer limited to the Pentecostal churches.
This paper examines under which conditions religious denomination affects public spending on schooling and educational performance. We employ a unique data
set which covers, inter alia, information on numerous measures of public school inputs in 169 Swiss districts for the years 1871/72, 1881/82 and 1894/95, marks from
pedagogical examinations of conscripts (1875-1903), and results from political referenda to capture conservative or progressive values. Although Catholic districts show on average significantly lower educational performance and spend less on primary schooling than Protestant districts, Catholicism is harmful only in a conservative milieu. We also exploit information on absenteeism of pupils from school to separate provision of schooling from use of schooling.
Protestant missions from the United States entered the Republic of Korea and Guatemala at the same time (1884 and 1882, respectively). Yet, their impact on human capital has been divergent. The analysis presented in this paper supports the findings of Woodberry (2004, 2009, 2011) and Nunn (2009) in the case of the Republic of Korea. Mainline Protestant missions — Presbyterian and Methodist — promoted the Social Gospel and were the largest in the Republic of Korea implementing successful strategies such as using Korean (Hangul) as the lingua franca in their schools, churches, and medical facilities. Whereas the mainline Protestant denominations in the Republic of Korea successfully promoted investment in human capital, the case of Guatemala does not follow this pattern. Evangelical, Pentecostal, and neo-Pentecostal denominations and churches focused their efforts on evangelizing. Their premilliennialist beliefs translated into an eschatological urgency of conversion with little investment in human capital. As a result, institution-building requisite for investment in human capital (establishing educational institutions and medical facilities) characterized Protestant missions in the Republic of Korea, but not Guatemala. These diverging approaches to exporting Christianity have had differing longterm effects on the two societies.
In this paper I present a statistical test of the hypothesis that Protestantism is positively associated with economic growth. I also investigate whether religion can help to explain why ex-Spanish and French colonies have significantly lower economic growth than ex-British colonies. I find that the growth rate of Protestantism is significantly and positively correlated with real GDP growth, and that the level of Protestantism is significantly related to real per-capita GDP levels. While the results imply that Protestantism plays an important level in development, its inclusion in the cross-country regressions do not close the gap between the ox-colonial states.
John Hartley: Before Ongism: "To become what we want to be, we have to decide what we were" Orality & Literacy: The Technologization Of The Word Introduction Part 1: The orality of language 1. The literate mind and the oral past 2. Did you say 'oral literature'? Part 2: The modern discovery of primary oral cultures 1. Early awareness of oral tradition 2. The Homeric question 3. Milman Parry's discovery 4. Consequent and related work Part 3: Some psychodynamics of orality 1. Sounded word as power and action 2. You know what you can recall: mnemonics and formulas 3. Further characteristics of orally based thought and expression 4. Additive rather than subordinative 5. Aggregative rather than analytic 6. Redundant or 'copious' 7. Conservative or traditionalist 8. Close to the human lifeworld 9. Agonistically toned 10. Empathetic and participatory rather than objectively distanced 11. Homeostatic 12. Situational rather than abstract 13. Oral memorization 14. Verbomotor lifestyle 15. The noetic role of heroic 'heavy' figures and of the bizarre 16. The interiority of sound 17. Orality, community and the sacral 18. Words are not signs Part 4: Writing restructures consciousness 1. The new world of autonomous discourse 2. Plato, writing and computers 3. Writing is a technology 4. What is 'writing' or 'script'? 5. Many scripts but only one alphabet 6. The onset of literacy 7. From memory to written records 8. Some dynamics of textuality 9. Distance, precision, grapholects and magnavocabularies 10. Interactions: rhetoric and the places 11. Interactions: learned languages 12. Tenaciousness of orality Part 5: Print, space and closure 1. Hearing-dominance yields to sight-dominance 2. Space and meaning 3. Indexes 4. Books, contents and labels 5. Meaningful surface 6. Typographic space 7. More diffuse effects 8. Print and closure: intertextuality 9. Post-typography: electronics Part 6: Oral memory, the story line and characterization 1. The primacy of the story line 2. Narrative and oral cultures 3. Oral memory and the story line 4. Closure of plot: travelogue to detective story 5. The 'round' character, writing and print Part 7: Some theorems 1. Literary history 2. New Criticism and Formalism 3. Structuralism 4. Textualists and deconstructionists 5. Speech-act and reader-response theory 6. Social sciences, philosophy, biblical studies 7. Orality, writing and being human 8. 'Media' versus human communication 9. The inward turn: consciousness and the text John Hartley: After Ongism: The Evolution of Networked Intelligence
During industrialization, Protestants were more literate than Catholics. This paper investigates whether this fact may be led back to the intrinsic motivation of Protestants to read the bible and whether other education motives were involved as well. We employ a historical data set from Switzerland which allows us to differentiate between different cognitive skills: reading, numeracy, essay writing and Swiss history. We develop an estimation strategy to examine whether the impact of religious denomination was particularly large with respect to reading capabilities. We find support for this hypothesis. However, Protestantsﾒ education motives went beyond reading the bible.
Ever since Max Weber started an argument about the role of Protestantism in jump-starting northern Europe's economic development, scholars have clashed over the influence of religion and culture on a society's (or an individual's) economic prospects. Today, many wonder whether the "explosion" of Protestantism in Latin America will effect a similar wave of growth and democratization. In this book, Sherman compiles the results of her field study and national survey of 1000 rural Guatemalan households. She offers persuasive evidence that, in Guatemala and throughout the region, religious world-views significantly influence economic life. Sherman explains how the change in attitude and behaviour that accompanies conversion from animism to a Biblically orthodox world-view has improved the domestic welfare and economic status of many families. Further, she asserts that this new attitude, sympathetic to democratic-capitalism, has created a "moral cultural soil" in which freedom, personal empowerment, an enhanced status for women, and a desire to get ahead can be nurtured.
Research increasingly stresses the role of human capital in modern economic development. Existing historical evidence -- mostly from British textile industries -- however, rejects that formal education was important for the Industrial Revolution. Our new evidence from technological follower Prussia uses a unique school enrollment and factory employment database linking 334 counties from pre-industrial 1816 to two industrial phases in 1849 and 1882. Using pre-industrial education as instrument for later education and controlling extensively for pre-industrial development, we find that basic education is significantly associated with nontextile industrialization in both phases of the Industrial Revolution. Panel data models with county fixed effects confirm the results. (JEL I20, J24, N13, N33, N63)
Within economics, there has been a recent effort to better understand the notion of culture, typically defined as beliefs, values, and norms held by individuals. Empirical work has focused on identifying systematic cultural differences between individuals from different ethnic and national backgrounds. More recently, attention has turned to the historical origins of cultural differences (e.g., Guiso, Sapienza, and Zingales, 2008; Nunn and Wantchekon, 2009). Colonial Africa provides a natural laboratory to examine how an external intervention can have lasting impacts on people's beliefs and values. This study examines the effect of European missionary activities in colonial Africa on the subsequent evolution of culture, as measured by religious beliefs. The empirical results show that descendants of ethnic groups that experienced the greatest missionary contact are today more likely to self-identify as Christian. This correlation provides evidence that foreign missionaries altered the religious beliefs of Africans, and that these beliefs persist as they are passed on from parents to children. Put differently, the results show that historic events can have a lasting impact on culture. The findings also provide rare empirical evidence of the historical determinants of long- run religious conversion. Studies of conversion typically focus on contemporary determinants
Max Weber attributed the higher economic prosperity of Protestant regions to a Protestant work ethic. We provide an alternative
theory: Protestant economies prospered because instruction in reading the Bible generated the human capital crucial to economic
prosperity. We test the theory using county-level data from late-nineteenth-century Prussia, exploiting the initial concentric
dispersion of the Reformation to use distance to Wittenberg as an instrument for Protestantism. We find that Protestantism
indeed led to higher economic prosperity, but also to better education. Our results are consistent with Protestants' higher
literacy accounting for most of the gap in economic prosperity.
This article examines Western influence on the development of Korean higher education, which is characteristic of the predominance of adaptation to the American ideas and practices from the beginning in the late nineteenth century. The roots of American influence can be seen developmentally as representing three sets of entangled issues: the role of the early American missionaries in practice and unconstrained accommodation in resisting the Japanese oppression; the increase of American-educated scholars and their change-agent leadership; and the newly emerging definitions of nationalism and collaborative relationship between the change-agent and the indigenous group. The most probable schema to respond to the Western influences on Korean higher education is to view Western development as one of the sources challenging endogenous change, while treating it also as an influential force. The institutions of higher education in Korea are now faced with strong pressures for increased academic nationalism as well as for excellence comparable to that of Western advanced countries, dealing with the Western influences rather as a source of data for their own development.
"Cam" Townsend is rightly known as the visionary founder of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) and the Wycliffe Bible Translators. This joint effort is now the largest Protestant mission organization in the world, a mission which has dramatically changed the culture of what used to be known as faith missions. Townsend revolutionized Protestant missions by emphasizing that missionaries needed to learn the language of the people to whom they were sent and to live among them in order to understand their communities. His system stressed training the missionaries in public health, basic education, and agricultural skills. The demonstrated success of missionaries who followed Townsend's plan led to SIL/WBT influence in the larger societies in which the organization was present. Townsend was non-dogmatic in seeking allies to pursue his objectives, including local political movements and power structures, academics, and other religious faiths, increasing the influence of his group to the point that SIL/WBT became a major factor in the national affairs of the countries in which they were active, particularly in Latin America. The very success of Townsend's methods led to trouble with his base in the United States. As conservative and evangelical financial backers and prospective missionaries saw the organization and Townsend working amicably with Roman Catholics, leftist political groups, and atheist and agnostic academics, the SIL/WBT ran into trouble at home.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Tulane University, 1986. Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 304-327). Microfiche. s
Santiago de Chile: Latinobarómetro Corporation
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Justo Rufino Barrios: A Biography
- Paul Burgess
- P Burgess
Evangelical and Fundamental Christianity
- George M Marsden
- GM Marsden
Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America
- David Martin
- D Martin
Libreria Editrice Vaticana
- Annuario Pontificio
The Practical Aims of a Liberal Evangelicalism
- Henry Coffin
- Sloan
- HS Coffin
Las Escuelas Mayas: Una Experiencia Educativa en Guatemala
- Consejo Nacional De La Educación
Is the Protestant Ethic Alive in Latin America? An Empirical Assessment of the Economic Impacts of Religion and Missionaries in Guatemala
- Peter Hickman
The Expulsion of the Jesuits from Guatemala in 1871
- HJ Miller
Christians in Colonial Africa. Unpublished manuscript
- Nathan Nunn
Wildfire: Church Growth in Korea
- Roy E Shearer
- RE Shearer
Aspects of Pentecostal-Charismatic Origins
- Vinson Synan
Maya Education: A Historical and Contemporary Analysis of Mayan Language Education Policy
- Julia Richards
- Michael Becker
- Richards
- JB Richards
Relations of the United States and Guatemala During the Epoch of Justo Rufino Barrios
- J Rippy
- Fred
- JF Rippy
The Evangelical Awakening in Guatemala: Fundamentalist Impact on Education and Media
- Susan D Rose
- Quentin Shultze
- SD Rose