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Abstract

Data-driven learning (DDL) is a learner-focused approach which promotes language learners’ discovery of linguistic patterns of use and meaning by examining extensive samples of attested uses of language. Despite the emergence of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) and its affordances, i.e. individualization and personalization, the potential of DDL in this context has not been widely explored. This study involved the creation of a mobile language learning app based on freely available natural language processing (NLP) tools, followed by a test of the app to gather the attitudes and perceptions of several groups of language learners across Europe. The results suggest a generally positive evaluation of DDL’s instant and personalized feedback and direct access to a variety of tools. Besides, suggestions for improvement were made concerning the design of the tasks, such as the addition of further built-in tools and adaptations to hardware constraints. Analyses also showed a need for specialized learner training, so as to grasp the potential of the feedback provided. This study may be construed as a first step towards creating more fleshed-out tools and further investigating the potential of combining DDL and MALL.

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... The advent of digital mobile technologies has significantly transformed the landscape of second and foreign language learning, providing learners with accessible, flexible, and engaging educational tools (Cho & Castañeda, 2019;Godwin-Jones, 2017;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). Among them are the mobile applications, which are available on digital devices including smartphones and tablets. ...
... In addition to the discussed critiques, participants expressed mixed feelings about the app's feedback system, echoing patterns seen in prior studies (Shortt et al., 2023). The lack of interactive, personalized feedback was particularly criticized, as learners found it challenging to understand the reasons behind their errors (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). Without deeper, more tailored feedback, participants indicated that it was difficult to translate this surface-level engagement into substantial linguistic gains. ...
... However, simply exposing candidates to these tools may not suffice for effective integration into language classrooms. The literature underscores the need for extensive training to maximize the benefits of data-driven learning tools like mobile apps (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). For effective curriculum integration, teacher education programs should provide targeted training on how mobile-assisted tools like Duolingo can complement more traditional methods, particularly in the development of multilingual learners. ...
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Digital mobile applications have impacted foreign language learning by offering accessible and engaging educational tools. This study examines the effect of digital mobile applications on emergent multilinguals’ foreign language learning experiences at the tertiary level. Twenty-nine English language teacher candidates engaged with Duolingo—a popular, free mobile application—over a month, studying various foreign languages. Data collected from pre- and post-study reflective journals, discussion board posts, and focus group interviews provided insights into the participants’ experiences with the app’s features, their perceived language development, and their views on the pedagogical integration of mobile apps in language education. The findings highlighted active student engagement and noted vocabulary improvements, while other language areas showed mixed results. Participants appreciated the app’s technical features but criticized its cultural and speech limitations. Despite recognizing digital mobile applications’ potential, teacher candidates expressed uncertainty about their classroom integration but intended future pedagogical use. The study concluded with the implications of these interactions for the integration of mobile apps into foreign language education, particularly in multilingual contexts.
... Hands-on DDL is that in which "learners use corpora or concordancing software directly to discover the patterns of language use by themselves," whereas hands-off DDL is an indirect approach whereby teachers "simplify and modify the materials, and then present learners" with handouts that are tailored to match the learners' needs (Saeedakhtar et al., 2020, p. 3), such as vocabulary handouts in English reading. Most of the research indicates that EFL learners experience significant improvements in a variety of EFL skills after using either type of DDL in the teaching and learning process compared to traditional methods (Lin, 2021;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019;. ...
... One of the major benefits of using DDL, particularly hands-on DDL, is the facilitation of learner autonomy (Boulton & Cobb, 2017;Lee & Lin, 2019;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). Learner autonomy is reflected in the entire process of using DDL, including the training in the use of technological computer programs, the observation of concordancing, the inductive process of analyzing the concordancing in accordance with the EFL learners' focus, and the relevant follow-up practices that are designed by researchers or instructors (Karpenko-Seccombe, 2023;Muftah, 2023;O'Keeffe, 2021). ...
... Learner autonomy is the main aim of pedagogical and instructional approaches that include DDL and CLT (Hirschi & Kang, 2024;Mizumoto, 2023;O'Keeffe, 2021;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). With regard to achieving learner autonomy, both approaches can benefit the learning process by activating the EFL learners' metacognition (Mizumoto, 2023). ...
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The use of data-driven learning (DDL) to improve the English-speaking skills of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) remains rare. Hence, this research examines whether two types of DDL – namely, hands-on DDL using the computer software directly and hands-off DDL using paper-based materials – can improve vocabulary production in the English speaking of EFL learners. The EFL learners’ attitudes toward both types of DDL were also examined. A total of 45 Thai EFL learners were involved in this research; they were divided equally into two experimental groups, one using hands-on DDL and hands-off DDL, and one control group. A questionnaire and interviews were used to examine the EFL learners’ attitudes toward DDL and a paired sample t-test and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted. The results reveal that both hands-on and hands-off DDL approaches significantly improved vocabulary production in the EFL learners’ spoken English. In addition, the hands-on DDL had a significant effect on the quantity (sig. = .000, p <0.05), accuracy (sig. = .000, p <0.05), and complexity (sig. = .000, p <0.05) of the participants’ vocabulary production, while the hands-off DDL only had a significant effect on the accuracy (sig. = .000, p <0.05) of vocabulary production. Furthermore, although the EFL learners had relatively positive attitudes toward DDL, less enjoyable experiences were also noted. Experiences of boredom and stress while using DDL were reported, and the participants did not consider DDL to be suitable for all EFL learners.
... In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on the use of mobile devices in language teaching and learning (Pérez-Paredes et al.,2019;Wu & Miller, 2020;Ahmad, 2020;Kim et al., 2013;Yurdagül & Öz, 2018). These studies provide evidence that mobile devices can be an effective teaching tool in the language classroom. ...
... Moreover, results indicated that learners develop a positive attitude towards the use of mobile devices in the language classroom. For example, Pérez-Paredes et al. (2019) carried out a study to investigate how learners perceived mobile-driven language learning. Data collection was carried out in three countries (Belgium [70 participants], Spain [55], and United Kingdom [60]). ...
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Recently there has been a renewed interest in the implementation of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) in language teaching in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) context. However, the use of MALL has not been investigated in Bhutan so far. This paper investigates Bhutanese learners' perceptions of MALL over an academic semester and how learners perceive MALL as a source of motivation, confidence, enjoyment, and opportunities to learn English for academic purposes. Data for this study were collected using questionnaires and reflections. Thirty-three (17 male and 16 female) students in the Bachelor of Arts program were recruited for this study. The results demonstrated that learners' perception of MALL changed over one semester as learners perceived MALL as an effective strategy to learn English for academic purposes. These findings contribute in several ways to our understanding of MALL and provide a basis for the implementation of MALL in language teaching. Implications and recommendations of the present study were also discussed.
... Stockwell et Hubbard (2013) insistent eux aussi sur le besoin des apprenants d'être accompagnés afin d'atteindre un certain niveau de littératie numérique qui leur permettra d'utiliser les outils numériques à bon escient. Selon Pérez-Paredes et al. (2019), la recherche conclut que les apprenants mais aussi les formateurs doivent se former aux compétences numériques pour une utilisation efficace des outils à leur portée. ...
... Si la discussion suggère que les élèves doivent acquérir des compétences numériques, nous postulons que les enseignants qui les accompagnent dans leur apprentissage doivent aussi pouvoir développer leurs compétences numériques, comme le préconise la recherche (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). Cela permettrait une réduction du sentiment d'incompétence (Guichon, 2012) qu'ils peuvent éprouver lors d'activités numériques avec les élèves mais également un accompagnement adéquat des élèves allant de la création du dispositif, à son enseignement et à l'enseignement de certaines compétences numériques. ...
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Dans le cadre du Pacte pour un Enseignement d’Excellence, les consortiums Langues Modernes et Numérique ont analysé plusieurs dispositifs didactiques numériques dans neuf classes de langues modernes et de français-informatique. Les résultats des expérimentations ont mis en avant plusieurs difficultés techniques rencontrées par les élèves quant à l’utilisation d’outils numériques en classe. Par ailleurs, une série de facteurs ont été identifiés comme jouant un rôle sur la qualité de la production des élèves en matière de contenu disciplinaire. Le croisement des données permet dès lors de proposer certaines pistes de réflexion pour une intégration efficace d’un nouvel outil numérique dans une activité scolaire. Une combinaison réfléchie de l’expertise disciplinaire, pédagogique et technologique de l’enseignant est au cœur des suggestions tout comme, pour l’élève, une combinaison entre le contenu à produire, les activités pédagogiques dont il doit bénéficier pour le produire, et les outils à utiliser pour réaliser la tâche.
... This concept is particularly relevant for computer-assisted language learning as it directly influences the design, implementation, and effectiveness of technological tools for language learning. Therefore, it has been widely adopted as a key construct for discussing the learning potential and limitations of novel learning environments and approaches, ranging from mobile apps (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019) to digital games (Rama et al., 2012), and from digital multimodal composing (Jiang, 2017) to chatbots (Jeon, 2022). ...
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Amid the ongoing discussion about the potential of LLMs (Large Language Models) to facilitate language learning, there has been a broad spectrum of views in academia. However, little is known about the different viewpoints of students and what contributes to these differences. In light of this, this study adopts Q-methodology, a mixed-methods approach to examine human subjectivity, to investigate the perceived language learning affordances of LLMs among Chinese students. 26 undergraduates from two universities were asked to rank statements related to the potential affordances and limitations of LLMs in terms of language learning. Factor analysis of these ranks revealed three distinct viewpoints: prudent skeptics, enthusiastic embracers and conservative adopters. The skeptics question the learning opportunities that LLMs can provide and voice concerns regarding the absence of human element; the embracers are generally pro-LLMs and they advocate for personalized learning opportunities that LLMs can offer; the conservatives cautiously acknowledge the supplementary role of LLMs, with a focus on users’ ability to ask proper questions. The findings highlight the need to address key issues such as scaffolding, AI literacy and individual difference when utilizing LLMs in language learning contexts. While the nature of Q methodology may limit the generalizability of the results, the study contributes valuable insights into student perceptions regarding LLM affordances for language learning. This in-depth and nuanced understanding of student perceptions can not only help address student concerns and expectations, but also inform the curriculum development, pedagogical practice, and educational policy for integrating LLM into language education.
... ; NLPTs such as automatic speech recognition, word frequency count, vocabulary profiling, online lexical databases and dictionaries have shown positive results in improving pronunciation (Golonka et al., 2012), lexical retention (Cobb, 1997), translation skills (Mekheimer, 2012), reading level assessment for L2 students (Huang & Liou, 2007) and in increasing L2 writing awareness (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). ...
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Pedagogic natural language processing resources (P-NLPRs) are a group of online technologies that aid teaching practices and hold the potential to enable Data-Driven Learning approaches by providing teachers and students with linguistic information. This study explores the perspectives of L2 educators on the potential implementation of P-NLPRs in their teaching practices. A training module was designed to provide information on the potential applications of different P-NLPRs, from which quantitative data was gathered (n=77) at PRE- and POST-test. Additionally, individual interviews were carried out with some of the participants (n=4) five years later to assess long-term P-NLPR uptake. Results offer insight into educators’ perception towards adopting P-NLPRs for their language teaching. Their perspectives seem to differentiate three main groups: a) tools to help learners learn (i.e. online dictionaries, text-to-speech technologies); b) tools to help teachers teach (i.e. automatic summarization tools, lexical profilers), and c) tools to help expand linguistic knowledge (corpora, POS taggers, lemmatizers).
... Mobile technologies provide unprecedented access to a limitless amount of resources and can offer valuable personalized and contextualized learning experiences for learners both in educational settings and beyond. MALL also has the potential to be combined with DDL, although the area still needs further exploration (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). This is especially true with the newly emerged mobile-friendly interfaces mentioned above. ...
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Data-driven learning (DDL) has traditionally been studied via standard corpus interfaces, such as COCA, Sketch Engine, IntelliText, and other similar corpus tools. In addition, DDL has traditionally been seen as part of the computer-assisted language learning (CALL) approach, primarily because access to corpora and corpus interfaces has historically been limited to desktop computers. However, with the emergence of several simplified and mobile-friendly web corpus interfaces and with mobile assisted language learning (MALL) gaining momentum in language education, along with its potential in DDL, mobile-assisted DDL has become an alternative learning technique. This paper reports on a study carried out with a group of undergraduate EFL students studying at International Balkan University (IBU). In this study, the participants were given linguistic tasks to complete using new web corpus interfaces as reference tools, namely, CorpusMate and Netspeak. The first corpus interface was exploited via the traditional CALL approach, whereas the latter was utilized with mobile technology. The results of the study revealed positive learner perceptions and experiences with the newly introduced tools, while they also displayed enthusiasm and motivation to engage in DDL within the context of MALL. The present study provides valuable insights into students' perspectives and experiences with state-of-the-art corpus tools and mobile technology, which can help shape future paths for research in DDL and MALL.
... One possible theoretical perspective to understand this model is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Granić & Marangunić, 2019). According to TAM, perceived usefulness relates to learners' perception of how L2 learning apps can facilitate language learning and improve their proficiency (Larmuseau et al., 2019;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). When learners perceive the apps as useful, it creates a sense of potential benefits and advantages in their language learning process (Abu-Ayfah, 2020). ...
Article
Existing research has explored the connection between perceived usefulness and growth mindset, but there are still gaps in our understanding of how the perceived usefulness of second language learning apps (PU-L2LA) relates to L2 learner's language mindset (LM). Our study seeks to investigate the serial mediating role of flow and motivation intensity in the association between PU-L2LA and LM, as well as the network-level interaction between flow and motivation intensity (MI). This is a cross-sectional study conducted with a convenience sample of 524 Chinese university students, aiming to assess PU-L2LA, flow, MI, and LM. The results of the mediation analyses reveal that flow and MI play sequential mediating roles in linking PU-L2LA to LM. Furthermore, through network analysis techniques, two key bridge indicators ("The experience is extremely rewarding." and "After I graduate from college, I will continue to study English and try to improve.") were identified as important links between flow and MI. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how PU-L2LA influences LM and the underlying mechanisms involved. They highlight the importance of considering flow experiences and MI in promoting a positive language mindset among learners. Educators, app developers, and researchers can utilize these insights to design effective interventions, enhance engagement, and optimize language learning outcomes.
... The corpora of language provide learners with authentic linguistic data (Pérez-Paredes, 2022). Researchers have attempted to examine how to improve DLL in practice such as using corpus data for essay writing correction (Tono et al., 2014;Wu, 2021), scientific report writing (Crosthwaite & Steeples, 2022), and extensive reading (Hadley & Charles, 2017); using big data with an inclusive approach (Godwin-Jones, 2021); incorporating DLL into mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019); and assisting teachers in incorporating DDL into their lessons (Crosthwaite et al., 2021). Tono et al. (2014) examined the types of words and phrases that were more suited to using corpus data to assist in error corrections. ...
Article
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is changing many aspects of education and is gradually being introduced to language education. This article reviews the literature to examine main trends and common findings in relation to AI technologies and applications for second and foreign language learning and teaching. With special reference to computer-assisted language learning (CALL), the article explores natural language processing (NLP), data-driven learning (DDL), automated writing evaluation (AWE), computerized dynamic assessment (CDA), intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs), automatic speech recognition (ASR), and chatbots. It contributes to discussions on understanding and using AI-supported language learning and teaching. It suggests that AI will be continuously integrated into language education and AI technologies and applications will have a profound impact on language learning and teaching. Language educators need to ensure that AI is effectively used to support language learning and teaching in AI-powered contexts. More rigorous research on AI-supported language learning and teaching is recommended to maximise second and foreign language learning and teaching with AI.
... KWIC enables viewing corpus data in which samples of real language are presented in lines of text known as concordances. Users can also access an extended context for each occurrence of the input search (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). This tool helps identify aspects of a particular word or phrase such as lexico-grammatical patterns or semantic prosody. ...
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Previous research has reported an increased interest in the application of Data-Driven Learning (DDL), which was derived from corpus linguistics, to aid English as a foreign or second language learning. DDL emerged as a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the discovery of linguistic patterns by analyzing natural occurrences of language. Many studies have investigated the effect of DDL on several linguistic components and have reported positive outcomes. Consequently, its application has germane importance in an Ecuadorian context as it has not been widely explored. This study seeks to document the experience of 14 EFL students from an Ecuadorian public university and examine their perceptions towards the implementation of DDL activities. The intervention included two stages: assisted guidance for students to retrieve information on their own and corpus-based materials developed by the teacher. Students' perceptions were gathered via a questionnaire, a reflection, and a follow-up interview. The findings indicate that students perceived DDL as a practical and innovative approach to support grammar discovery in an EFL class. Nevertheless, students encountered some challenges associated with the use of DDL, for example, the limited number of searches, an issue that can be resolved by a complete registration in the COCA web. This article concludes with pedagogical implications and recommendations for future DDL applications and research in Ecuadorian EFL classes.
... DDL methodology enables the acquisition of competences through the use of corpora. The uses and benefits of DDL for language learning are widely reported in the literature (Boulton & Vyatkina, 2021), including recent studies on the ways of combining DDL methodology with current theories and practices of second language acquisition, such as the constructivist and learner-centred approaches (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). DDL operates on open data and applies them as a potential material in learning activities (Coughlan, 2020), enhancing learners' linguistic awareness and leading to the development of autonomy and metalinguistic competences (Crosthwaite, Luciana & Wijaya, 2021). ...
Article
This study replicates the research conducted by Pérez-Paredes, Ordoñana Guillamón and Aguado Jiménez (2018) on language teachers' perceptions on the use of OER language processing technologies in mobile-assisted language learning. It expands the initial research study by adding Polish, Portuguese, and Turkish educational contexts, surveying 239 English as a foreign language teachers in these three countries. The main findings indicate that there are several differences among the three countries, including institutional support regarding the use of mobile devices and the training provided to the teachers. Based on the data collected in these countries, it was found that mobile devices are mainly used for teaching and learning on online platforms. Smartphones were one of the most used devices in English language teaching, while computer labs at schools seem to have lost their popularity. Regarding the technologies available, the results of the study reveal that the participants are most familiar with online dictionaries, spell checkers, and online collocation dictionaries, and the participants' qualifications are linked to certain differences in familiarity and use of technologies in the classroom. Variables such as gender, age, and years of experience do not show any difference in the familiarity or frequency of use of those technologies. The main findings of the study point out the importance of institutional support and training regarding the use of mobile devices and open educational resources, which are no longer a choice but a necessity in education.
... Generally speaking, the DDL approach proves to be effective for L2 writing, although its benefits are not observed in every aspect. The second kind is mainly on the learners' attitudes toward DDL (Geluso and Yamaguchi, 2014;Lin, 2016;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). It is found that most learners are positive toward DDL, claiming that corpus consultation can provide authentic language use in context. ...
Article
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This article reports on an experiment on the use of data-driven learning (DDL) in the revision of self-translation by a Chinese medical student. The think-aloud method is employed to investigate the difficulties the student encountered in self-translation and the effectiveness of DDL in improving the quality of self-translation. Results show that difficulties in the self-translation of medical abstracts are mostly associated with markers of rhetorical moves, terminologies, and conventional academic expressions and that they can be effectively solved by such corpus consultation strategies as checking possible options in bilingual dictionaries, using the most certain keywords to find collocations, and using the most possible accompanying words to find contexts. A comparison of translations before and after the application of DDL reveals that it could help improve translation quality in lexical choices, syntactic structures, and discourse practice. An immediate interview shows that the participant holds a positive attitude toward DDL.
... The importance of mobile learning and the integration of DDL (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019) should also be noted. In this regard, DDL is associated with the use of tools, and learners therefore need extensive training to fully understand its possibilities as a learning approach and to use DDL tools effectively (Carrió-Pastor, 2016). ...
... The idea of successful learning is attained in case of learners who fully collaborate in the activities. Thus, communication and technology expand the number of academic tasks due to the availability of a large resources of internet (Järvi et al., 2018;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019;Belina, 2020;Chen, 2021), improve the credibility of duties and provide encouragement for having to implement an assignment in the school environment (Lan, 2020;Masuram and Sripada, 2020), and they simplify the . /feduc. . ...
Article
As English has become the preferred language for recording current innovation and technological breakthroughs, text is the essential medium through which EFL learners enhance their writing abilities. Desirable though it may be, the researcher’s experience has shown that most male students have just rudimentary L2 writing skills and are unable to write coherent passages in English. This implies a chasm between learners’ lexical and cohesive connections and earlier research has focused on ways and means to bridge this gap. However, the current study is ground-breaking in this field as it explores the efficacy of task-oriented training in filling this chasm. Using linguistic learning methods, the current research examines the efficacy of lexical and cohesive links in enhancing undergraduates’ writing. The study sample comprises 35 learners from an intermediate EFL reading class who are exposed to an intervention lasting 15 weeks. Data analysis shows that in the post-test, the learners’ grammatical and vocabulary skills are enhanced dramatically, particularly in the discourse analysis sections. Furthermore, during group work activities, (i) students are more engaged and motivated, and they acquire more knowledge about the language system, identification, cause and effect, “if” clause and the purpose and function of using the passages given; (ii) half of the students’ grammar proficiency and use of lexical items was correct in the writing output. Finally, the study shows that the biggest obstacle that the students faced in their writings and which they struggle to master is the use of the “if” clause which only 13 students could finally master. In addition, the study shows that (73%) of the students could master the discursive linkers in their writings better than the lexical or grammatical elements. Ultimately, the present study offers practical consequences that EFL teachers may want to contemplate including in their future classes
... The idea of successful learning is attained in case of learners who fully collaborate in the activities. Thus, communication and technology expand the number of academic tasks due to the availability of a large resources of internet (Järvi et al., 2018;Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019;Belina, 2020;Chen, 2021), improve the credibility of duties and provide encouragement for having to implement an assignment in the school environment (Lan, 2020;Masuram and Sripada, 2020), and they simplify the . /feduc. . ...
Article
Full-text available
As English has become the preferred language for recording current innovation and technological breakthroughs, text is the essential medium through which EFL learners enhance their writing abilities. Desirable though it may be, the researcher's experience has shown that most male students have just rudimentary L2 writing skills and are unable to write coherent passages in English. This implies a chasm between learners' lexical and cohesive connections and earlier research has focused on ways and means to bridge this gap. However, the current study is ground-breaking in this field as it explores the efficacy of task-oriented training in filling this chasm. Using linguistic learning methods, the current research examines the efficacy of lexical and cohesive links in enhancing undergraduates' writing. The study sample comprises 35 learners from an intermediate EFL reading class who are exposed to an intervention lasting 15 weeks. Data analysis shows that in the post-test, the learners' grammatical and vocabulary skills are enhanced dramatically, particularly in the discourse analysis sections. Furthermore, during group work activities, (i) students are more engaged and motivated, and they acquire more knowledge about the language system, identification, cause and effect, “if” clause and the purpose and function of using the passages given; (ii) half of the students' grammar proficiency and use of lexical items was correct in the writing output. Finally, the study shows that the biggest obstacle that the students faced in their writings and which they struggle to master is the use of the “if” clause which only 13 students could finally master. In addition, the study shows that (73%) of the students could master the discursive linkers in their writings better than the lexical or grammatical elements. Ultimately, the present study offers practical consequences that EFL teachers may want to contemplate including in their future classes.
... Among many measures to address such technical, pedagogical and attitudinal problems, one emerging proposal to promote 'mobile DDL' (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019), i.e., presenting concordances directly to leaners through special mobile apps, may be promising. It is believed that the new mobile platform may help alleviate at least some of the technical and attitudinal problems with DDL. ...
Article
As a corpus-assisted method for language pedagogy, DDL (data-driven learning) may have the potential to enhance language exposure and promote active learner engagement. Concordancing, or KWIC (Key Words in Context), has been the traditional method used in DDL to retrieve numerous language examples, while the method has limitations with overreliance on individual words to search. This paper aims to propose and promote concordancing alternatively based on grammar patterns, a multi-word concept in corpus linguistics. The conceptualised method is named as PIC (Patterns in Context), an extended form of KWIC. An empirical study was conducted to investigate whether the PIC method has any advantages over the traditional KWIC method, using two custom-built Android apps. The research involved 18 pre-university intermediate learners (and six pilot study participants), who used the apps in a self-directed way for two weeks. Then the assessment of the two apps and methods was conducted based on data from automatic logs and responses from questionnaires and interviews. The results suggest that, compared to KWIC, PIC could be slightly advantageous in efficiently helping learners find the target language use, while this approach seems not strong in user engagement and perceived effectiveness. The implications for DDL are discussed, and further investigation is also planned.
... Above all, these components are strategic for promoting social interactions and strengthening cooperative learning. Given that the world of digital didactic technologies is equipped with dialogic tools, teacher training should be aimed at better consolidation of the network affordances for quality technological didactic planning [35]. ...
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The use of digital technology as the only communication and relationship channel in work, school and social contexts is bringing out dynamics that are sometimes in contrast with each other. The purpose of this article is to investigate the impact of digital technology on teachers' school practices in the context of COVID-19. This impact was studied in relation to the constructs of motivation, perceived stress, sense of self-efficacy and resistance to/acceptance of technologies. This study examined the role played by the massive and coercive use of digital technologies (and the relationship with innovation and change) in predicting motivation and perceived stress among teachers. To this end, the impact of digital technologies on motivation and perceived stress were explored in the sample. A questionnaire consisting of three scales was administered to 688 Italian school teachers of all educational levels (from childhood to upper-secondary school), who completed a socio-demographic section, a section on the scale of the impact of technology and distance learning, a perceived stress scale and items on motivation and professional development. Descriptive and inferential analyses were applied to the data. Key findings indicated that the impact of digital technologies during the pandemic negatively correlates with both perceived stress and motivation. Practical implications were suggested to help teachers develop functional coping styles to cope with technological changes in work and life contexts.
... These challenges entail a need to carefully consider learning and technology design (see e.g., Chen & Hsu, 2020;Viberg, Wasson, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2020), policy-related issues that can contribute to the sustainability of MALL designs over time and space (e.g., the implementation of bring-your-own-device policy, see e.g., Bartholomew, 2019;Chen & Hsu, 2020), and mobile data-driven language learning solutions that would facilitate the provision of adaptive language learning paths (Viberg, Wasson, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2020). Generally, as emphasized by Pérez-Paredes et al. (2019), the potential of data-driven learning in the MALL context is underexplored. ...
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Many language learners need to be supported in acquiring a second or foreign language quickly and effectively across learning environments beyond the classroom. The chapter argues that support should focus on the development of two vital learning skills, namely being able to self-regulate and to collaborate effectively in the learning process. We base our argumentation on the theoretical lenses of self-regulated learning (SRL) and collaborative learning in the context of mobile situated learning that can take place in a variety of settings. The chapter examines a sample of selected empirical studies within the field of mobile-assisted language learning with a twofold aim. Firstly, the studies are analyzed in order to understand the role of learner self-regulation and collaboration while acquiring a new language beyond the classroom. Secondly, we aim to provide a deeper understanding of any mechanisms provided to develop or support language learners' self-regulated and collaborative learning skills. Finally, we propose that fostering SRL and collaborative learning skills and strategies will benefit from recent advances in the fields of learning analytics and artificial intelligence, coupled with the use of mobile technologies and self-monitoring mechanisms. The ultimate aim is to enable the provision of individual adaptive learning paths to facilitate language learning beyond the classroom.
... These challenges entail a need to carefully consider learning and technology design (see e.g., Chen & Hsu, 2020;Viberg, Wasson, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2020), policy-related issues that can contribute to the sustainability of MALL designs over time and space (e.g., the implementation of bring-your-own-device policy, see e.g., Bartholomew, 2019;Chen & Hsu, 2020), and mobile data-driven language learning solutions that would facilitate the provision of adaptive language learning paths (Viberg, Wasson, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2020). Generally, as emphasized by Pérez-Paredes et al. (2019), the potential of data-driven learning in the MALL context is underexplored. ...
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Many language learners need to be supported in acquiring a second or foreign language quickly and effectively across learning environments beyond the classroom. The chapter argues that support should focus on the development of two vital learning skills, namely being able to self-regulate and to collaborate effectively in the learning process. We base our argumentation on the theoretical lenses of self-regulated learning (SRL) and collaborative learning in the context of mobile situated learning that can take place in a variety of settings. The chapter examines a sample of selected empirical studies within the field of mobile-assisted language learning with a twofold aim. Firstly, the studies are analyzed in order to understand the role of learner self-regulation and collaboration while acquiring a new language beyond the classroom. Secondly, we aim to provide a deeper understanding of any mechanisms provided to develop or support language learners’ self-regulated and collaborative learning skills. Finally, we propose that fostering SRL and collaborative learning skills and strategies will benefit from recent advances in the fields of learning analytics and artificial intelligence, coupled with the use of mobile technologies and self-monitoring mechanisms. The ultimate aim is to enable the provision of individual adaptive learning paths to facilitate language learning beyond the classroom.
... In the last Ph.D. thesis from abroad, Mthethwa (2014) investigated the utility of mobileassisted language learning in Swaziland, mainly the use of smartphones for learning English. Students' beliefs about the potential benefits of MALL were also examined. ...
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In recent years, mobile language learning, which can also be defined as mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), is commonly used in a wide range all over the world. MALL is utilized in language learning to foster new possibilities in providing more useful and attractive learning activities. Thus, the current study aimed to identify the effectiveness of MALL as a tool for language learning by examining 10 Ph.D. dissertations (5 from Turkey, 5 from several counties) and 10 journal articles published in different Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) journals between 2013 and 2019. The review was conducted to identify the research domains such as scope, research questions, methodologies, common emergent features and overall implications of those studies. The results showed that while Ph.D. dissertations from Turkey mostly focused on vocabulary learning through several MALL applications, Ph.D. dissertations from other countries had diverse research domains. Further, the article studies vary in terms of scopes, methodologies and contexts, providing insights for context-dependent practices such as restricted settings. Those studies also revealed the pros and cons and suggested employing MALL applications appropriately in facilitating language learning.
... The use of mobile technologies is an under-researched area within the LA field (Shorfuzzaman et al., 2019), and scholars have emphasised that there are few studies on data-driven learning with mobile devices in L2 learning research (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2019). This is a critical constraint since extensive earlier research within the MALL field has shown that the use of mobile technologies is advantageous in L2 learning (e.g., Kukulska-Hulme & Viberg, 2018;Sung et al., 2015). ...
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Many adult second and foreign language learners have insufficient opportunities to engage in language learning. However, their successful acquisition of a target language is critical for various reasons, including their fast integration in a host country and their smooth adaptation to new work or educational settings. This suggests that they need additional support to succeed in their second language acquisition. We argue that such support would benefit from recent advances in the fields of mobile-assisted language learning, self-regulated language learning, and learning analytics. In particular, this paper offers a conceptual framework, mobile-assisted language learning through learning analytics for self-regulated learning (MALLAS), to help learning designers support second language learners through the use of learning analytics to enable self-regulated learning. Although the MALLAS framework is presented here as an analytical tool that can be used to operationalise the support of mobile-assisted language learning in a specific exemplary learning context, it would be of interest to researchers who wish to better understand and support self-regulated language learning in mobile contexts.
... Besides that, other technology support interactions, including social media, wiki, web 2.0, have an open door for an enormous degree of interactions [13]. Besides that, the usage of mobile devices in accessing has hugely transformed the learning landscape [14]. The usage of mobile providing the learner with the opportunity of flexsibility, learning independent of time and location and created dinamically and communication with others [15]. ...
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This paper presents ICT-supported for participatory engagement learning within the e-learning community. Effectively tools in e-Learning facilitate interactive learning and the achievement of desired learning outcomes for learners. However, the intensity of its usage is not very remarkable; there is a need to understand ICT- supported for learners from the perspectives of participatory engagement. Therefore, integrating suitable technology into e-learning is expected to strengthen learner's engagement within the e-learning community. The objective of the study is to identify technology that could effectively support learners' engagement. This study analyzes the available technology in the market to integrate into e-learning using the technology evaluation process. Interview sessions with experts were held to validated and suggested other technology uses in e-learning. This research is carrying out with three experts (academic staff) of the e-technologies within the University. This study uses semi-structured interviews to captured expert suggestions, knowledge, and expertise about technologies. Understanding learner's requirements toward technology are essential to ensure learners can reap the benefits of technology usage. This study uses a thematical analysis to identify and organize key themes from qualitative data. The result reveals mobile technology, wireless technology, live streaming technology, authoring tool, summative assessment, cloud computing, gamification and Instagram is suitable technologies that support participatory engagement activities.
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In this review, we aim to elaborate on research on mobile use and language learning/teaching and suggest the most fruitful research approach that can help in cultivating this area. The studies carried out on mobile use in language teaching and learning process have been introduced and critically analyzed with respect to three broad areas including pedagogical role of mobiles, sociocultural role of mobiles and different stakeholders’ perception of mobile use in the language teaching and learning process. In this paper, we argue that previous research on the use of mobiles in the process of learning has not taken all aspects into account to give us a clear picture of how mobile learning works. In addition, the psychological influence of mobile learning on students’ language learning is largely ignored. As such, the socio-cultural ecology approach is recommended as an efficient approach for doing research in this field. Finally, further research gaps are mentioned to be considered in future studies. It is hoped that this review would shed light on mobile learning research and development.
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This study examines second language (L2) learners’ perspectives regarding the affordances and challenges of using the Data-Driven Learning (DDL) to identify the properties of near-synonymous words. Employing a convergent mixed-method design, this study deciphers the perceptions of 40 undergraduate L2 learners majoring in English language teaching. After an initial identification of the learners’ vocabulary levels, the experienced benefits and barriers associated with carrying out experiential tasks were elicited via questionnaire data and open-ended survey questions. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were revealed and thematic analyses of the responses to the survey questions were documented. The results indicate that completing tasks through the corpus was found to enhance their knowledge of collocations. Integrating corpus tasks into YouGlish (an online practice tool for authentic spoken English in context) was found to increase their awareness of the contextual properties of words. The identification of condensed language exposure, lexical inference, and elicitation of flexible and context-specific patterns were reported to be beneficial. Acknowledging these benefits, gaining familiarity with the corpus interface, encountering limited access to search queries, and analyzing large amounts of concordance lines posed challenges for learners. This research presents the implementation of the DDL supported by experiential learning, contextually rich input, and inductive reasoning tasks in vocabulary learning by further offering instructional implications in L2 contexts.
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The purpose of the current study was twofold: examining the efficacy of data-driven learning (DDL) (hands-on and hands-off approaches) in the realization of interactional metadiscourse markers (IMMs) among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners and analyzing the learners’ perceptions of DDL. The participants consisted of 93 male and female advanced language learners randomly assigned to one of the three groups: hands-on, hands-off, and control. Throughout the duration of treatment lasting for 10 sessions, the hands-on group employed the use of Microsoft Copilot, artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot, on a computer screen to discuss and explore IMMs, but the hands-off group was exposed to IMMs through written texts that were physically printed on paper and articles to be examined through AntConc concordancing program. The control group received conventional instructional techniques including reading assigned course materials. The findings from a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) procedure indicated that both experimental groups outperformed the control group in the posttest of realizing and identifying IMMs. However, the post hoc comparisons showed statistically significant differences between the hands-on and hands-off groups, with the hands-on group performing more successfully in identifying IMMs. The results of the questionnaire data revealed that all the learners had positive perception of DDL. The results of the current study suggest using both hands-on and hands-off DDL methods helps learners develop their writing performance through metadiscourse realization.
Article
This paper draws on the ecological concept of affordance and learner agency to investigate Chinese language learners' actualised (perceived, used or shaped) affordances in a mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) environment. This study took place in a beginner-level Chinese course at a university in Australia. Potential learning affordances were designed and made available through WeChat-supported tasks to extend in-class learning. Qualitative student interviews, WeChat history, student survey and teacher reflective journals were the primary sources of data and thematic analysis was used for data analysis. The findings identified different levels of learner-actualised affordances (including perceived, used, and shaped affordances) and missed affordances (including those not perceived and those perceived but not used). Additionally, we investigated the distribution of these affordances within two functional types: cognitive and socio-affective affordances. Potential reasons for the missed affordances were explored. This study suggests that beginner-level learners of Chinese can leverage learner agency to understand the teachers' intended educational affordances. To facilitate this understanding, teachers are advised to offer scaffoldings to enhance the visibility of MALL affordances, particularly those related to interactions, multi-modal expressions, and authenticity. This affordance-oriented guidance has the potential to amplify learning opportunities for learners of the Chinese language engaged in MALL.
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Resumen El presente estudio tiene como objetivo explorar la autoeficacia y actitudes sobre el uso de dos herramientas digitales de corpus por parte de un grupo de estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera que cursa el Grado en Educación Primaria en la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. Los participantes realizaron una serie de actividades en el contexto de la metodología basada en datos utilizando como recurso dos herramientas de corpus: SKELL y BNC. Tras la realización de las actividades y la manipulación de las herramientas de corpus, los participantes respondieron un cuestionario donde debían expresar su grado de acuerdo con cada una de las afirmaciones que componían dicho cuestionario. El cuestionario hace referencia a aspectos sobre la dificultad de uso, el nivel de utilidad, o la aplicación fuera del aula de las herramientas digitales de corpus; también se pregunta a los participantes por las actividades de aprendizaje basado en datos para la adquisición de distintos aspectos de la lengua inglesa. Los resultados apuntan a una actitud positiva y un nivel considerable de autoeficacia hacia el corpus. Finalmente, se anima a adoptar este tipo de metodología además de a una formación específica del profesorado para su correcta y óptima aplicación.
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This paper focuses on analyzing learners’ development of digital reading skills in English at university. The study has been conducted as a mixed-methods analysis in two consecutive academic years (2021 and 2022) with first-year students in the double degree of Business Management and Tourism at the University of Extremadura. The two groups used different digital tools along 4-week reading sessions and were tested on their reading compre-hension before and after the sessions. Additionally, students answered various questionnaires about the activities. Learners’ use of digital data-driven learning (DDL) techniques was combined with other types of online tools. Some face-to-face interviews with students were also conducted at the end of one course. The results from the tests indicated significant reading comprehension im-provements in both years, whereas no significant difference between the two years was found. In the second academic year, the DDL tool was favored much more, in addition to online dictionaries, and students were more open to reading comprehension work. Overall, it is found that the reading of academic texts can be fostered by empowering learners with meta-cognition via specific digital reading micro-skills
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Email functions as a pivotal tool in facilitating today’s business correspondence. Similar to other written genres, email incorporates distinct conventions and linguistic patterns that are recognized within a particular community. Deviating from the established conventions and recurring patterns can pose challenges for individuals engaging in communication within this genre. This study, which utilized a mixed methods research design, formulated a teaching approach that synergized genre-based approach (GBA) with data-driven learning (DDL) to facilitate business email writing instruction, while its effectiveness in enhancing students’ aptitude for written communication was investigated. The participants comprised 24 EFL university students with elementary (n=12) and intermediate (n=12) English proficiency levels from diverse academic disciplines. They underwent a 10-hour instructional course designed to augment their business email writing competence. Data were collected through pre-test and post-test assessments, supplemented by semi-structured interviews. The findings indicated a statistically significant improvement in participants’ business email writing ability subsequent to the intervention. Qualitatively, students’ post-intervention emails exhibited well-organized structure, comprehensive content, and contextual appropriateness, underpinned by practical, professional, and linguistically accurate language use. Furthermore, students expressed satisfaction with the pedagogical approach as it effectively prepared them for real-world business email communication.
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In this position paper, I argue that proficiency-rated learner corpora should gain a more prominent role in data-driven learning (DDL). With specific reference to DDL, proficiency-rated learner corpora can provide typical, atypical and erroneous target language data at different levels of proficiency, which can be meaningfully used in the design of learning activities. This makes them pivotal in expanding the scope of DDL to include mid- and lower-level proficiency learners more extensively. Although the field of learner corpus research has been promoting learner corpus use in DDL for a long time, only a small fraction of DDL studies make use of a learner corpus. As a contribution to overcome this hiatus, I will demonstrate how using a specific proficiency-rated learner corpus (i.e., the CELI corpus ; Spina et al., 2022 , 2023 ) can enrich the design of DDL activities, making them more adaptable to a wider range of learner needs.
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This study investigates how postsecondary learners employ generative AI, specifically ChatGPT, to support their self-directed learning (SDL) for writing purposes. Following a sequential mixed methods design, we analyzed 384 survey responses and 10 semi-structured interviews with postsecondary writers. Findings suggest that the major learning task that the learners used ChatGPT for writing is brainstorming and seeking inspiration for ideas. While the entering motivation for using ChatGPT varies from curiosity about innovative technologies to fulfilling ac-ademic requirements, such entering motivation transformed into task motivation when the learners perceived the potential benefits of ChatGPT for assisting their writing. In terms of self-management, participants mostly demonstrated a high responsibility towards their own learning with ChatGPT and employed various strategies for SDL. Although survey respondents demonstrated a comparatively low level of self-monitoring, most interviewees claimed that they critically reflected on their learning process and validated information provided by ChatGPT. There are mixed opinions regarding whether the writing skills have improved as a result of using ChatGPT. Some participants suggested that the benefits brought by ChatGPT, such as alleviating social pressure and receiving instant feedback at any time, encouraged them to spend more time practicing writing and making revisions. However, some argue that assessing their AI-assisted SDL learning progress in the short term is challenging. This study addresses gaps in the existing literature where there is scarce, large-scale empirical research on self- directed AI usage in writing, shedding light on the emerging phenomenon of utilizing generative AI as a means of SDL in writing.
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Data-driven learning (DDL) can be broadly defined as the use of corpus tools and techniques for learning or using a foreign or second language (L2). This chapter begins with the origins of DDL, situating its spread and adoption in the practice and use of language data mediated by technology. It then looks at the current scope of DDL, the role of technology and DDL uses in instructed language learning settings. The final section considers some under-explored areas for future research, with younger learners, mobile assisted language learning (MALL) and the use of DDL with languages other than English. It closes with practical tips for language teachers who wish to explore DDL with their students.
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More than three decades have passed since the term “data-driven learning (DDL)” was coined by Johns. Throughout the past few decades, the amount and depth of empirical research regarding DDL in language education have been largely increased; meanwhile, DDL has been implemented widely in diverse contexts. The DDL approach has been suggested as extremely influential in language education by numerous researchers and practitioners. This chapter aims to present a comprehensive picture of the development and implementation of DDL in language education in various cultural and grade contexts. The main organization of the chapter is twofold. First, the employment of DDL in culturally different countries is introduced. Second, the employment of DDL at different grade and age levels is presented. With the introduction and comparison of different means of employing DDL in language education, this chapter is expected to serve as a general reference guide for language educators and researchers who would like to incorporate DDL in their own practice.
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Mobile language learning (MLL) is an emerging field of research, and many MLL applications have been developed over the years. In this paper, a systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to establish a body of knowledge on the development of MLL applications. The SLR analyzed forty seven papers from seven different digital libraries reporting on the development of MLL applications. The objective was to consolidate information on; (i) requirements elicitation, (ii) design and implementation, and (iii) evaluation processes. The results highlighted literature reviews and interviews as the main source for gathering requirements, while app development technologies, speech technology, and gamification technology are widely used in the design and implementation process. Usability testing is the most commonly used evaluation method. Finally, future work is recommended to scientifically strengthen the field.
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Aiming at the situation that multiple sensing devices in the sensing layer sense the same sensing quantity, multiple redundant measurement data will be generated. In this paper, an improved Kalman filtering algorithm is used. The algorithm combines with numerical test theory to remove abnormal error data before filtering, thereby reducing the error of filtering result and improving its reliability. The parallel multiprotocol processing mechanism of the gateway is designed, and the IoT gateway has a hierarchical modular processing design for different protocol signals of the heterogeneous perception layer. The web interaction function with good platform versatility is designed to provide a visual interaction interface for the application layer, which is convenient for the application layer terminal to monitor and manage the perception layer equipment. This paper realizes the retrieval and query function of keywords, wrong sentences, and English character errors. This corpus enriches the less existing Madagascar corpus and establishes a separate English character error query database. This paper describes the overall process of corpus from preliminary preparation to establishment and the related use instructions of corpus, makes a statistical analysis of the current corpus data, and puts forward some suggestions for building a computer English corpus according to the analysis results.
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Introduction: One of the prominent approaches in language education is Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) due to recent advances in technology. To benefit from MALL effectively and develop it when it is required, it is important to know the perceptions of the ones who use it. Although much research related to students’ and teachers’ perceptions of MALL in primary and secondary education is present in the literature, research related to perceptions of instructors in higher education is limited. Thus, this study aimed at identifying the instructors’ perceptions of utilizing MALL in higher education. Methods: As the perceptions of the participants were aimed to be explored in detail, the qualitative research design was adopted. An open-ended questionnaire was developed by the researchers and administered to 24 instructors working at the English Language Teaching (ELT) departments of different universities in Turkey. The data were analyzed through content analysis. Results: It was found that the instructors defined MALL as using mobile technologies for language learning. Moreover, the participants had positive perceptions about MALL as it had some benefits, such as anytime, anywhere learning, stronger students’ interest, higher motivation and autonomy, individualized and collaborative learning. However, MALL users faced some challenges, such as weak internet connection and battery, time consumption in terms of preparing content for the class, classroom management problems and low digital literacy of both students and instructors. Discussion: The results of the study were parallel to the findings of the previous studies in the literature. This study found that MALL contributed to learning independent of time and place, high motivation and interest, saving time and energy, individualized learning, collaborative learning, autonomous learning, and learning with fun. Limitations: This study is not without limitations. Triangulation of data with in-depth interviews could be implemented to increase detailed information and reliability. Conclusions: The results of the study showed that instructors who had benefitted from technology in their teaching process had positive perceptions despite some challenges. To this end, it is suggested that MALL be utilized in language teaching by minimizing its challenges.
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Introduction: In the information society, the stimulus threshold for learners has changed, which requires a novel education strategy. Today, it is no longer what attracts students’ attention that it was 20 years ago. In addition to the rapid development of ICT, public education cannot go either. We believe that advanced teacher digital competence can be one of the keys of finding common ground with students and doing effective teaching work. Methods: In our research we examine the level of digital competence of public education teachers before the pandemic and during the 2nd wave in Hungary (2020 autumn). We examine the development of digital competence, student performance, and the effectiveness of education outside the classroom in the spring period based on teacher experience. Data from the completed forms were evaluated by using basic statistical indicators. Results: According to the data received, the pandemic revealed serious shortcomings in the level of development of the digital competence of both teachers and students. However, it also opened the way for catching up on both sides. Teachers were already better prepared during the second wave, so they were able to solve education more efficiently. Regional development differences and a lack of digital tools have widened the gap between students. Discussion: The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed these shortcomings in education. For here the process of teaching had to be placed in digital space from one moment to the next. Limitations: The research shows data valid only for Hungary. Conclusions: Expected result is the demonstrable development of competences.
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Technology as a learning tool or otherwise holds great attraction for learners today. The current study explored the impact of Short Messages as Learning Tool (SMLT) on EFL Saudi learners learning confused English words. It also gauges learners' satisfactions towards using such tools on their autonomy and language proficiency. The study pursued a quasi-experiment research design. It recruited 80 EFL learners across Najran University and Qassim University, KSA. To ensure parity of existing language proficiency and learning success, the Oxford Placement Test is administered once before and once at the end of the intervention to all of the 80 participants to obtain comparative values.. Furthermore, a semi-structured interview is also used with three randomly selected participants from each of the experimental groups to obtain data on individual perceptions of the EFL learners to the use of MALL in the EFL classroom. Content analysis is used to identify dominant themes in these. Findings revealed that learners acquisition for confusing words were developed to a great extent in both universities. Moreover, the study found that there is no significant difference in the students' achievement attributed to the learning sittings, Z = .935. Finally the students expressed satisfaction in terms of their autonomy ratings and complementary points of view on the use of SMS, based on the semi-structured interviews. The current research is useful as its findings can apply to mobile teaching and text messaging in the English classroom for EFL curriculum developers and English language teachers.
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Digital Literacy (DL) is defined as the ability to use information and communication technology to communicate with cognitive and technical skills. One of the Digital Literacy is Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) or mobile phones-based language learning. Merits of this study are worthy of helping learners easier understand the language learning materials presented by either guided face to face in the classroom or self-learning out of the school. The study used experimental and control classes to compare the results that the significance of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning in learning language could be prescribed. Refer to the initial students' ability, this study designed pre and post-test for the experiment. Furthermore, participants were 40 students of second-year students at the English Education Department. Same topics were taught for experiment and control class in alter methods. The results claimed that the using post-test of MALL had merits on improving experimental group more than control group performance. The results declared that using MALL would encourage stu-dents' learning activities such as self-language learning, enriching vocabulary, promoting teacher's pedagogic, student's cognitive, writing skill, reading comprehension, speaking, grammar and listening skill. Lastly, this paper implied MALL as a reference for future curriculum and material development.
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Critical thinking is widely recognized to be the key to high-quality professional education. The previous studies of teaching tools that develop critical thinking searched mostly for traditional reading-discussion activities in a traditional classroom. The article updates the choice of the resources and evaluates mobile applications and online courses used in EFL teaching practice. The research is aimed at analyzing digital options that are essential for language learning as well as for professional growth and cognitive development. The authors scrutinize a number of language massive open online courses, mobile apps, and digital platforms targeted at promoting learners’ critical thinking skills in reading, writing, and interaction. The methods of the research require evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of the examined digital tools. Additionally, some options in the digital assessment of the academic texts features are studied. Finally, the authors provide recommendations on the effective EFL teaching strategies coupled with the essential critical thinking activities in academic contexts.
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Digital Literacy (DL) is defined as the ability to use information and communication technology to communicate with cognitive and technical skills. One of the Digital Literacy is Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) or mobile phones-based language learning. Merits of this study are worthy of helping learners easier understand the language learning materials presented by either guided face to face in the classroom or self-learning out of the school. The study used experimental and control classes to compare the results that the significance of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning in learning language could be prescribed. Refer to the initial students' ability, this study designed pre and post-test for the experiment. Furthermore, participants were 40 students of second-year students at the English Education Department. Same topics were taught for experiment and control class in alter methods. The results claimed that the using post-test of MALL had merits on improving experimental group more than control group performance. The results declared that using MALL would encourage stu-dents' learning activities such as self-language learning, enriching vocabulary, promoting teacher's pedagogic, student's cognitive, writing skill, reading comprehension, speaking, grammar and listening skill. Lastly, this paper implied MALL as a reference for future curriculum and material development.
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Academic environment can contribute to academic perception and learning preferences. Thiscan be particularly evident in institutions undergoing a significant change. University Teknologi Brunei (UTB) is one of the youngest and fastest growing universities in Brunei. Previously known as Institute Teknologi Brunei, it was upgraded to a University status in 2016.This is a study set in 2011 prior to the change in status and again in 2020 where it looks the changes and development that has happened over the years from the students’ perspective. A questionnaire was used as the instrument targeting first year students from UTB’s School of Business and School of Computing and Informatics. The same set of questionnaires and analysis was used for both 2011 and 2020 sampling. The findings show that UTB still have some improvement to make with regards to providing conducive learning environment. At the same time, the students also show significant change in academic perception and preferred learning style, preferring blended learning to face-to-face learning, partly in light of the exposure to online learning towards the middle of the first semester due to COVID-19.
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Drawing on the nonlinearity and dynamicity of second language (L2) motivation and individual differences, the present study introduced and examined the computer-assisted interactive reading model (CAIRM) incorporating computer-assisted language learning (CALL) tools and affordances to assist reading comprehension in blended and distance learning contexts. The CAIRM aims at incorporating CALL tools and affordances to move L2 readers from strategic (conscious, deliberate, intentional) to automatized (reading without employing conscious strategies) processing to develop L2 reading proficiency. The model arranges emerging digital reading features to facilitate restructuring and checking content comprehension as a way to alter between bottom-up and top-down processing. To investigate CAIRM effectiveness at three levels of implementation, a between-subject design was used in a sample of 278 Iranian learners. Results indicated significant improvement on the measure of reading performance, favoring all three experimental groups (d = 2.34, d = 2.49, and d = 3.82 for bottom-up, top-down, and both processing approaches conditions, respectively). The combination of bottom-up and top-down processing strategies emerged as the most effective level of CAIRM implementation. Results also documented positive perceptions of the proposed model efficacy among participants. This suggests that offering a variety of strategies under the CAIRM—or similar models—teachers can move away from static traditional approaches based on just one particular data processing mode towards more flexible uses of the CALL tools and strategies that fit their unique teaching and their students’ unique learning styles best while supporting positive attitudes towards learning among L2 students in blended and distance learning contexts.
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The use of smartphones and tablet computers is at the leading edge of technology and studying. The majority of students who study English in previously disadvantaged institutions (PDIs) possess handheld mobile devices, and this augurs well for the effective use of these devices. The use of handheld mobile devices can revolutionise the learning and teaching of English language among the students, who usually queue to use desktop computers. The use of handheld mobile devices could also foster collaborative and independent learning. The aim of this paper is to discuss the responses of English language student educators to a questionnaire on the use of handheld mobile devices at a PDI in South Africa.
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This study applied Edmodo as a supplementary environment for additional language practice in a semi-technical English course in an EFL context, with a quasi-experimental between-subjects (control versus experimental group) design. In addition to conventional classroom instruction and practice, the experimental group practiced additional language exercises using Edmodo application while the control group participants worked on similar exercises during extended classroom meetings. The results of paired and independent sample t-tests conducted on both groups’ using 48-item, multiple-choice (vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension) pre and posttests revealed that while both groups demonstrated a statistically significant performance in the achievement posttest which was administered at the end of the course, the performance of the experimental group was significantly better than the control. The findings suggest that Edmodo is a valuable and cost-effective tool for language learning/practice beyond the physical and temporal confinements of conventional language classrooms.
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Combined with the ubiquity and constant connectivity of mobile devices, and with innovative approaches such as Data-Driven Learning (DDL), Natural Language Processing Technologies (NLPTs) as Open Educational Resources (OERs) could become a powerful tool for language learning as they promote individual and personalized learning. Using a questionnaire that was answered by language teachers (n= 230) in Spain and the UK, this research explores the extent to which OER NLPTs are currently known and used in adult foreign language learning. Our results suggest that teachers´ familiarity and use of OER NLPTs are very low. Although online dictionaries, collocation dictionaries and spell checkers are widely known, NLPTs appear to be generally underused in foreign language teaching. It was found that teachers prefer computer-based environments over mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets and that teachers´ qualification determines their familiarity with a wider range of OER NLPTs. This research offers insight into future applications of Language Processing Technologies as OERs in language learning.
Technical Report
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Free download: http://oro.open.ac.uk/49021/ This paper aims to help education stakeholders consider how mobile learning can contribute to improving language teaching and learning by facilitating personalized learning. A high-level overview of mobile learning is presented and the role of personalization in mobile learning is explained. A number of case studies showcasing particular apps illustrate salient aspects of mobile personalized learning from research and practice. In the final section, considerations for policy and practice are discussed.
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The movement toward open education is requiring educators to expand and update their practice in order to keep up with the new demands being placed on them. This study explored how educators can engage in meaningful learning opportunities, which will facilitate the creation of expertise and knowledge, through the use of open education resources (OER). The article describes the design of the instrument employed to measure workplace learning through OER activity of adult educators (n = 522) and to report its internal reliability and convergent validity. Results indicate engagement with OER promote three levels of learning, each connected to the different types of knowledge educators require to integrate OER into their teaching practice.
Conference Paper
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We present a new web interface for English language learning: SkELL. The name stands for Sketch Engine for Language Learning and is aimed at students and teachers of English language. We describe SkELL features and the processing of corpus data which is fundamental for SkELL: spam free, high quality texts from various domains including diverse text types covering majority of English language phenomena.
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Distance learning, electronic learning and mobile learning offer methods, which decrease the limitations of traditional education. This paper discusses the existing devices and technologies appropriate to realise mobile learning. Mobile learning as new stage of distance and e-learning is also examined.
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This study aims to (1) elucidate whether the Hawthorne effect exists, (2) explore under what conditions, and (3) estimate the size of any such effect. This systematic review summarizes and evaluates the strength of available evidence on the Hawthorne effect. An inclusive definition of any form of research artifact on behavior using this label, and without cointerventions, was adopted. Nineteen purposively designed studies were included, providing quantitative data on the size of the effect in eight randomized controlled trials, five quasiexperimental studies, and six observational evaluations of reporting on one's behavior by answering questions or being directly observed and being aware of being studied. Although all but one study was undertaken within health sciences, study methods, contexts, and findings were highly heterogeneous. Most studies reported some evidence of an effect, although significant biases are judged likely because of the complexity of the evaluation object. Consequences of research participation for behaviors being investigated do exist, although little can be securely known about the conditions under which they operate, their mechanisms of effects, or their magnitudes. New concepts are needed to guide empirical studies.
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1. Historical discussion 1.1 Attention and awareness in cognitive science and SLA Issues of attentiobear on every area of cognitivesciencè (Allport, 1989, p. 631). Attention, however, is not a unitary construct; many mechanisms have been proposed to explain how it affects different aspects of behavior and learning. Attentional mechanisms have been evoked to explain such diverse phenomena in second language acquisition (SLA) as variation in the accuracy, fluency and complexity of second language (L2) speech in different social environments, and the effects on performance of tasks that make different attentional demands on learners. Availability of attentional resources has also been argued to predict the extent to which instructional conditions manipulating the focus of learners' attention affect the quality of perception, and, as a consequence, memory for targeted aspects of input. Explaining variational phenomena implicates mechanisms of attention which are used to control action while using the L2. Explaining perceptual, learning and memory phenomena implicates mechanisms of attention which are used to select (or inhibit) and mentally rehearse information in the L2 input. These two
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Corpus-aided language pedagogy is one of the central application areas of corpus methodologies, and a test bed for theories of language and learning. This volume provides an overview of current trends, offering methodological and theoretical position statements along with results from empirical studies. The relationship between corpora and learning is examined from complementary perspectives — the study of learner language, the didactic use of corpus findings, and the interaction between corpora and their users. Reflections on current theory and technology open and close the volume. With its focus on the learner and the learning setting, Corpora and Language Learners is addressed to corpus linguists with an interest in learner language, applied linguists wishing to expand their understanding of corpora and their pedagogic potential, and language teachers wishing to critically assess the relevance of work in this field. This volume grew out of selected presentations at the 5th Teaching and Language Corpora conference in Bertinoro, Italy.
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Much of the research into language learners' use of corpus resources has been conducted by means of indirect observation methodologies, like questionnaires or self-reports. While this type of study provides an excellent opportunity to reflect on the benefits and limitations of using corpora to teach and learn language, the use of indirect observation methodologies may confine the scope of research to learners' opinions about the benefits of using corpora for language learning and their self-perceived difficulties in consulting them. This article proposes and discusses the use of logs to research learners' actual use of corpus-based resources, analyzing the number of events or actions performed by each individual, the total number of different web services used, the number of activities completed, the number of searches performed on the British National Corpus (BNC) and, last, the number of words or wildcards per BNC search. Our research used these parameters to investigate whether learner interaction with corpus-based resources differed under different corpus consultation conditions: guided versus non-guided consultation. Our findings show that the individuals in the two research conditions behaved differently in two of the parameters analyzed: the number of different web services used during the completion of the tasks and the number of BNC searches. Our results corroborate empirically the suggestions found in the literature that skills and guidance are necessary when teachers take a corpus to the classroom. Similarly, we offer evidence that user tracking is essential to claim research and results validity.
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Though concordancing is widely acknowledged to be a tool of some potential in the hands of second language learners, there is little, if anything, in the literature to suggest how such a tool can be introduced to learners unfamiliar with computers and/or unschooled in basic research methods. This article demonstrates how concordances can be used to prepare classroom vocabulary materials which are both authentic and, assuming the databases used are ones pertinent to the students, relevant. It also shows how concordance-based exercises can be used to enhance student competence in both semantic and syntactic elements of the language they are studying.
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In much of the literature on the exploitation of corpora for language learning, the learners are viewed as researchers, who formulate and test their own hypotheses about language use. Having identified difficulties encountered in corpus investigations by our intermediate-level students of Italian in a previous study, we have designed a semester-long apprenticeship in corpus use which does not demand of them the high level of language proficiency, attention to detail in observation, and logical rigour that we consider necessary for rewarding work in the learner-as-researcher role. Instead, we introduce a corpus initially as an aid to the imagination in writing, and then to achieving accuracy through specific grammatical problem solving. We see this as the groundwork for subsequent development of the students’ research skills with corpus data. This paper describes the approach we have adopted to the corpus apprenticeship and reports on an evaluation of its effectiveness through case studies of three students and their use of a corpus and bilingual dictionary as reference resources when writing. Drawing on insights from the case studies, we outline a working definition of corpus-consultation literacy for our learning context and identify some refinements to be made to our apprenticeship.
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Incl. bibl., index.
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The paper addresses the question of how to design for learning taking place on mobile and wireless devices. The authors argue that learning activity designers need to consider the characteristics of mobile learning; at the same time, it is vital to realise that learners are already creating mobile learning experiences for themselves. Profound changes in computer usage brought about by social networking and user-generated content are challenging the idea that educators are in charge of designing learning. The authors make a distinction between designed activity, carefully crafted in advance, and user-generated activity arising from learners’ own spontaneous requirements. The paper illustrates what each approach has to offer and it draws out what they have in common, the opportunities and constraints they represent. The paper concludes that user-generated mobile activity will not replace designed activity but it will influence the ways in which designed activity develops.
Book
Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Developers, Educators and Learners provides research-based foundations for developing, evaluating, and integrating effective mobile learning pedagogy. Twenty-first century students require twenty-first century technology, and mobile devices provide new and effective ways to educate children. But with new technologies come new challenges-therefore, this handbook presents a comprehensive look at mobile learning by synthesizing relevant theories and drawing practical conclusions for developers, educators, and students. Mobile devices-in ways that the laptop, the personal computer, and netbook computers have not-present the opportunity to make learning more engaging, interactive, and available in both traditional classroom settings and informal learning environments. From theory to practice, Mobile Learning explores how mobile devices are different than their technological predecessors, makes the case for developers, teachers, and parents to invest in the technology, and illustrates the many ways in which it is innovative, exciting, and effective in educating K-12 students. Explores how mobile devices can support the needs of students. Provides examples, screenshots, graphics, and visualizations to enhance the material presented in the book. Provides developers with the background necessary to create the apps their audience requires. Presents the case for mobile learning in and out of classrooms as early as preschool. Discusses how mobile learning enables better educational opportunities for the visually impaired, students with Autism, and adult learners. If you're a school administrator, teacher, app developer, or parent, this topical book provides a theoretical, well-researched discussion of the pedagogical theory and mobile learning, as well as practical advice in setting up a mobile learning strategy.
Article
Learning words in repetition and in context may be conducive to effective vocabulary acquisition. Research in corpus linguistics and mobile learning can provide pedagogical and technical support for the strategies. DDL (data-driven learning), an approach which features concordancing through a large number of text collection, can facilitate direct and intensive exposure to authentic language in use; the ubiquitous mobile technology nowadays can enable contextual learning experience anytime, anywhere. Thus, “mobile DDL” may synergise DDL and mobile learning, and this combination is a proposal to enhance vocabulary learning with emerging technology. This paper reports an experiment on mobile DDL in the context of academic English. A mobile app was specially designed and developed for voluntary participants in this research to look up core academic words in authentic academic texts. Through passive data capture, questionnaire and interview, it was found that DDL could be adapted to mobile devices. However, the approach was not well acceptable to the intermediate-level students in this research, despite their familiarity with mobile technology in daily life. Major adjustments to DDL seem necessary if mobile DDL is to assist learners at large in vocabulary learning.
Article
Much discussion in language learning and teaching revolves around two main questions: what to learn and how to learn it. Corpus linguistics has had a significant impact on the former, as publishers use the findings to inform the language content of their syllabuses. On the other hand, and despite significant output in terms of research articles and publications, few teachers and still fewer learners have had any direct contact with language corpora per se. For such awareness to filter down to the end users, the major players upstream (publishers, software developers, politicians, schools, teacher trainers, etc.) have to be convinced that corpora have something to offer. While well-developed theoretical arguments show the potential is considerable, empirical evidence is surprisingly lacking (Chambers 2007). This paper looks at nearly 50 studies which provide some form of evaluation of the use of corpora in language learning. Many are essentially qualitative, bringing useful insights but remaining by definition rather subjective; quantitative evidence, however, remains scarce. Furthermore, the focus is often on learners' and teachers' attitudes to the use of corpora, or on their ability to use corpus techniques, rather than on the effectiveness of corpus use. Finally, the remaining studies tend to divide into two main categories: those which are concerned with the use of corpora as a reference tool, especially in written production (including error-correction) and translation; and those few which actually look at whether corpora contribute to language learning itself – “data-driven learning”, to use Johns' term (e.g. 1991). This paper synthesises the research findings to date on all these questions, and argues that there is an urgent need for considerably more empirical evaluation of data-driven language learning, taking into account the large number of variables involved. Only then can we expect to see such techniques become part of mainstream language teaching and learning practices. Chambers, A. 2007. Popularising corpus consultation by language learners and teachers. In E. Hidalgo, L. Quereda & J. Santana (eds) Corpora in the Foreign Language Classroom. Amsterdam: Rodopi, p. 3-16. Johns, T. 1991. From printout to handout: Grammar and vocabulary teaching in the context of data-driven learning. In T. Johns and P. King (eds) Classroom Concordancing. English Language Research Journal 4, p. 27-45.
Article
This paper reports on the long-term use of personal do-it-yourself corpora by students of EAP. Forty international graduate students attended a course in which they built and examined their own corpora of research articles in their field. One year after the course, they completed an email questionnaire, which asked about their corpus use in the 12 months since the end of the course. Results show that 70% of the respondents had used their corpus: 38% were regular users (once per week or more), 33% irregular users (once per month or seldom) and 30% non-users. Most users consulted the corpus for checking grammar and lexis while composing and revising and 93% of them considered that corpus use had improved their academic writing. Reasons for non-use included the small size of the corpus and its lack of reliability and convenience. Case studies of a user and a non-user are presented and highlight two other factors likely to affect take-up: the individual’s writing process and the focus of their current writing concerns. The paper discusses the reasons behind long-term use of personal corpora and some of the challenges to be overcome in extending the approach more widely.
Article
This paper reports on the feasibility and value of an approach to teaching EAP writing in which students construct and examine their own individual, discipline-specific corpora. The approach was trialed in multidisciplinary classes of advanced-level students (mostly graduates). The course consisted of six weekly 2-h sessions. Data were collected from initial and final questionnaires, which provided background information and asked students to evaluate the corpus work. Data from 50 participants are presented and show generally positive results. Over 90% of students found it easy to build their own corpora and most succeeded in constructing a corpus of 10–15 research articles. Most students were enthusiastic about working with their own corpora: about 90% agreed that their corpus helped them improve their writing and intended to use it in the future. This suggests that even corpora of this size and type can provide a useful resource for writing discipline-specific texts. The paper discusses the data on participants’ attitudes and experiences and considers the issues and problems that arise in connection with do-it-yourself corpus-building. It argues that this approach need not be restricted to small groups of well-resourced students, but can be implemented in mainstream EAP classes.
Article
The study investigates the relative effectiveness of inductive and deductive approaches to learning collocations by using a concordancer. The relationship between cognitive approaches and levels of collocation difficulty is also examined. Eighty-one second-year students from a senior high school in Taiwan participated in the study. The results showed that the inductive group improved significantly better than the deductive group in the performance of collocation learning and easy collocations seem to be more suitable in the concordancer learning setting.
Article
Many excellent corpus-based language learning resources (e.g., concordancers) have been freely available on the Internet for some time. Google assisted language learning (GALL) is also gaining increasing acceptance. These tools are a potential resource for English as an additional language (EAL) university students who want to independently improve their academic writing. However, many Australian universities have been remarkably slow to integrate these tools into English language support operations. In this study, Australian EAL university students were trained in Internet-based tools and techniques for language learning and subsequently surveyed on their attitudes and behaviour. Students' competence in using the tools and techniques to correct errors in their writing was also measured. The results revealed that students are enthusiastic and reasonably competent users of Internet-based tools and techniques for independent language learning. It is argued that Internet-based corpus tools and techniques are undervalued by Australian universities, but could be promoted and used to support EAL university student writers.
Article
Usage-based theories of language learning suggest that native speakers of a language are acutely aware of formulaic language due in large part to frequency effects. Corpora and data-driven learning can offer useful insights into frequent patterns of naturally occurring language to second/foreign language learners who, unlike native speakers, are not privy to a lifetime of input and fine-tuning. Recently, the use of the web in combination with the Google search engine as an accessible corpus and concordancer has received much attention. This article describes an experiment which tests the hypothesis that native speakers of English perceive learner-generated phrases to be more natural after learners have searched the phrases on Google and modified them in light of the frequency of search results. The findings indicate that native speakers perceive phrases that generated more results in Google searches to be more natural.
Article
In choosing a title for this paper, we have consciously copied the name of the series of biannual conferences, started at Lancaster in 1994, which aim to bring together those who have an interest in the application of corpora to the teaching of language and linguistics. Already, those conferences have set in train a series of publications – conference proceedings (Wilson and McEnery, 1994; Botley, Glass, McEnery and Wilson, 1996), a general selection of papers (Wichmann, Knowles, McEnery and Fligelstone, 1997) and a collection of papers related to multilingual copora (Botley, McEnery and Wilson, 1997). The aim of this paper is to summarize the progress to date in the field of teaching and language corpora, both as a general introduction and as a gateway to the more comprehensive literature which is developing. As such, this paper owes a considerable debt to all of the participants at the past two conferences.
Article
One very active research tradition in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) attempts to establish causal relationships between environmental factors and learning. These include the type and quantity of input, instruction and feedback, and the interactional context of learning (Larsen-Freeman and Long 1991). A second very influential line of research and theory in SLA that came to fruition during the 1980s investigates the possible role of universal grammar (UG) in SLA (Eubank 1991b, White 1989). In the Chomskyan tradition, UG refers not to properties of language as the external object of learning but to innate properties of mind that direct the course of primary language acquisition. One question asked within this tradition has been whether or not second language learners still “have access” to UG, but it is assumed that UG principles are not accessible to learner awareness for any kind of conscious analysis of input. It is possible that SLA is the result of UG (a deep internal factor) acting upon input (an external factor), as proposed by White (1989), but what seems to be left out of such an account is the role of the learner's conscious mental processes.
Article
Today's teachers are expected to use modern digital technology (DT) to optimise pedagogical effects. Singaporean policy makers have introduced directives to explicitly require teachers to apply DT in teaching. Inherent in such directives is an assumption that by requiring teachers to apply DT, they will perceive its value and use it in their teaching. This paper tests this assumption. Students in initial teacher education programs in Singapore responded to a survey on four variables about their use of DT: (1) compliance with requirements, (2) sense of competence, (3) perceived value and (4) frequency of DT application. Compliance was found to be negatively correlated with competence and uncorrelated with frequency, indicating that teachers who were more competent in DT were less likely to be compliant and those who were compliant may not actually apply DT in teaching. In contrast, both competence and value were positively correlated with frequency of application. Compliance differs for students in different programs and is higher for females. The results indicate that mandating use of DT may not be useful. A more productive approach may be to enhance the competence of teachers in DT so that they value its effectiveness and are confident to apply it in classroom activities. What is already known about this topic What this paper adds Implications for practice and/or policy
Article
The Noticing Hypothesis—an hypothesis that input does not become intake for language learning unless it is noticed, that is, consciously registered (Schmidt, 1990, 2001)—has been around now for about two decades and continues to generate experimental studies, suggestions for L2 pedagogy, conference papers and controversy. To many people, the idea that SLA is largely driven by what learners pay attention to and become aware of in target language input seems the essence of common sense. In the simplest terms, people learn about the things that they pay attention to and do not learn much about the things they do not attend to. Others consider the hypothesis to be undesirably vague, lacking in empirical support, or incompatible with well-grounded theories. In this talk I will review the evidence for the hypothesis, as well the major objections that have been raised against it, paying particular attention to learner characteristics such as motivation, aptitude, and language learning history that affect what learners notice and become aware of when processing L2 input.
Article
This paper reports on our experience in using a corpus of our own compilation, Contemporary Written Italian Corpus (CWIC), in teaching intermediate students at Griffith University in Australia. After an overview of the corpus design and the training approach adopted, we focus on our initial evaluation of the effectiveness of the students' investigations. Much has been written on what can be done with corpora in language learning: what kinds of discoveries can be made with different types of corpora. There is relatively little on how learners actually go about investigations. Since we intend for our students to progress from classroom use to independent work as a result of using a Web-based version of CWIC, we have been seeking to understand how successful they are at extracting information from this corpus in the absence of a teacher. Our initial study highlighted the complexity of the process and the specialized skills required. We found that lack of rigor in observation and reasoning contributed greatly to the problems that arose, as did ignorance of common pitfalls and techniques for avoiding them. We, therefore, conclude the paper with an outline of proposed changes to our apprenticeship program, aimed at better equipping the students as "corpus researchers.".
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