Content uploaded by John W. Schwieter
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by John W. Schwieter on Apr 11, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
20 - Pedagogical Interventions to L2 Grammar Instruction
Abstract
The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning - edited by John W. Schwieter June 2019
... Therefore, certain pedagogical 3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29352/mill0225.36123 interventions (such as input enhancement or input flooding), although implicit, will facilitate the processing of information as well as the focus on form (Benati & Schwieter, 2019). Several empirical studies have investigated the impact of input manipulation through the increased frequency of a linguistic form in the input (input flood) vs. its visual salience (input enhancement); however, the research results are inconclusive (Benati & Schwieter, 2019). ...
... interventions (such as input enhancement or input flooding), although implicit, will facilitate the processing of information as well as the focus on form (Benati & Schwieter, 2019). Several empirical studies have investigated the impact of input manipulation through the increased frequency of a linguistic form in the input (input flood) vs. its visual salience (input enhancement); however, the research results are inconclusive (Benati & Schwieter, 2019). In fact, in the literature, some studies have shown positive effects resulting from input enhancement on L2 development (Ajabshir, 2022;Al-Shammari & Sahiouni, 2023;Chung & Révész, 2024;Lee, 2021;Namaziandost et al., 2020), but other studies have not identified effects from the use of this strategy (Meguro, 2019;Rassaei, 2020;Révész et al., 2021;Sadeghi et al., 2022). ...
Introduction:
In foreign language teaching, input enhancement has been proposed as an implicit technique to direct the learners' attention toward specific linguistic items, as it allows them to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Objective:
To investigate the effect of three typographic input highlighting marks on the intake of a target structure (present tense) and on the reading comprehension of 41 Chinese learners of Portuguese as a foreign language.
Methods:
Exploratory study. A pre-test/post-test design was adopted. Four versions of a text were prepared to compare three experimental groups with different input enhancement formats: [(i) capitalization, (ii) bold, and (iii) a combination of two typographical cues (bold and underlined)], as well as a control group (input flood).
Results:
No significant differences were detected between the groups, although the results showed a tendency towards a positive impact of the use of typographical cues vs. input flood. Reading comprehension was not affected by input enhancement.
Conclusion:
Input enhancement formats did not significantly benefit the intake of the target structure. Manipulation of input salience (input enhancement) and frequency increase (input flood) are redundant techniques in terms of their pedagogical impact.
... Mais especificamente, podemos enfocar o importante papel desempenhado por práticas pedagógicas que estimulam a reflexão acerca dos elementos formais da LA. Após 6 um longo período de posturas pedagógicas pendulares (as quais, em alguns momentos, ignoravam toda e qualquer forma de reflexão acerca dos detalhes formais da língua e, em outros, preconizavam tal reflexão em detrimento de um ensino contextualizado), nos dias atuais, sabemos que "reflexão" e "uso" linguísticos não devem constituir entidades opostas ou antagônicas (Benati;Schwieter, 2019;Nassaji;Kartchava, 2019). A partir dessa constatação, julgamos ser possível propor atividades de desenvolvimento da consciência fonológica sem abandonarmos um contexto comunicativo. ...
... Mais especificamente, podemos enfocar o importante papel desempenhado por práticas pedagógicas que estimulam a reflexão acerca dos elementos formais da LA. Após 6 um longo período de posturas pedagógicas pendulares (as quais, em alguns momentos, ignoravam toda e qualquer forma de reflexão acerca dos detalhes formais da língua e, em outros, preconizavam tal reflexão em detrimento de um ensino contextualizado), nos dias atuais, sabemos que "reflexão" e "uso" linguísticos não devem constituir entidades opostas ou antagônicas (Benati;Schwieter, 2019;Nassaji;Kartchava, 2019). A partir dessa constatação, julgamos ser possível propor atividades de desenvolvimento da consciência fonológica sem abandonarmos um contexto comunicativo. ...
Neste artigo, discutimos a importância da realização de atividades de consciência fonológica referentes a sílabas, aliterações e rimas na Educação Infantil Bilíngue. Iniciamos o artigo abordando a relevância dessas atividades tanto na língua materna quanto na língua adicional. Em um segundo momento, ao integrarmos construtos dos campos da Aquisição de Linguagem (referentes ao componente fonético-fonológico) e da Linguística Aplicada ao Ensino de Línguas Adicionais, discutimos a implementação de tais atividades. Defendemos que as habilidades metafonológicas devem ser integradas aos demais componentes formais a partir de um contexto de língua em uso, como parte de um plano de ensino a serviço de uma temática comunicativa clara. Ao final do artigo, buscamos exemplificar essa integração a partir de sugestões de atividades em português e em inglês. Amparado em bases teóricas formais e aplicadas, o presente artigo visa a contribuir não somente com uma maior integração dos aspectos formais ao ensino comunicativo na Educação Infantil Bilíngue, mas, também, com o estabelecimento de uma base teórica robusta que fundamente a prática docente.
... The dominant orientation in Arabic learning in Indonesia is for religious purposes rather than communicative purposes (Tohe, 2018). As such, Arabic education has traditionally proceeded with the prevalent use of the grammar-translation method, which consists of presenting and explaining grammatical features of a target language (Benati & Schwieter, 2019), aiming primarily at understanding the scriptural language of Islam (Kamis et al., 2019;Wekke, 2015). The results remain unsatisfactory even with the new orientation of Arabic learning emphasizing the attainment of communicative competence. ...
The present study addresses several crucial points concerning L2 learning and acquisition, including learner's differences, the dynamic of input and output in the negotiated meaning-making process, and also the need not only to expand the learning space across a variety of formal, nonformal, and informal settings, but also integrating technology into L2 learning. One of the arguments made is that the distinction between L2 learning and acquisition is crucial, for they lead to two relatively distinct linguistic competence and therefore affect the option of learning strategies, allowing the understanding of which individual differences primarily influence the learners' success in L2 learning and the type of learning environment appropriate for the intended outcomes. In addition, integrating technology into L2 learning appears inevitable, for it opens up access to much greater authentic linguistic inputs and closer contact with native speakers.
... According to Ellis (2020), in SLA, studies have already addressed these five (5) phases in aspects about L2 acquisition: [1] 'Making a Start' -in which it focused on the order and sequence of acquisition; [2] 'Expansion Period' -Language transfer, Universal Grammar, Second Language Pragmatics, and Input and Interaction were talked about; [3] 'Cognitive Phase' -which dealt with the studies about Implicit Knowledge and Explicit Knowledge, Skill Learning Theory. Consciousness and L2 acquisition, and emergentism; [4] 'The Social Turn' -that focused on the Socialization theories and the Sociocultural Theory; and [5] 'Recent Developments' -which we are talking about the Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and the Transdisciplinary. The success of SLA studies "lies in the contribution it can make to well-established disciplines and to addressing practical problems" Ellis (2020, p. 202). ...
This scoping review studies the role of grammar in second language teaching and learning. This scoping review mainly directs to synthesizing relevant studies and literature on acquiring grammar and looking for strategies for achieving it. Grammar acquisition requires the subconscious mind of accepting grammatical knowledge that is then confined and used in communication. Its implicit nature makes it hard to conduct studies about it, and there is a need for more information that can help contribute to the existing knowledge about it. Hence, this scoping review gathered and scrutinized recent and relevant papers from various databases. The collected papers consist of qualitative and quantitative studies. Many language teachers agree that pedagogic grammar is crucial in second language acquisition. Hence, this paper analyzes recent and relevant papers about grammar acquisition. This scoping review found out that the importance of studies about grammar acquisition should not be forsaken; thus, more investigations must be done to contribute to the already existing knowledge. A byproduct of these studies can lead to better strategies for promoting grammar acquisition to language learners. Hence, the amelioration of Second Language Learning and Second Language Teaching is inevitable.
This study presents a mobile application of the maze task as a complementary activity for second language learning. The application facilitates conducting linguistic training sessions with the maze task for both pedagogical and experimental purposes. We designed the Maze Task Mobile, used it in English classes with native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, and analyzed student perceptions through an attitude survey. Besides presenting the application in detail, we discuss the results from the survey and from participants’ accuracy in the task highlighting the benefits of this first mobile version of the maze task as well as improvements needed for future development.
This Cambridge Element examines the role and nature of focus on form in second language acquisition. An overall assessment of the role of instruction and the nature of language is provided. Instruction might have a facilitative role in the rate of acquisition. The Element briefly reviews empirical research examining the relative effects of different types of focus on form and presents some of the key implications for second language learning and teaching. An effective focus on form type is one that is input and meaning oriented. Manipulating input to facilitate language processing and form-meaning connections might enhance second language acquisition.
Researchers in the field of instructed second language acquisition have been examining the issue of how learners interact with input by conducting research measuring particular kinds of instructional interventions (input-oriented and meaning-based). These interventions include such things as input flood, textual enhancement and processing instruction. Although the findings are not completely conclusive on whether these instructional interventions have an impact on acquisition, it is clear that we have witnessed a shift in the field from the original question ?Does instruction make a difference?? to the more specific question ?Does manipulating input make a difference?? In this article, the key classroom-based research conducted to measure the relative effects of different types of enhancement and manipulation is reviewed. Three main research foci are considered: (a) research measuring the effects of saturating the input with the target form (input flood), (b) research measuring the effects of different types of textual enhancements to draw learners? attention to the target form, and (c) research measuring input restructuring to improve interpretation and processing of target forms or structures (processing instruction).
The present article focuses on the uses of the first language (L1) made by 22 pairs of grade 8 French immersion students as they complete one of two different tasks: a dictogloss and a jigsaw. The outcome of each task is a story written by each student pair. We propose a coding scheme for the uses made of the L1, exemplify them, and report on exploratory analyses intended to describe differences between and within the tasks in terms of the amount of English (L1) used. We also address the relationship between the amount of L1 use and the quality of students’ writing, and the variability in task performance across student pairs.
The concept of input to the language learner is examined with reference to some current theorizing about language processing and the idea of modular systems of knowledge. The question of what this can tell us about the actions taken by teachers and textbook writers is addressed specifically with regard to manipulating, or “enhancing,” the input ideally so that it will affect learner knowledge and thereby learner behavior. The logic of the argumentation is that, in exposing the learner to the second language, we are engaging a whole battery of different processing mechanisms. Input enhancement research and the conclusions drawn from it have to be set within the context of a modular view of language and language learning.
This paper examines recent proposals for task-based approaches to instruction It reviews relevant research, before going on
to examine a number of potential problems with task-based teaching, such as a potential focus away from form and towards lexis
It reviews recent developments in cognitive psychology which support a dual-mode perspective for language processing, and
then proposes the goals of accuracy, complexity-restructuring, and fluency as the most relevant for task-based instruction
In the final section, the paper proposes a framework for the implementation of task-based instruction which draws upon relevant
theory and research, and which organizes the methods by which such instruction could be put into practice in such a way as
to minimize problems, and maximize the probability that all three above goals can be achieved
This paper firstly presents and examines the pedagogical intervention called Processing Instruction (PI). Secondly, it reviews and discusses the main findings of the empirical research conducted to measure the relative effects of PI. Current research trends within the PI research framework will be outlined. Experimental research investigating the effects of this pedagogical intervention in language teaching, and grammar instruction in particular, has primarily used listening and reading measures (so-called ‘off-line measures’) to elicit how learners comprehend and process sentences. On-line measurements, such as eye tracking and self-paced reading, have now been incorporated into PI research to measure language processing more directly. Finally, this paper provides specific guidelines and procedures for teachers on when and how to use PI.
The present study explores the effects of structured input and structured output when delivered in isolation or in combination on the acquisition of the English causative. Research investigating the effects of processing instruction and meaning output-based instruction has provided some interesting and sometimes conflicting results. Additionally, there are a number of issues (e. g., measuring a combination of structured input and structured output, measuring discourse-level effects) that have not been fully and clearly addressed. To provide answers to the questions formulated in this study, two classroom experiments were carried out. In the first study, fifty-four Chinese university students (age 18–20) participated. The participants were randomly assigned to four groups: structured input only group (
Only subjects who participated in all phases of each experiment and scored lower than 60 % in the pre-tests were included in the final data collection. Instruction lasted for three hours. The control group received no instruction on the causative structure. Interpretation and production tasks were used in a pre-test and post-test design. The design included a delayed post-test battery (3 weeks after instruction) for both experiments. In the first study, the assessment tasks included an interpretation and production task at sentence-level, and an interpretation task at discourse-level. In the second study, an additional discourse-level production task was adopted along with the interpretation discourse-level task. The results indicated that learners who received structured input both in isolation and in combination benefitted more than learners receiving structured output only. These two groups were able to retain instructional gains three weeks later in all assessment measures.
Does second language instruction promote second language acquisition? Some studies conclude that instruction does not help (or even that it is counter-productive); others find it beneficial. The picture becomes clearer if two distinctions are made. First, researchers may address one or both of two issues: the absolute effect of instruction, on the one hand, and its relative utility, on the other. Second, studies need to be subclassified according to whether or not the comparisons they make involve controlling for the total amount of instruction, exposure, or instruction plus exposure—that is, for the total opportunity to acquire the second language.Observing these distinctions, a review of research findings concludes that there is considerable (although not overwhelming) evidence that instruction is beneficial 1) for children as well as adults, 2) for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students, 3) on integrative as well as discrete-point tests, and 4) in acquisition-rich as well as acquisition-poor environments. These findings have implications for theories of second language acquisition, such as Krashen's Monitor Theory, which make predictions about second language acquisition with and without instruction, and also for those involved in educational administration, program design, and classroom teaching.
This paper summarizes recent psychological research and theory on the topic of consciousness and looks at three questions
in second language learning related to the role of consciousness in input processing: whether conscious awareness at the level
of 'noticing' is necessary for language learning (the subliminal learning issue); whether it is necessary to consciously 'pay
attention' in order to learn (the incidental learning issue); and whether learner hypotheses based on input are the result
of conscious insight and understanding or an unconscious process of abstraction (the implicit learning issue). I conclude
that subliminal language learning is impossible, and that noticing is the necessary and sufficient condition for converting
input to intake. Incidental learning, on the other hand, is clearly both possible and effective when the demands of a task
focus attention on what is to be learned. Even so, paying attention is probably facilitative, and may be necessary if adult
learners are to acquire redundant grammatical features. The implicit learning issue is the most difficult to resolve. There
is evidence for it, as well as for a facilitative effect for conscious understanding, but accounting for implicit learning
may entail abandonment of the notion of unconscious 'rules'of the type usually assumed in applied linguistics.
Key issues in second language teaching
- A Benati