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Experimental measurements of black carbon emission factors to estimate the global impact of uncontrolled burning of waste
Abstract
Open burning is a widely practiced method of solid waste disposal in many regions of the world and represents a significant source of air pollution. Black carbon (BC) is a particularly serious air pollutant emitted from the uncontrolled burning of waste in open fires because it has a global warming potential (GWP) up to 5,000 times greater than carbon dioxide (CO2) and is also linked to detrimental health impacts. However, few quantitative measurements of BC from open burning have been completed to establish the extent and impacts of this emission source on the environment. Emission factors (EFs) for BC from burning mixed solid waste samples were measured in the laboratory based on waste compositions in a representative developing country (Mexico). Black carbon EFs were also derived for individual waste types, including: green waste, different types of plastics, textiles and paper and cardboard. Individual waste BC EFs were combined using waste composition data from different areas of the world to estimate regional and global BC emissions from this source. The results demonstrated that BC emissions from open burning of waste have a significant climate impact, equivalent to 2 - 10 % of global CO2Eq emissions. Global BC CO2Eq emissions from burning waste are 2 to 8 times larger compared to methane (CH4) CO2Eq emissions arising from the decomposition of equivalent amounts of combustible biodegradable waste disposed at dumpsites. Action to reduce open burning of waste would have a significant and immediate benefit to improving air quality and reducing the potential impact on climate change.
... Finally, it is also important to compare the culinary use of dill with spirulina. While dill can be used in a variety of dishes and recipes [12,13,14,15,16], spirulina's distinct taste and smell may be a drawback for some consumers. Therefore, comparing dill with spirulina will take into account not only its medicinal and ecological benefits but also its ease of use. ...
... The soil and climatic conditions of the Kura-Araks lowland will allow the use of irrigated soils for intermediate crops and the restoration of the fertility of these soils. The establishment of field experiments, field and laboratory-analytical studies of soil and plant samples, statistical data processing were carried out using generally accepted methods [12][13][14]. ...
... Soil samples for the determination of physicochemical indices were selected in soil horizons before sowing and after harvesting crops for biochemical analysis -from each variant inspring, summer, autumn, winter; vegetative samples -before harvesting. The setting up of field experiments, field and laboratory-analytical studies of soil and plant samples, statistical processing of data were carried out using generally accepted methods [1,3,14] Results and Discussion Field observations and laboratory soil analyses have established the optimal option for intermediate sowing of forage crops (2nd option), which ensures an annual supply of 124 c/ha, c/ha of dry mass of plant residues into the 0-50 cm soil layer. This sowing method allowed to accumulate in Vermic Irragric Gleyic Calcisols (Calcic, Endosalic, Clayic/Loamic, Fluvic) under the grass mixture (rye + vetch + rape): carbon -4013 kg/ha, nitrogen -199 kg/ha, phosphorus -99 kg/ha, potassium -200 kg/ha, increase the humus content in the 0-25 cm and 25-55 cm layers by 0.59-0.19%, ...
Forest and land fires are still a major issue in Indonesia, especially in Riau Province, where they have a negative influence on economic productivity, environmental
stability, and public health. These problems still exist despite the implementation of corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs and government regulations. This
research investigates the strategic role of CSR communication by PT Kilang Pertamina Internasional RU I I in empowering communities to prevent and manage forest
fires. The study aims to analyze the effectiveness of CSR communication in building community resilience and promoting sustainable environmental practices. Using a
mixed-methods approach, data were collected through surveys and interviews involving 145 community members actively participating in CSR programs, selected
through purposive sampling. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative insights were processed with Huberman and Miles’ inter�active model. The findings demonstrate that CSR communication significantly enhances community awareness, participation, and preparedness in preventing forest
fires. The study also emphasizes how crucial it is to build enduring relationships between communities and businesses in order to successfully address environmental
issues. Through the provision of an organized framework for business initiatives aimed at environmental stewardship, this research adds to the conversation on CSR
communication. The study offers practical insights for stakeholders, emphasizing the potential of CSR communication to drive meaningful and sustainable community
action in high-risk regions. The findings contribute to the global discourse on CSR by demonstrating the transformative potential of localized innovations, such as the
Nozzle Gambut, in addressing environmental challenges while fostering economic resilience
... OWB is an adverse practice to several sustainable development goals (SDGs), such as goal numbers 3 (good health and well-being), 6 (clean water and sanitation), 11 (sustainable cities and communities), and 12 (responsible consumption and production) (Mihai et al., 2021). This practice is commonly undertaken in areas that are not covered by waste collection services, along with other disposal practices, such as burial or dumping on the open ground or water surface (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). Some open dumpsites with diverse waste characteristics may be burnt uncontrollably. ...
... However, BC is not considered in these calculations and must be quantified using a separate procedure (Premakumara et al., 2018). BC produces a greater environmental impact than carbon dioxide or methane (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). Furthermore, OWB emissions are more dangerous because of their potential to emit hydrocarbons and metal-bound particulates (Chi et al., 2022). ...
... In the previous studies, Park et al. (2013) and Hoffer et al. (2020) estimated the potential of smoke, heavy metal, and PAH-bound PM emission factor from different type of OWB. In another study, Reyna-Bensusan et al. (2019) measured BC emissions from uncontrolled waste burning and estimated their effects on global warming potential (GWP). In addition, the emission pattern and contribution of OWB practices have been estimated at the national level (Cheng et al., 2020;Pansuk et al., 2018;Sharma et al., 2022) and city level in some countries (Das et al., 2018;Lal et al., 2016;Nagpure et al., 2015;Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2018). ...
Open waste burning (OWB) is a common disposal practice in several countries. However, this activity can serve as a source of particulate matter and black carbon, which possess a greater greenhouse effect potential than CO2. Moreover, particulates can produce chronic health impacts on residents around the burning areas. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the environmental effects and health risks associated with the open burning of household waste in Semarang, Indonesia. Four steps were followed to answer the research questions: (1) data collection through a random questionnaire survey, transect walk, and field survey; (2) estimation of environmental risk using the IPCC calculation method; (3) multiplication of emission factors to determine black carbon emissions; and (4) estimation of health risks based on chemical speciation bound to particulate matter. Open burning remained the second most common waste disposal practice even after the implementation of waste collection services by the government. Specifically, approximately 240.28 tons of waste is not collected by the environmental agency service every day, and 88.6% of the uncollected waste in the city is openly burned. Plastic burning contributed to the highest emission share among waste components, and annual total emissions due to OWB were estimated at approximately 53,809.66 tons. Although the carcinogenic risk was low, non-cancer disease risk exceeded the standard. Therefore, direct exposure of residents to OWB may pose significant health risks. The present work fills the scientific and knowledge gaps in the OWB studies.
... Chemical species and predicted emissions of OWB have also been evaluated in several urban and rural locations worldwide. Most of the research has been coming from developing countries such as India [4][5][6][7][8], Nigeria [9][10][11][12][13][14], Nepal [15], Ghana [16], Ethiopia [17]; Mexico [18][19][20][21], China [22][23][24][25], Thailand [26], Jordan [27], Lebanon [28,29], Kenya [30], Indonesia [31], and Brazil [32], while a few research comes from developed countries such as Korea [33,34], Hungary [35] and United States [36]. ...
... IPCC default methods (tier 1) are well-known methods because it provides a simple model and projection of waste burning emissions in a municipality, typically using the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario. However, IPCC tier 1 cannot predict an apparent OWB emission because there is uncertainty in the source composition [19]. As a result, some approaches, such as transect walks [6], combined with household interview surveys [15] and fixed (static/plume sampling)-mobile field monitoring [21,32] to define the activities and estimate the actual field emission, are well-developed for achieving higher tier levels. ...
... Therefore, this phenomenon may be different depending on the socioeconomic status of the community. Each area has different characteristics, for example, rural, urban, and [18,19] peri-urban (transition) areas, leading to differences in the pollutants emitted [33]. ...
Open burning is a waste management practice performed by many people worldwide, especially in developing countries. Lack of detailed data of open burning practices may lead to a misinterpretation during data analysis, especially when estimating global/local emissions and assessing risks. This study presents a comprehensive review of current research trends, methodological assessments, and factors behind open waste burning practices from published literature. This review used systematic methods such as PRISMA 2020 methodology, a bibliometric approach, and qualitative content analysis to determine and assess 84 articles related to open burning. The results show that environmental risks and emission factors related to open burning incidents at the landfill or residential level are preferable topics that will be rising in the years to come. Coupling methods such as a transect-based approach with a questionnaire survey and mobile-static plume sampling to determine the activities and incidents as baseline data for risk assessment will help researchers gain a robust dataset of open burning emission inventory. In addition, it was found that environmental knowledge and awareness levels influence open burning practices, thereby opening up opportunities for future research.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10163-022-01430-9.
... BC emissions from waste burning significantly impact climate, with CO 2 Eq. emissions 2%-10% of global levels and 2-8 times higher than CH 4 from equivalent biodegradable waste decomposition at dumpsites (Reyna-Bensusan et al. 2019). BC causes substantial warming effects, particularly in regions such as South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere (Kang et al. 2020;Nair et al. 2023). ...
... Furthermore, AI systems can anticipate waste generation patterns and adjust WTE plant operations, accordingly, thereby facilitating more seamless transitions between varying waste volumes and preventing energy deficits or surplus emissions (Olawade et al. 2024). Predictive maintenance systems powered by AI have significantly enhanced uptime in industries by predicting the likelihood of key equipment failures, such as boilers and turbines (Raza 2024). An innovative IoT platform, integrated with machine learning algorithms, was utilized to enhance waste-to-energy systems by forecasting critical parameters like the calorific value of syngas and exhaust gas temperature (Kabugo et al. 2020). ...
Recent advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI&ML) can transform waste management and air quality by facilitating the analysis of extensive data sets to predict waste generation trends, optimize collection routes, and enhance sorting and recycling processes. These technologies address significant challenges in urban environments, where inadequate infrastructure and regulatory frameworks contribute to pollution from waste and air quality issues. Unlike traditional methods relying on manual data collection and static models, AI&ML-driven solutions enable dynamic, real-time analysis, identify pollution sources, and optimize air quality monitoring, helping policymakers implement targeted interventions. The integration of AI&ML technologies into waste management systems can significantly reduce operational costs and improve the efficiency of recycling programs, leading to a reduction in landfill use and promoting circular economy practices. ML models, especially deep learning models, can simulate air quality outcomes based on various waste management scenarios, informing evidence-based regulations. Furthermore, waste-to-energy technologies embody the synergy between energy production and waste management because AI enhances operational efficiency while reducing harmful emissions. AI optimization in waste-to-energy processes can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by ensuring that energy recovery is maximized while minimizing pollutants. The existing regulations (such as the Paris Agreement, Nationally Determined Contributions, the Clean Air Act, or the Environmental Protection Act), identifying gaps, and engaging stakeholders in sustainability initiatives are all made possible by data-driven policymaking. Nevertheless, to optimize the advantages of AI&ML, it is imperative to deal with obstacles such as algorithmic bias (biased trained data, underrepresentation, and algorithm design choices), data privacy (unauthorized access, reidentification risks, and regulatory compliance), and the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration. Future research should develop inclusive frameworks that allow for equitable access to AI-driven solutions, considering social, economic, and environmental factors. Integrating AI&ML in waste management can scale global solutions for air quality control, promoting sustainable development, improving public health, and enhancing urban sustainability.
... Among all the pollutants emitted during OWB, SLCPs have a short lifetime in the atmosphere. However, they have a greater global warming potential (up to 5,000 times greater) compared to CO2 [6]. SLCPs such as black carbon (BC) and methane (CH4) are emitted from other anthropogenic activities such as motorized road traffic, biomass burning, and incomplete fuel combustion [7]. ...
... For instance, gives comprehensive global estimates of OWB practices and their potential impact in terms of the release of anthropogenic emissions [13]. Meanwhile carried out a more rigorous approach to estimate BC emissions from OWB [6]. The results underscored that BC emissions contribute over 2-10% of global CO2eq and are four times greater than the amount of CH4 released during waste decomposition. ...
Open waste burning (OWB) is a prevalent waste management practice in many parts of Asia, contributing significantly to air pollution and undermining efforts towards climate mitigation. This paper examines the nexus of waste management, pollution control, and health while providing policy recommendations to address policy gaps and implementation challenges in Asia. This study reviewed OWB policies across 10 selected countries in Asia, examining existing policy frameworks, their effectiveness, and associated challenges. The data has been collected through desk research and interviews with key government officials. Qualitative content analysis was employed to analyze the data collected, complemented by a policy matrix summarizing national approaches to OWB. The study confirms that while many countries indirectly address OWB through air quality and waste management policies, explicit regulations are often lacking, leading to inconsistent enforcement. The study also highlights a critical gap in the waste management infrastructure which leads to OWB practices, and suggests policies that improve public awareness and cross-border collaboration to mitigate the impact of OWB.
... When it comes to open burning, plastics are a particularly problematic waste stream. One study attributed 90% of black carbon emitted from burning wastes to two plastics-polyethylene terephthalate and polystyrene [14]. Although reliable measurements of the amount of black carbon released through the burning of wastes are lacking, very basic calculations have suggested that they are not negligible [10,15], correlating the open burning of wastes to climate change as well as detrimental health effects. ...
... Although reliable measurements of the amount of black carbon released through the burning of wastes are lacking, very basic calculations have suggested that they are not negligible [10,15], correlating the open burning of wastes to climate change as well as detrimental health effects. Some emissions, including persistent organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and dioxins and dioxin-related compounds, have been linked to skin lesions, cancer, immunological issues, and birth defects, among other health issues [11,14]. The open burning of plastics is also associated with increased risks of heart disease, respiratory issues, and neurological disorders [7,11,12,[16][17][18]. ...
The open burning of mixed wastes that contain plastics is a widespread practice across the globe, resulting in the release of gas emissions and ash residues that have toxic effects on human and environmental health. Although plastic pollution is under scrutiny as a pressing environmental concern, it is often conflated with plastic litter, and the contribution of the open burning of plastics to air, soil, and water pollution gets overlooked. Therefore, campaigns to raise awareness about plastic pollution often end up leading to increased open burning. Many countries or regions where open burning is prevalent have laws in place against the practice, but these are seldom effective. In this viewpoint, we direct attention to this critical but largely overlooked dimension of plastic pollution as an urgent global health issue. We also advocate interventions to raise awareness about the risks of open burning and emphasize the necessity of phasing out some particularly pernicious plastics in high-churn, single-use consumer applications.
... However, some higher-income countries in the "South" started to develop more substantial needs for better environmental quality and stricter environmental regulations. Waste trade transfers pollution-intensive sectors from the "North" to the "South", making the "South" a landfill of the developed nations (Natalia et al., 2019;Abhishek et al., 2016;Bernard, 2015). Meanwhile, various types of imported waste, such as electronic waste and wasted tire, might damage the importing countries' environments (Abhishek et al., 2016;Chanthy and Nitivattananon, 2011). ...
... Literature about the impact of waste mainly discusses its environmental, economic, and social effects. These studies cover certain types of solid wastes, such as used computers, tyers, electronic waste, and plastic waste (Natalia et al., 2019;Chanthy and Nitivattananon, 2011;Abhishek et al., 2016). Waste tires and used computers generate economic and social benefits; meanwhile, it also creates environmental hazards. ...
Many developing countries, such as China, Malaysia, Vietnam, India, etc., choose to prohibit waste import. Does this mean the inflection point of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) in these countries has arrived? In this paper, we first calculate the carbon dioxide emission and energy consumption in major resource-based wastes of 134 countries using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. Second, we test whether the relationship between CO 2 (energy consumption) and GDP per capita confirms an EKC's inverted U-shaped curve. Empirical results show that: (1) the relationship between embodied CO 2 emissions (energy consumption) of imported wastes and GDP per capita of a country confirms EKC in various robustness checks, including using an alternative, dependent variable and using sub-sample data. (2) The EKC's inflection point on the average embodied carbon dioxide emissions of imported wastes is 36623.88 USD (37181.3 USD for energy). (3) EKC appears in 68 countries out of 134 countries. Most of these 68 countries have crossed the turning point. This research is novel in describing the EKC of waste trade's carbon footprint using the LCA model. This is the first research that provides empirical evidence to the "Waste Haven Hypothesis". This result empirically explains the evolution of the global waste trade network. That is, waste first transfers from the "North" to the "South" (from US to Europe, and from Europe to Japan and Korea), and then it moves again from the "South" to the "South" (from China to other Asian countries). It reflects the evolution of global pollution haven transfer in the pollution-intensitive sector. Previous research failed to do it because the indicators used for waste transfer limits to trade value (weight) that can not correctly measure waste transfer's environmental pollution. An advantage of using LCA is that it better estimates the pollution generated by the recycling sectors.
... Meanwhile, the composition of burned waste is also diverse, which may release another potential risk to humans at the household level. As reported by Reyna-Bensusan et al. (2019), different waste compositions may result in different black carbon (BC) concentrations. Different waste materials and mixed MSW are known to release several heavy metals, such as Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, Cr, Zn, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as T. Matsumoto Carbon Neutrality Promotion Division, Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu City 808-0135, Japan e-mail: matsumoto-t@kitakyu-u.ac.jp ...
Smoke caused by open waste burning (OWB) contains metal-bound particulates that can harm human health. This study aimed to understand the differences in the exposure of particulate matter 10 and 2.5 µm (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations in several distances and investigated potential health impacts of metal-bound particulates. Observations were made based on laboratory and field studies consisting of multiple open burning practices, PM capture, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis. Moreover, the potential health risks in terms of respiratory deposition dose (RDD), carcinogenic risk (CR), and non-carcinogenic risks were determined. The results showed that the exposure levels in the distance range of 1 – 5 m were not significantly different (0.419 – 0.607 mg/m³ for PM10 and 0.289 – 0.399 mg/m³ for PM2.5). During the day, RDD values were higher for adults (2.58 – 5.79 µg/min), with adults facing greater short-term exposure risk (2.45 – 5.79 µg/min) than children (2.22 – 3.90 µg/min). It was found that the highest CR from the ingestion pathway was caused by arsenic (As) from textile burning (1.41 × 10–6), and that caused by chromium (Cr) through the inhalation pathway from backyard waste burning (7.43 × 10–9). However, the CR values for both the pathways were below the acceptable threshold. In addition, the hazard index (HI), for both adults and children were less than 1 for all metal concentrations in all types of waste burning. The higher HI value in children indicates that they are most vulnerable to long-term exposure to OWB. Preventive actions to reduce OWB activity are necessary to reduce the adverse health effects.
... Regulations under the Basel Convention aim to control plastic waste trading which is not enough(Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). So, stronger measures are needed to address the environmental and health impacts of plastic pollution.CFC/HFC MismanagementChlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs) are synthetic gases with high global warming potential, were banned under the Montreal Protocol and Kigali Amendment due to their ozonedepleting effects. ...
Climate change and extreme environmental conditions are pressing threats to the planet. Environmental crimes further complicate these issues. This study uses a qualitative exploratory method to explore and describe the connection between Climate change and the extreme environment with environmental crimes. The data are collected from secondary sources and presented thematically to make an understanding of the connection of Climate change and extreme environment with environmental crimes. This study found several environmental crimes including deforestation, illegal timber trafficking, waste mismanagement, marine ecosystem crimes, and wildlife trafficking directly and indirectly led to climate change which ultimately causes extreme impacts on weather and climate such as heatwaves, heavy rainfall, shifting in seasons, droughts, wildfires, flash floods etc. in many places. Bangladesh has also been affected by these environmental crimes and extreme weather conditions. There are several laws, rules, regulations, and international treaties regarding these issues but enforcement is currently in a very vulnerable situation. Comprehensive legal and developmental framework and participation in preventing such crimes by all stakeholders through the green police model can make a way forward in this situation.
... This effect is 2-8 times more pronounced in comparison to the CO2 equivalent emissions from methane (CH4) produced by the decomposition of equivalent amounts of biodegradable waste in landfills. (Reyna-Bensusan, Wilson, Davy, Fuller, Fowler, & Smith, 2019). ...
The Bajo tribe, inhabiting the coastal area of Tilamuta in Boalemo Regency, Gorontalo, has established sea-based settlements over several decades. As a community famously referred to as the "people of the sea," the Bajo people maintain a close connection with the marine environment, relying heavily on marine resources for sustenance. Paradoxically, the management of household waste in the Bajo Boalemo settlement contradicts the purported harmonious relationship between the Bajo people and the marine ecosystem. This study aims to comprehensively investigate, identify, and analyze the human power influencing the household waste management system in the Bajo Tribe settlement in Boalemo, Gorontalo. Employing a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, including in-depth interviews and literature reviews, the research delves into the present perceptions, behaviours, and attitudes of the Bajo people in Tilamuta regarding household waste management in their community. The findings reveal that a majority of Bajo residents in Tilamuta acknowledge the detrimental impact of solid inorganic waste on the marine environment, recognizing its adverse effects on the quality of life for marine biota. In contrast, they view solid organic waste, such as food scraps and losses, and liquid waste, like sewage, as environmentally friendly, leading to intentional disposal into the sea, which is, in fact, harmful to the environment. Despite awareness of the risks associated with solid inorganic waste, occasional disposal into the sea persists, underscoring a form of anthropocentrism where convenience often outweighs environmental considerations. Addressing this issue requires a pivotal role from the government, involving raising awareness, disseminating crucial information about waste and its environmental impacts, and providing suitable facilities for waste management in Tilamuta. This study underscores the necessity of proactive measures to align the Bajo people's practices with sustainable environmental stewardship.
... Inappropriate disposal of plastic bags can be a major factor in PM 2.5 pollution. Open-air burning of plastic waste, common in many developing countries, releases various pollutants, most notably PM 2.5 [37][38][39][40]. Similarly, the degradation of plastic bags into microplastics potentially contributes to PM 2.5 pollution akin to combustion emissions [41,42]. ...
Widespread use of plastic bags contributes to elevated air pollution levels worldwide, prompting various regulatory measures such as bans and taxes aimed at reducing plastic pollution. The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of these plastic bag bans and taxes on PM2.5 air quality across 208 countries from 1960 to 2021, using Fixed Effects, Driscoll and Kraay, and GMM models. Results indicate that bans generally reduce the population's exposure to PM2.5 above WHO guidelines, but increase exposure above the Interim Target-1, while reducing it above Interim Target-3 in some models. Conversely, taxes on plastic bags significantly increase both mean annual PM2.5 exposure and the proportion of the population exposed to levels surpassing all WHO targets. The combined effect shows a decrease in exposure due to bans, except for an increase above Interim Target-3, while taxes increase exposure across all measures. These findings highlight complex interactions between plastic bag policies and air pollution, emphasizing the need for careful policy design. While plastic bag bans effectively reduce PM2.5 exposure, taxes on plastic bags unexpectedly increase it, emphasizing the need for carefully designed policies to prevent unintended increases in air pollution.
... Measurement of emission factors is difficult, and much early reliance was placed on a few field measurements (Christian et al., 2010). Laboratory experiments showed that most of the black carbon from open burning comes from plastics, specifically PET, polystyrene and fibre (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). The GWP for black carbon was estimated in the range 1200-5100 (Bond et al., 2013); but has been revised to around 800 (IPCC, 2021;Mar et al., 2022). ...
Numbers do matter; the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s 2010 data that the waste sector is responsible for just 3% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the misperception that solid waste management (SWM) has little to contribute to climate mitigation. Global efforts to control methane emissions and divert organic waste from landfills had already reduced direct emissions. But end-of-pipe SWM has also been evolving into more circular waste and resource management, with indirect GHG savings from the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) which IPCC accounts for elsewhere in the economy. The evidence compiled here on both direct emissions and indirect savings demonstrates with high confidence that better waste and resource management can make a significant contribution to climate mitigation, and must form a core part of every country’s nationally determined contribution. Even the most advanced countries can still achieve much from the 3Rs. In the Global South, the challenge of extending waste collection to all and stopping open dumping and burning (sustainable development goal 11.6.1), essential to improve public health, can be turned into a huge opportunity. Moving early to divert waste from landfill by separation at source and collecting clean organic and dry recycling fractions, will mitigate global GHG emissions, slash ocean plastics and create decent livelihoods. But this can only happen with targeted climate, plastics and extended producer responsibility finance; and help to local communities to help themselves.
... BC emissions are a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels most often used to power diesel engines in transportation vehicles [58] and heavy machinery [59]. BC can also originate from other anthropogenic and natural sources such as waste burning [60] and wildfires [61]. As seen in Figure 1, concentrations of BC are greatest along the eastern border of the city where Interstate-95 runs, a major highway that connects much of the east coast of the United States. ...
Urban air pollution has been long understood as a critical threat to human health worldwide. Worsening urban air quality can cause increased rates of asthma, respiratory illnesses, and mortality. Air pollution is also an important environmental justice issue as it disproportionately burdens populations made vulnerable by their socioeconomic and health status. Using spatially continuous fine-scale air quality data for the city of Philadelphia, this study analyzed the relationship between two air pollutants: particulate matter (PM2.5, black carbon (BC), and three dimensions of vulnerability: social (non-White population), economic (poverty), and health outcomes (asthma prevalence). Spatial autoregressive models outperformed Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, indicating the importance of considering spatial autocorrelation in air pollution-related environmental-justice modeling efforts. Positive relationships were observed between PM2.5 concentrations and the socioeconomic variables and asthma prevalence. Percent non-White population was a significant predictor of BC for all models, while percent poverty was shown to not be a significant predictor of BC in the best fitting model. Our findings underscore the presence of distributive environmental injustices, where marginalized communities may bear a disproportionate burden of air pollution within Philadelphia.
... Methane and black carbon are both transient climatic pollutants that contribute to global warming; the last of which is also a significant part of PM (Wiedinmyer et al., 2014). Given that BC has a global warming potential (GWP) up to 5000 times larger than carbon dioxide and is associated with harmful health effects, it is an especially dangerous airborne emission released by the unregulated burning of garbage in open flames (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). Therefore, there should be a significant concern for the burning and indiscriminate waste disposal methods adopted by Ghanaians, as this can be catastrophic to the climate. ...
... We have already accounted for both company-sponsored and national collection schemes in arriving at the amount of plastic waste that we consider to be mismanaged, as outlined above. 174 The first three are commonly used in plastic packaging by fast-moving consumer goods companies, but we know that other types of plastic, notably PP (polypropylene), are also used in plastic packaging, and we account for this below. ...
... Meanwhile, the continuous discharge of pollutants from anthropogenic operations into the environment keeps degrading air quality globally [26,27]. These pollutants, whether in gaseous, solid, or liquid form, pose significant health risks, leading to respiratory and neurological disorders [28][29][30]. Extreme concentrations of pollutants such as NOx, O 3 , CO, and PM have been known to cause inflammation, conjunctivitis, and irritation of the human eyes [31,32]. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has found extensive applications in the chemical industry, medicines, food packaging (5-100%), wastewater treatment, and other fields [33]. ...
The valorization technique successfully transformed waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into valuable carbon nanomaterial (CN)/graphene, while doped and undoped ZnO nanopowders were synthesized via sol–gel methods. Utilizing XRD, BET, TEM, EDX, FTIR, and TGA analyses, the synthesis of sp2 2D sheet, pristine, and doped ZnO nanostructures was confirmed. Solid-state gas sensor devices, tested under 51% relative humidity (RH), 30 °C ambient temperature, and 0.2 flow rate, exhibited a 3.4% enhanced response to H2 gas compared to CO2 at 50 ppm concentrations over time. Notably, the ZnO/CN sensor surpassed CN and ZnO alone, attributed to CN dopant integration with decreasing order of response performance as ZnO/CN > CN > ZnO. This study underscores the efficacy of valorization techniques in generating high-value carbon nanomaterials and their efficacy in bolstering gas sensor performance, with ZnO/CN demonstrating superior response capabilities.
... According to (Masrida, 2017), environmental pollution includes the clogging of irrigation channels, river narrowing leading to flooding, and burning that can produce highly dangerous and toxic dioxins, posing risks to human health and causing public health issues. Open waste burning is a source of air pollution with many negative environmental and health impacts (Bensusan et al., 2019). Environmental advocates recommend that the public and the government implement regulations on the use of plastic bags and charge for their disposal. ...
Alat pengolah sampah plastik melalui proses pemanasan dan destilasi dapat menghasilkan butir plastik dan bahan bakar minyak sebagai alternatif solusi lain untuk masalah sampah plastik. Pengujian kinerja dari 3 (tiga) buah model mesin pengolah sampah plastik (model I, II, and III) yang masing-masing dilengkapi dengan satu, dua, dan tiga tabung distilasi, dilakukan untuk membandingkan hasil produksi butir plastik dan bahan bakar minyak yang dapat dihasilkan. Selanjutnya, biaya ekonomiannya dianalisis menggunakan besaran nilai titik impas (break even point). Hasil pengujian menunjukkan bahwa Model I menghasilkan butir plastik tertinggi, yaitu sebesar 2,76 kg dan Model III menghasilkan bahan bakar minyak tertinggi, yaitu sebesar 51 mL. Hasil uji statistik diperoleh bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara Model I, II, dan III terhadap kuantitas butir plastik dan bahan bakar minyak dengan hasil (p>α; (1,000 > 0,05). Hasil analisis keekonomian menunjukkan bahwa titik impas (break even point) dari masing-masing model (I, II dan III) akan tercapai dalam waktu 44,47 dan 35 hari dengan waktu operasi selama 8 jam per hari dan 10,5 kg/hari sampah plastik. Secara ekonomi, model III menunjukkan pengembalian investasi yang relatif lebih cepat dibandingkan model I dan II. Hasil penelitian ini bermanfaat bagi pengembangan perancangan mesin pengolah sampah plastik untuk skala yang lebih besar di industri. Selain itu, diharapkan juga dapat memberikan nilai tambah ekonomi masyarakat dan alternatif solusi bagi permasalahan sampah plastik di Indonesia. Abstract A plastic waste processing apparatus, employing heating and distillation processes can yield plastic grains and oil fuel, providing an alternative solution to the plastic waste problem. Performance tests were conducted on 3 (three) models of plastic waste processing machines (Models I, II, and III) equipped with one, two, and three distillation cylinders, respectively, to compare the quantity of plastic grains and oil fuel produced. Furthermore, an economic cost analysis was also conducted by using the break even point as a metric. The results showed that Model I yielded the highest quantity of plastic grains (2.76 kg), and Model III produced the highest amount of oil fuel (51 mL). Statistical tests indicated no significant differences (p>α; 1.000 > 0.05) among Models I, II, and III concerning the quantities of plastic pellets and oil fuel. Economic analysis demonstrated that the break-even points for each model (I, II, and III) would be attained in 44, 47, and 35 days, respectively, assuming an 8-hour daily operation and processing 10.5 kg/day of plastic waste. Model III economically showed a relatively more cost-effective compared to Models I and II. The findings of this research can be applied to the development of mass-production of plastic grains and oil fuel from plastic waste on an industrial scale. This research could be contributed to the increas in community economic value and offer an alternative solution to the plastic waste issue in Indonesia.
... Despite wide-scale recognition of the need for more significant government investment in solid waste management, this remains a low priority area for funding [3,4]. Consequently, in the absence of regular, effective collection services, communities are forced to either burn their waste (significantly reducing air quality) or dump it directly into the environment leading to uncontrolled urban dump sites [5,6]. In addition to attracting vermin, these dump sites can act as reservoirs for human faecal pathogens [7] and thus pose a significant public health risk for those directly interacting with this waste, such as, informal waste-pickers [8]. ...
... Due to the difficulty of degrading plastic, which results in an accumulation of plastic trash that pollutes the environment, plastic's high use has a detrimental effect on environmental sustainability [5][6][7][8]. Since synthetic polymers, the primary component of plastics, take a very long time to break down-possibly even tens or hundreds of years-they are also difficult to break down when buried in the earth. ...
... However, beyond 7.5% SMS replacement, the CO 2 reduction is considered promising although the compressive strength deteriorates.The utilization of SMS in mortar not only reduces CO 2 emission by reducing sand but also reduces the carbon dioxide emitted through open burning of SMS.Yap et al. (2021) have stated that 52% of SMS are disposed through open dumping, 22% through open burning, and 6% dumped in river. Open burning of wastes itself emits a total of 2 to 10% of CO 2 eq to the environment(Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). Thus, by using 15.0% ...
Replacing conventional fine aggregates with spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is aimed at developing a sustainable lightweight masonry mortar. It is also an alternative solution for the current improper mushroom waste disposals. Density, workability, compressive strength, specific strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, water absorption, sorptivity, and equivalent CO2 emission in relation to sand reduction in mortars containing 2.5–15.0% (by volume) SMS passing through a 4.75-mm sieve were investigated. As the percentages of replacement increased from 2.5 to 15.0%, the density of the SMS mortar reduced up to 34.8%, with corresponding compressive strengths of 24.96 to 3.37 MPa. Mixes with up to 12.5% SMS met the minimum compressive and flexural strengths as stated in the ASTM C129 standard. In addition, the equivalent CO2 emission of the mixes reduced 15.09% as the SMS content increased while cost-effectiveness increases up to 98.15% until 7.5% SMS replacement. In conclusion, the use of SMS as fine aggregates up to 12.5% is a viable mix design strategy for producing sustainable lightweight mortar with a lower carbon emission.
... In addition, research conducted by (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019) states that uncontrolled waste burning produces Black Carbon (BC) emissions. Black Carbon is an umbrella term for various carbonaceous substances ranging from partially burnt plant residues to soot (Shrestha et al., 2010). ...
The increasing population and anthropogenic activities in cities/regencies in Indonesia have caused many waste-related problems, which can trigger environmental and human health. In addition to population growth, rapid economic development has resulted in an increasing amount and type of waste. The coastal area is one area that still needs to get adequate solid waste services. There have been many studies on waste management. However, research has yet to examine the amount and composition of waste generation in coastal areas that have not been served by waste management.. This study shows the waste generation and composition trend in coastal areas that must be served in waste management and determines the appropriate waste management strategy. This research method uses a transect walk survey carried out by following a predetermined route in the area. Paths are made randomly by forming circles or straight lines for 10 km. The composition of illegal waste dumps found included leaves (69.02%), plastic (15.24%), branches and twigs (9.93%), paper and cardboard (3.75%), food waste (1.97%), and rubber (0.1%). At least 1.59 tonnes/day of illegal waste is estimated in Sidorejo Village. While this figure increases at the district level, the amount of unaccommodated waste is estimated at 19.85 tonnes/day. Efforts to handle waste that can be done are changing the mindset and paradigm of the community through an educational approach, improving the waste management system by providing waste facilities and reducing the amount of waste collected through a simple program (Reuses, Reduces, Recycle) that involves the community.
... Plastics can enter the air as small particles or fibers and degrade air quality. The burning of plastic, both indoors and outdoors, affects the air quality and public health due to its emissions of the black carbon, particulate matter (PM2.5), and Persistent Organic Pollutants (e.g., Dioxin and Furan) and increasing CO2 levels, with implications for the climate (Xie et al., 2021, Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019. ...
... A significant source of air pollution, the open burning of mixed wastes produces a variety of adverse environmental and human health effects. Plastics are a particularly problematic waste stream when it comes to open burning; a study attributed 90 % of black carbon emitted from burning wastes to polyethylene terephthalate and polystyrene, two types of plastics (Reyna-Bensusan et al., 2019). The open burning of plastics is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, respiratory issues, neurological disorders, nausea, skin rashes, numbness or tingling in the fingers, headaches, memory loss, and confusion (Adetona et al., 2020;Azoulay et al., 2019;Irianti and Prasetyoputra 2018;Kováts et al., 2022;Velis and Cook 2021;Verma et al., 2016;Wiedinmyer, Yokelson, and Gullett 2014). ...
Most of the countries
where such burning is widespread have laws and policies in place against it; open burning continues nevertheless.
In this article, using data from ethnographic fieldwork in urban and rural sites in India, Indonesia, the
Philippines, and Zambia, we examine local practices of open burning and investigate why regulations to tackle it
have proven largely ineffective. Adopting a harm reduction approach, we then suggest preliminary measures to
mitigate the health risks of open burning by targeting those plastics and packaging types that are most toxic
when burned.
... This study sought to estimate burning activities, incidents, and emissions in the selected sub-district area of Semarang City. The transect walk survey methods were modified from previous methods employed in India, Mexico, and Nepal [9,15,16]. The laboratory test used to determine waste composition was carried out according to Nagpure et al., while the test to determine the emission from MSW was carried out with the method of Park and his team [17,18]. ...
In this study, total burned household waste and the potential emissions released from waste burning in Semarang City, Indonesia, were estimated. Waste piles were monitored using the transect walk survey method in 16 sub-districts of Semarang City. Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbon (HC), nitrous oxide (NOx), and total particulate matter (TPM) were directly analyzed through a simulation of waste combustion. The potential emissions from other pollutants were predicted by multiplying the weight of the burned waste by the emission factors available in the literature. The estimated waste burned in Semarang City in 2020-2021 was 58.8 Gg/year, or approximately 9.70% of the total waste generated in Semarang City. This estimation exceeds local government estimates of 2020 by two-fold. Peri-urban areas (both inner and outer) were identified as the most significant contributors to waste burning. Further, garden waste was the most burned waste (73.61%), followed by plastic waste (17.45%). Other wastes, including paper, leather, textile, rubber, and food, were also burned. Overall, a decrease in the activity of waste burning is an important step for reducing the potential of air pollution and climate change.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10163-022-01371-3.
... Furthermore, black carbon deposited on snow can reduce the snow's albedo so that it melts faster [6]. The lifetime of black carbon is short (7-10 days), but its global warming potential (GWP) is 5000 times higher than CO 2 [8]. ...
p> Indonesia experienced forest fires almost every year, especially in the area of Riau Province, where as a result, pollutants such carbon dioxide and black carbon present in the air over Riau. Due to its size and its light absorption ability, black carbon is known to have bad impacts on the climate. This study aims to analyse the effect of forest fires that happened in Riau province, Indonesia in September 2019 towards the production of black carbon, as well as to estimate backward air movement trajectory in order to confirm the air mass sources of the black carbon. The data of black carbon concentration used in this study is an hourly temporal data of MERRA-2 with a spatial resolution of 0.5° × 0.625°, while the trajectory calculation uses the HYSPLIT trajectory model. Linear regression of this study has an r value of 0.78 which shows that there is a positive correlation between black carbon concentration and number of hotspots. The range of BC concentrations were 2–11 × 10-9 kg.m-3 with higher concentration occurred during 9–23 September 2019 where it was affected by the south-easterly wind from Jambi and South Sumatera. </p
... Work focused on GHG and air pollution suggest that landfills contribute about 15% to global anthropogenic CH 4 emissions 30 and show that open burning of MSW is an important contributor to particulate matter and air pollutant emissions 20,31,32 , specifically, it contributes 11% to total global particulate matter <2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ) emissions and 6-7% to total global black carbon (BC) emissions 31,32 . BC from open burning of waste amounts to 2-10% of global CO 2eq emissions 33 . ...
The rapidly rising generation of municipal solid waste jeopardizes the environment and contributes to climate heating. Based on the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, we here develop a global systematic approach for evaluating the potentials to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from the implementation of circular municipal waste management systems. We contrast two sets of global scenarios until 2050, namely baseline and mitigation scenarios, and show that mitigation strategies in the sustainability-oriented scenario yields earlier, and major, co-benefits compared to scenarios in which inequalities are reduced but that are focused solely on technical solutions. The sustainability-oriented scenario leaves 386 Tg CO 2eq /yr of GHG (CH 4 and CO 2 ) to be released while air pollutants from open burning can be eliminated, indicating that this source of ambient air pollution can be entirely eradicated before 2050.
... Furthermore, uncontrolled burning of waste in open dumpsites is a significant source of air pollutants, including suspended particulate matter (SPM). 30 Dark SPM is also called 'black carbon' and has a significant impact on accelerated global ice melting (both polar ice and glaciers) due to its strong absorption of solar radiation. 31 As black carbon is not controlled by any international treaty, national GHG emission inventories do not cover these emissions. ...
More than 5 years after the Paris climate conference in December 2015, it is now of paramount importance to increase the ambition of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and to accelerate their implementation. While some states already include measures relating to the waste sector in their NDCs, the potential of cross-sectoral circular economy strategies remains largely untapped.
Circular economy presents a meaningful lever to close the emissions gap, while offering economic and social benefits and opening up new opportunities for a transformational change in our production and consumption patterns.
However, the design of CE-smart NDCs requires commitments beyond the current international framework for NDCs as well as guidance.
With the presented study a practical guide is provided for NDC coordinators and policymakers at national and subnational levels who aim to design and implement ambitious climate action by including CE in their NDCs and long-term strategies.
This guide shades light on several challenges that need to be overcome and tackled by a set of dedicated preparation and action but also emphasizes the opportunities and potentials of linking CE to climate action.
Starting with the introduction of the concept of CE as a central element for climate action, different methodologies to quantify mitigation potentials of CE measures are presented and the differences of contribution and attribution-based climate action are pointed out.
As a result, the study presents relevant know-how on the design and implementation of CE-smart NDCs and subnational policies. It further provides a comprehensive yet pragmatic Roadmap towards CE-smart NDCs.
Waste plastic is a critical issue, impacting all forms of life, including human health, the economy, and natural
ecosystems worldwide. In 2023, global plastic waste generation was approximately 389.33 million tons, with
49.22 % accumulated in landfills, 21.63 % mismanaged, 18.85 % incinerated, and only 10.30 % recycled. If the
current trend continues, by 2050, global plastic waste generation will reach approximately 798.58 million tons,
with landfills receiving 397.82 million tons. This critical review summarizes various advanced initiatives for upcycling
plastic waste, including waste-to-fuel, waste-to-value-added products, and waste-to-hydrogen. Metaldoped
mesoporous bi-metallic catalysts play a vital role in enhancing the quality of fuel products at lower temperatures
and with shorter retention times. Engineered Escherichia coli (E. coli) can upcycle waste polymers into
value-added products such as vanillin and adipic acid. Waste plastics have also been successfully converted into
hydrogen or carbonaceous nanomaterials. A technology that produces hydrogen and carbonaceous nanomaterials
simultaneously could provide a sustainable solution for managing non-biodegradable waste plastics, thereby
helping to protect our environment.
Tanzania's waste generation increases with national population growth and urbanization. Coupled with linear waste management approaches practiced in Tanzania, the waste aggravates greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions and defeats Sustainable Development Goal 13 intending to minimize GHGs emissions through waste close loop management options. This paper advocates for the use of Black Soldier Flies (BSF) farming to mitigate the emissions and convert bio‐waste into resourceful animal feeds. The review shows that bio‐waste accounts for two‐thirds of the national municipal solid wastes generated. The BSF farming is envisaged to reduce bio‐waste by 50% and transform the GHGs into harmless compounds to get rid of their health‐related concerns. It is recommended that further investigation for economic feasibility of BSF farming is conducted to inform potential investors about the viability of BSF investments in Tanzania.
This study investigates Particulate Matter (PM) variations in Kochi, India, and its association with meteorological variables by analyzing five years of ground-based observational data. It focuses on PM pollution at the Vyttila Mobility Hub, using the hourly mean of PM2.5 and PM10 data from January 2018 to March 2023. Annual PM2.5, 41.78 μg/m3 and PM10, 76.64 μg/m3 levels exceeded Indian National Ambient Air Quality Standards and World Health Organization limits, notably in winter and post-monsoon seasons. Inter-annual trends showed a decline from 2018 to 2021, followed by a rise in 2022, with the most significant decline observed between 2019 and 2020 possibly due to COVID-19 restrictions. Monthly variations revealed elevated PM levels in winter and lower levels during the monsoon months. Sunday consistently recorded the lowest levels in the weekly analysis. Diurnal patterns displayed two peaks during morning and evening rush hours. Additionally, the study included an examination of ratios across different time periods. Winter’s higher PM2.5/PM10 (0.65 ± 0.12) ratio indicated combustion emissions, while the monsoon’s lower ratio, (0.47 ± 0.15) resulted from rainout. Correlation analysis of PM and meteorological variables showed temperature positively correlates with PM, while humidity and wind speed negatively correlate. Fire at the Brahmapuram solid waste treatment plant in March 2023 led to elevated emissions, resulting in a surge of around 78% in PM2.5 and 15% in PM10 compared to the mean value of previous years and the observed ratio was 0.65 ± 0.15, indicating the increased presence of PM2.5 due to the fire incident.
Plastic waste, particularly polythene, is a major environmental concern, with bioremediation emerging as a sustainable solution. This study evaluated the potential of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae in degrading low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Fungal species were initially cultivated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates at 36°C for 5 days in the dark. Subsequently, they were transferred to a minimal salt medium supplemented with LDPE strips. The degradation efficiency was evaluated by measuring the weight loss of the LDPE samples and conducting scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The results revealed weight loss ranging from 1.50 to 10.22%, depending on the fungi and incubation period, whereas control samples without fungal exposure showed no change. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirmed fungal colonisation and physical degradation of the LDPE surface, displaying folds, grooves, and cracks. Results from this study showed that both fungi were able to break down the plastic, with A. oryzae showing more significant degradation. These findings highlight the potential of fungi as a biological solution to address the global plastic pollution issue.
Fires of waste deposited in storage sites or landfills and their open burning are always a source of emission of many pollutants into the air, causing greater or lesser air pollution depending on the type and amount of burning waste, the course of the combustion process and the eventual fire-fighting action, prevailing meteorological conditions, etc. Estimation of pollutant emissions from this type of sources is necessary in the assessment of their impact on air quality performed using atmospheric dispersion models (deterministic). This emission is most often determined by the indicator method using emission factors related to the type and amount of burning waste, less frequently using other methods (balance, measurement, reverse modeling, etc.). Emission factors are usually determined based on the results of measurement experiments carried out for a given process that is a source of pollutant emissions, although sometimes it is also possible to select emission factors dedicated to other processes of a similar nature in terms of the types and amounts of air pollutants formed. This work presents a literature review of dust and gaseous pollutant emission factors that can be used in this type of assessments in the case of fires or open burning of, among others, mixed municipal waste and selected fractions of this waste, plant residues, tires and some hazardous waste. Selected conditions related to the use of this type of factors were also discussed in the context of the method of assessing the impact on air quality and other data necessary in the description of the emission field. The review showed large differences in the amount of pollutants emitted into the air during fires or open burning of various types of waste, as well as numerous missing factor data for this type of emission sources.
Open waste burning (OWB) is a prevalent waste management practice across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and a significant contributor to climate change. Experts estimate that between 40% to 65% of municipal solid waste in LMICs is openly burned, causing air, land, and water pollution and posing grave risks to human health. Nevertheless, research on OWB is limited and analysis of the gendered dimensions of the practice remains negligible. Addressing this gender blind spot is critical to inform prevention efforts given the prevalence of OWB in household waste management and among the informal recycling sector – two domains wherein women play a significant role. In partnership with USAID’s Clean Cities, Blue Ocean (CCBO) program and with funding from Engineering X, this paper aims to increase understanding and awareness at the nexus of gender and OWB to inform future research, programs, and policymaking. It draws on formative research conducted by Clean Cities, Blue Ocean in Samaná Province, Dominican Republic, including household surveys, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and Trials of Improved Practices, as well as expert interviews and an in-depth literature review. Findings revealed that while inadequate SWM services are a key driver of OWB, other socio-economic factors also contribute to and sometimes exacerbate this hazardous practice – including social values, cultural norms, environmental risks, and livelihoods. The burning of plastics, which is often co-mingled with household waste, was also identified as an overlooked area of concern for SWM planning and OWB research. Without a comprehensive understanding of OWB through a gender and social inclusion lens, efforts to end the practice will fall short of achieving the systemic improvements required.
Deliberate open burning of crop residues emits greenhouse gases and toxic pollutants into the atmosphere. This study investigates the environmental impacts (global warming potential, GWP) and economic impacts (net cash flow) of nine agricultural residue management schemes, including open burning, fertilizer production, and biochar production for corn residue, rice straw, and sugarcane leaves. The environmental assessment shows that, except the open burning schemes, fossil fuel consumption is the main contributor of the GWP impact. The fertilizer and biochar schemes reduce the GWP impact including black carbon by 1.88–1.96 and 2.46–3.22 times compared to open burning. The biochar schemes have the lowest GWP (− 1833.19 to − 1473.21 kg CO2-eq/ton). The economic assessment outcomes reveal that the biochar schemes have the highest net cash flow (222.72—889.31 US2022/ha). The expenditures of open burning are practically zero, while the biochar schemes are the most costly to operate. The most preferable agricultural residue management type is the biochar production, given the lowest GWP impact and the highest net cash flow. To discourage open burning, the government should tailor the government assistance programs to the needs of the farmers and make the financial assistance more accessible.
Inhalation exposure to plastic incineration emissions (PIEs) is a problem of increasing human relevance, as plastic production and waste creation have drastically increased since mainstream integration during the 20th century. We investigated the effects of PIEs on human nasal epithelial cells (HNECs) to understand if such exposures cause damage and dysfunction to respiratory epithelia. Primary HNECs from male and female donors were cultured at air–liquid interface (ALI), and 16HBE cells were cultured on coverslips. Smoke condensates were generated from incineration of plastic at flaming (640°C) and smoldering (500°C) temperatures, and cells were subsequently exposed to these materials at 5–50 μg/cm2 concentrations. HNECs were assessed for mitochondrial dysfunction and 16HBE cells for glutathione oxidation in real-time analyses. HNEC culture supernatants and total RNA were collected at 4-h postexposure for cytokine and gene expression analysis, and results show that PIEs can acutely induce inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction in HNECs, and that incineration temperature modifies biological responses. Specifically, condensates from flaming and smoldering PIEs significantly increased HNEC secretion of cytokines IL-8, IL-1β, and IL-13, as well as expression of xenobiotic metabolism pathways and genes such as CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 at 5 and 20 μg/cm2 concentrations. Only 50 μg/cm2 flaming PIEs significantly increased glutathione oxidation in 16HBEs, and decreased respiration and ATP production in HNEC mitochondria. Impact Statement: Our data reveal the impact of incineration temperatures on biological outcomes associated with PIE exposures, emphasizing the importance of temperature as a factor when evaluating respiratory disease associated with PIEs exposure.
Rivers State, Niger Delta, Nigeria often referred to as the 'treasure bed of the nation' is the seat of crude oil production activities with the accompanying environmental degradation. The severity of the environmental pollution and contaminated air quality took a new turn for the worse in November 2016, when the residents of Port Harcourt city, Rivers State, a major oil producing State experienced for the first time, aerosol deposition of plumes of black soot. This systematic review paper is aimed at quantifying the severity of this public health challenge. Using appropriate search words, the following databases SCOPUS, PUBMED, Google Scholar, and AJOL were searched from 1990 to 2022 to enable comparative analyses of data before and after the emergence of black soot deposition. Air-related morbidities and mortalities such as cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM), chronic bronchitis, measles, pertussis, hemoptysis, cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, pneumonia, and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), pneumonia, eye irritation, conjunctivitis, traumatic skin outgrowth, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and child deformities were compared with levels of air pollutants and particulate matter. The results showed that Port Harcourt city's ambient air quality data were above the standard National Ambient Air Quality data and that of other regulatory agencies having higher levels of both inorganic and organic pollutants. There were significant relationships between air pollutants concentration with morbidities. These correlations were significant in the period covering 2016-2022. Consequently, it is concluded that the black soot emissions in Port Harcourt city, Nigeria has worsened the public health situation in the city.
Sustainability from an economic and environmental perspective is linked to the manner in which we extract and consume the earth's finite resources and is implicit in the definition of a circular economy (CE) as a model of production and consumption designed to retain value within the economic system. This can include conserving natural resources, making sustainable products by incorporating recyclability in product design, changing consumption behaviour, and adopting more sustainable business models. The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of objectives for improving health and education, reducing inequality, and protecting our shared environment globally. The CE is a key enabler to achieving these objectives.
The Circular Economy explores how the concepts of CE can help address and meet targets linked to the SDGs. Taking a broad view across different industries and areas, and looking at specific SDGs, this book discusses current activities, standards, policy and legislation and challenges to achieving the SDGs as well as opportunities for enhancing circularity and sustainability.
Currently, changes in rainfall regimes have intensified biomass burning in central Brazil. These fires, resulting mainly from anthropic action, emit large amounts of gases and aerosols into the atmosphere. The emission of these constituents in the dry season can drastically alter the functioning of ecosystems. In this work, it was verified that the high concentrations of Black Carbon (BC) have a direct relationship with the air temperature and influence the carbon capture process. This study was the result of a long-term campaign carried out in the northern region of the Brazilian Pantanal, between 2017 and 2019. Measurements of CO2 fluxes were evaluated together with measurements of temperature, radiation and BC concentrations. The results showed that in some episodes, the increase in BC concentration inhibits photosynthetically active radiation and increases air temperature. As a consequence of the increase in BC concentration, a reduction in carbon capture was observed. In a specific episode in October 2017, this work estimated a deficit of 1.65 kg.m−2 in CO2 capture due to the emission of BC in the Pantanal.
Improving waste and resource management (WaRM) around the world can halve the weight of plastics entering the oceans, significantly mitigate global heating and contribute directly to 12 of 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). Achieving such results demands understanding and learning from historical evolution of WaRM. The baseline is 1970, prior to environmental legislation. Early steps in the Global North focused on the ‘technical fix’ within strictly enforced legal frameworks, first bringing hazardous wastes and municipal solid wastes (MSW) under control, then gradually ramping up environmental standards. Using modern technologies to the Global South often failed due to institutional and financial constraints. From 1990, focus switched to integrating technical and governance aspects: local institutional coherence, financial sustainability, provider inclusivity, user inclusivity, national legislative and policy framework. The Global North rediscovered recycling, using policy measures to promote segregation at source; this relied on new markets in emerging economies, which had largely disappeared by 2020. The Global South is making progress on bringing wastes under control, but around 2.7 billion people lack access to waste collection, while ~40% of collected MSW is open dumped or burned – a continuing global waste emergency. So, much remains to be done to move further towards a circular economy. Three policy priorities are critical for all countries: access to sustainable financing, rethinking sustainable recycling and worldwide extended producer responsibility with teeth. Extending services to unserved communities (SDG11.6.1) requires a people-centred approach, working with communities to provide both quality services and decent livelihoods for collection and recycling workers.
Climate change has presented cities with new challenges and opportunities for improving their liveability. If well-managed, cities offer both adaptation and mitigation benefits, as well as sustainable development opportunities, that other forms of living cannot.
Mismanaged municipal solid waste (MSW), the major source of plastics pollution and a key contributor to climate forcing, in Global South cities poses public health and environmental problems. This study analyses the first consistent and quality assured dataset available for cities distributed worldwide, featuring a comprehensive set of solid waste management performance indicators (Wasteaware Cities Benchmark Indicators - WABI). Machine learning (multivariate random forest) and univariate non-linear regression are applied, identifying best-fit converging models for a broad range of explanatory socioeconomic variables. These proxies describe in a variety of ways generic levels of progress, such as Gross Domestic Product - Purchasing Power per capita, Social Progress Index (SPI) and Corruption Perceptions Index. Specifically, the research tests and quantitatively confirms a long-standing, yet unverified, hypothesis: that variability in cities' performance on MSW can be accounted for by socioeconomic development indices. The results provide a baseline for measuring progress as cities report MSW performance for the sustainable development goal SDG11.6.1 indicator: median rates of controlled recovery and disposal are approximately at 45 % for cities in low-income countries, 75 % in lower-middle, and 100 % for both upper-middle and high-income. Casting light on aspects beyond the SDG metric, on the quality of MSW-related services, show that improvements in service quality often lag improvements in service coverage. Overall, the findings suggest that progress in collection coverage, and controlled recovery and disposal has already taken place in low- and middle-income cities. However, if cities aspire to perform better on MSW management than would have been anticipated by the average socioeconomic development in their country, they should identify ways to overcome systemic underlying failures associated with that socioeconomic level. Most alarmingly, 'business as usual' development would substantially increase their waste generation per capita unless new policies are found to promote decoupling.
Domestic, or household-level, open burning of plastic waste is a source of air pollutants and greenhouse gases that are often neglected in emission inventories. Domestic open burning is a considerable concern in Guatemala due to the lack of access to waste collection services, particularly in rural areas. This paper offers the first attempt to estimate emissions from the domestic open burning of waste at the city and departmental levels in Guatemala. Data were collected from the Xalapán region of Jalapa, Guatemala and analyzed to determine the change in plastic waste generation over time as well as the socioeconomic factors that may affect the extent of plastic waste generation and burning. The annual per capita masses of plastic waste burned were used to estimate emissions from domestic open burning of plastic waste in the region of Xalapán, the cities of Jutiapa and Guatemala city, and all 22 departments in Guatemala. Our results show that rural areas burn more waste domestically, likely because of a lack of access to waste collection, and 30.4% of OC, 24.0% of BC, 23.6% of PM2.5, and 2.4% of CO2 emissions in Guatemala may not be accounted for by excluding open plastic burning as a source.
Black carbon (BC) inventories for cities are scarce, especially in developing countries, despite their importance to tackle climate change and local air pollution. Here, we draw on results from a case study in a Brazilian city to discuss the challenges of compiling a BC inventory for different activity sectors. We included traditionally inventoried sectors, such as industries and on-road transportation, other less reported sectors (food establishments and aviation), and open burning of household solid waste (HSW), typically found in developing countries. We present a machine-learning technique (Random Forest) as a novel approach to obtain HSW burning activity using a set of spatial predictors. The BC inventory was based on PM2.5 emissions weighted by the fraction of PM2.5 emitted as BC and developed for the year 2018. We also reported the disaggregated spatial PM2.5 emissions for the same combustion sources, and documented the databases used for activity data and emission factors (EF). The total estimated BC and PM2.5 emissions amounted to 57.88 and 234.75 tons, respectively, with on-road vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial combustion as the main BC sources (63 and 22%, respectively). For PM2.5 emissions, on-road transportation (exhaust and non-exhaust) contributed 48%, followed by industrial combustion (21%) and food establishments (20%). Population density, number of vacant lots, and property tax values were identified as the most important features to predict the HSW fire activity. A comparison with other inventories revealed that the BC emission profile of Londrina is similar to the profile reported for Greater Mexico City, another Latin American city. Thus, the methodology used in this study could be extended to other cities with similar local BC sources. Finally, we highlight that the lack of local activity data, representative EF, and even methodology may undermine the development of reliable BC inventories, and intensive research should be conducted to characterize the emission sources.
Rural areas are exposed to severe environmental pollution issues fed by industrial and agricultural activities combined with poor waste and sanitation management practices, struggling to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in line with Agenda 2030. Rural communities are examined through a “dual approach” as both contributors and receivers of plastic pollution leakage into the natural environment (through the air–water–soil–biota nexus). Despite the emerging trend of plastic pollution research, in this paper, we identify few studies investigating rural communities. Therefore, proxy analysis of peer-reviewed literature is required to outline the significant gaps related to plastic pollution and plastic waste management issues in rural regions. This work focuses on key stages such as (i) plastic pollution effects on rural communities, (ii) plastic pollution generated by rural communities, (iii) the development of a rural waste management sector in low- and middle-income countries in line with the SDGs, and (iv) circular economy opportunities to reduce plastic pollution in rural areas. We conclude that rural communities must be involved in both future plastic pollution and circular economy research to help decision makers reduce environmental and public health threats, and to catalyze circular initiatives in rural areas around the world, including less developed communities.
The Nepal Ambient Monitoring and Source Testing Experiment (NAMaSTE) characterized widespread and under-sampled combustion sources common to South Asia, including brick kilns, garbage burning, diesel and gasoline generators, diesel groundwater pumps, idling motorcycles, traditional and modern cooking stoves and fires, crop residue burning, and heating fire. Fuel-based emission factors (EFs; with units of pollutant mass emitted per kilogram of fuel combusted) were determined for fine particulate matter (PM2.5), organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), inorganic ions, trace metals, and organic species. For the forced-draft zigzag brick kiln, EFPM2.5 ranged from 12 to 19 g kg-1 with major contributions from OC (7 %), sulfate expected to be in the form of sulfuric acid (31.9 %), and other chemicals not measured (e.g., particle-bound water). For the clamp kiln, EFPM2.5 ranged from 8 to 13 g kg-1, with major contributions from OC (63.2 %), sulfate (23.4 %), and ammonium (16 %). Our brick kiln EFPM2.5 values may exceed those previously reported, partly because we sampled emissions at ambient temperature after emission from the stack or kiln allowing some particle-phase OC and sulfate to form from gaseous precursors. The combustion of mixed household garbage under dry conditions had an EFPM2.5 of 7.4 ± 1.2 g kg-1, whereas damp conditions generated the highest EFPM2.5 of all combustion sources in this study, reaching up to 125 ± 23 g kg-1. Garbage burning emissions contained triphenylbenzene and relatively high concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Sb), making these useful markers of this source. A variety of cooking stoves and fires fueled with dung, hardwood, twigs, and/or other biofuels were studied. The use of dung for cooking and heating produced higher EFPM2.5 than other biofuel sources and consistently emitted more PM2.5 and OC than burning hardwood and/or twigs; this trend was consistent across traditional mud stoves, chimney stoves, and three-stone cooking fires. The comparisons of different cooking stoves and cooking fires revealed the highest PM emissions from three-stone cooking fires (7.6–73 g kg-1), followed by traditional mud stoves (5.3–19.7 g kg-1), mud stoves with a chimney for exhaust (3.0–6.8 g kg-1), rocket stoves (1.5–7.2 g kg-1), induced-draft stoves (1.2–5.7 g kg-1), and the bhuse chulo stove (3.2 g kg-1), while biogas had no detectable PM emissions. Idling motorcycle emissions were evaluated before and after routine servicing at a local shop, which decreased EFPM2.5 from 8.8 ± 1.3 to 0.71 ± 0.45 g kg-1 when averaged across five motorcycles. Organic species analysis indicated that this reduction in PM2.5 was largely due to a decrease in emission of motor oil, probably from the crankcase. The EF and chemical emissions profiles developed in this study may be used for source apportionment and to update regional emission inventories.
Atmospheric particulate black carbon has been linked to adverse health outcomes. Additional black carbon measurements would aid a better understanding of population exposure in epidemiological studies as well as the success, or otherwise, of relevant abatement technologies and policies. Two light absorption measurement methods of particles collected on filters have been applied to four different types of filters to provide estimations of particulate black carbon concentrations. The ratio of transmittance (lnl(0)/l) to reflectance (lnR(0)/R) varied by filter type and ranged from close to 0.5 (as expected from simple theory) to 1.35 between the four filter types tested. The relationship between light absorption and black carbon, measured by the thermal EC(TOT) method, was nonlinear and differed between filter type and measurement method. This is particularly relevant to epidemiological studies that use light absorption as an exposure metric. An extensive archive of filters was used to derive loading factors and mass extinction coefficients for each filter type. Particulate black carbon time series were then calculated at locations where such measurements were not previously available. When applied to two roads in London, black carbon concentrations were found to have increased between 2011 and 2013, by 0.3 (CI: 0.1, 0.5) and 0.4 (CI: 0.1, 0.9) mu g m(-3) year(-1), in contrast to the expectation from exhaust abatement policies. New opportunities using archived or bespoke filter collections for studies on the health effects of black carbon and the efficacy of abatement strategies are created. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
In central Mexico during the spring of 2007 we measured the initial emissions of 12 gases and the aerosol speciation for elemental and organic carbon (EC, OC), anhydrosugars, Cl-, NO3-, and 20 metals from 10 cooking fires, four garbage fires, three brick making kilns, three charcoal making kilns, and two crop residue fires. Biofuel use has been estimated at over 2600 Tg/y. With several simple case studies we show that cooking fires can be a major, or the major, source of several gases and fine particles in developing countries. Insulated cook stoves with chimneys were earlier shown to reduce indoor air pollution and the fuel use per cooking task. We confirm that they also reduce the emissions of VOC pollutants per mass of fuel burned by about half. We did not detect HCN emissions from cooking fires in Mexico or Africa. Thus, if regional source attribution is based on HCN emissions typical for other types of biomass burning (BB), then biofuel use and total BB will be underestimated in much of the developing world. This is also significant because cooking fires are not detected from space. We estimate that 2000 Tg/y of garbage are generated and about half may be burned, making this a commonly overlooked major global source of emissions. We estimate a fine particle emission factor (EFPM2.5 for garbage burning of ~10±5 g/kg, which is in reasonable agreement with very limited previous work. We observe large HCl emission factors in the range 2–10 g/kg. Consideration of the Cl content of the global waste stream suggests that garbage burning may generate as much as 6–9 Tg/yr of HCl, which would make it a major source of this compound. HCl generated by garbage burning in dry environments may have a relatively greater atmospheric impact than HCl generated in humid areas. Garbage burning PM2.5 was found to contain levoglucosan and K in concentrations similar to those for biomass burning, so it could be a source of interference in some areas when using these tracers to estimate BB. Galactosan was the anhydrosugar most closely correlated with BB in this study. Fine particle antimony (Sb) shows initial promise as a garbage burning tracer and suggests that this source could contribute a significant amount of the PM2.5 in the Mexico City metropolitan area. The fuel consumption and emissions due to industrial biofuel use are difficult to characterize regionally. This is partly because of the diverse range of fuels used and the thin margins of typical micro-enterprises. Brick making kilns produced low total EFPM2.5 (~1.6 g/kg), but very high EC/OC ratios (6.72). Previous literature on brick kilns is scarce but does document some severe local impacts. Coupling data from Mexico, Brazil, and Zambia, we find that charcoal making kilns can exhibit an 8-fold increase in VOC/CO over their approximately one-week lifetime. Acetic acid emission factors for charcoal kilns were much higher in Mexico than elsewhere, probably due to the use of tannin-rich oak fuel. Our dirt charcoal kiln EFPM2.5 emission factor was ~1.1 g/kg, which is lower than previous recommendations intended for all types of kilns. We speculate that some PM2.5 is scavenged in the walls of dirt kilns.
The Nepal Ambient Monitoring and
Source Testing Experiment (NAMaSTE) campaign took place in and around the
Kathmandu Valley and in the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) of southern
Nepal during April 2015. The source characterization phase targeted numerous
important but undersampled (and often inefficient) combustion sources that
are widespread in the developing world such as cooking with a variety of
stoves and solid fuels, brick kilns, open burning of municipal solid waste
(a.k.a. trash or garbage burning), crop residue burning, generators,
irrigation pumps, and motorcycles. NAMaSTE produced the first, or rare, measurements of aerosol optical properties, aerosol
mass, and detailed trace gas chemistry for the emissions from many of the
sources. This paper reports the trace gas and aerosol measurements obtained
by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, whole-air sampling (WAS),
and photoacoustic extinctiometers (PAX; 405 and 870 nm) based on field work
with a moveable lab sampling authentic sources. The primary aerosol optical
properties reported include emission factors (EFs) for scattering and
absorption coefficients (EF Bscat, EF Babs,
in m2 kg−1 fuel burned), single scattering albedos (SSAs), and absorption
Ångström exponents (AAEs). From these data we estimate black and
brown carbon (BC, BrC) emission factors (g kg−1 fuel burned). The trace
gas measurements provide EFs (g kg−1) for CO2, CO, CH4,
selected non-methane hydrocarbons up to C10, a large suite of oxygenated
organic compounds, NH3, HCN, NOx, SO2, HCl, HF, etc. (up to ∼ 80 gases in all).
The emissions varied significantly by source, and light absorption by both
BrC and BC was important for many sources. The AAE for dung-fuel
cooking fires (4.63 ± 0.68) was significantly higher than for
wood-fuel cooking fires (3.01 ± 0.10). Dung-fuel cooking fires also
emitted high levels of NH3 (3.00 ± 1.33 g kg−1), organic acids
(7.66 ± 6.90 g kg−1), and HCN (2.01 ± 1.25 g kg−1), where the latter
could contribute to satellite observations of high levels of HCN in the
lower stratosphere above the Asian monsoon. HCN was also emitted in
significant quantities by several non-biomass burning sources. BTEX
compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes) were major emissions
from both dung- (∼ 4.5 g kg−1) and wood-fuel (∼ 1.5 g kg−1) cooking fires, and a simple method to estimate indoor exposure to
the many measured important air toxics is described. Biogas emerged as the
cleanest cooking technology of approximately a dozen stove–fuel combinations
measured. Crop residue burning produced relatively high emissions of
oxygenated organic compounds (∼ 12 g kg−1) and SO2 (2.54 ± 1.09 g kg−1). Two brick kilns co-firing different amounts of biomass
with coal as the primary fuel produced contrasting results. A zigzag kiln
burning mostly coal at high efficiency produced larger amounts of BC, HF,
HCl, and NOx, with the halogenated emissions likely coming from the
clay. The clamp kiln (with relatively more biomass fuel) produced much
greater quantities of most individual organic gases, about twice as much
BrC, and significantly more known and likely organic aerosol precursors.
Both kilns were significant SO2 sources with their emission factors
averaging 12.8 ± 0.2 g kg−1. Mixed-garbage burning produced
significantly more BC (3.3 ± 3.88 g kg−1) and BTEX (∼ 4.5 g kg−1) emissions than in previous measurements. For all fossil fuel sources,
diesel burned more efficiently than gasoline but produced larger NOx
and aerosol emission factors. Among the least efficient sources sampled were
gasoline-fueled motorcycles during start-up and idling for which the CO EF
was on the order of ∼ 700 g kg−1 – or about 10 times that of a
typical biomass fire. Minor motorcycle servicing led to minimal if any
reduction in gaseous pollutants but reduced particulate emissions, as
detailed in a companion paper (Jayarathne et al., 2016). A small
gasoline-powered generator and an “insect repellent fire” were also among
the sources with the highest emission factors for pollutants. These
measurements begin to address the critical data gap for these important,
undersampled sources, but due to their diversity and abundance, more work is
needed.
Thermal-optical analysis is a conventional method for determining the
carbonaceous aerosol fraction and for classifying it into organic carbon,
OC, and elemental carbon, EC. Unfortunately, the different thermal evolution
protocols in use can result in a wide elemental carbon-to-total carbon
variation by up to a factor of five. In Europe, there is currently no
standard procedure for determining the carbonaceous aerosol fraction which
implies that data from different laboratories at various sites are of
unknown accuracy and cannot be considered comparable. In the framework of
the EU-project EUSAAR (European Supersites for Atmospheric Aerosol
Research), a comprehensive study has been carried out to identify the causes
of differences in the EC measured using different thermal evolution
protocols; thereby the major positive and negative biases affecting
thermal-optical analysis have been isolated and minimised to define an
optimised protocol suitable for European aerosols. Our approach to improve
the accuracy of the discrimination between OC and EC was essentially based
on four goals. Firstly, charring corrections rely on faulty assumptions –
e.g. pyrolytic carbon is considered to evolve completely before native EC
throughout the analysis –, thus we have reduced pyrolysis to a minimum by
favoring volatilisation of OC. Secondly, we have minimised the potential
negative bias in EC determination due to early evolution of light absorbing
carbon species at higher temperatures in the He-mode, including both native
EC and combinations of native EC and pyrolytic carbon potentially with
different specific attenuation cross section values. Thirdly, we have
minimised the potential positive bias in EC determination resulting from the
incomplete evolution of OC during the He-mode which then evolves during the
He/O2-mode, potentially after the split point. Finally, we have
minimised the uncertainty due to the position of the OC/EC split point on
the FID response profile by introducing multiple desorption steps in the
He/O2-mode. Based on different types of carbonaceous PM encountered
across Europe, we have defined an optimised thermal evolution protocol, the
EUSAAR_2 protocol, as follows: step 1 in He, 200 °C for 120 s; step 2
in He 300 °C for 150 s; step 3 in He 450 °C for 180 s; step 4 in He
650 °C for 180 s. For steps 1–4 in He/O2, the conditions are
500 °C for 120 s, 550 °C for 120 s, 700 ° C for 70 s,
and 850 °C for 80 s, respectively.
An extensive program of experiments focused on biomass burning emissions began with a laboratory phase in which vegetative fuels commonly consumed in prescribed fires were collected in the southeastern and southwestern US and burned in a series of 71 fires at the US Forest Service Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana. The particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions were measured by gravimetric filter sampling with subsequent analysis for elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and 38 elements. The trace gas emissions were measured by an open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR) spectrometer, proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), proton-transfer ion-trap mass spectrometry (PIT-MS), negative-ion proton-transfer chemical-ionization mass spectrometry (NI-PT-CIMS), and gas chromatography with MS detection (GC-MS). 204 trace gas species (mostly non-methane organic compounds – NMOC) were identified and quantified with the above instruments. Many of the 182 species quantified by the GC-MS have rarely, if ever, been measured in smoke before. An additional 153 significant peaks in the unit mass resolution mass spectra were quantified, but either could not be identified or most of the signal at that molecular mass was unaccounted for by identifiable species.
In a second, "field" phase of this program, airborne and ground-based measurements were made of the emissions from prescribed fires that were mostly located in the same land management units where the fuels for the lab fires were collected. A broad variety, but smaller number of species (21 trace gas species and PM2.5) was measured on 14 fires in chaparral and oak savanna in the southwestern US, as well as pine forest understory in the southeastern US and Sierra Nevada mountains of California. The field measurements of emission factors (EF) are useful both for modeling and to examine the representativeness of our lab fire EF. The lab EF/field EF ratio for the pine understory fuels was not statistically different from one, on average. However, our lab EF for "smoldering compounds" emitted from the semiarid shrubland fuels should likely be increased by a factor of ~2.7 to better represent field fires. Based on the lab/field comparison, we present emission factors for 357 pyrogenic species (including unidentified species) for 4 broad fuel types: pine understory, semiarid shrublands, coniferous canopy, and organic soil.
To our knowledge this is the most comprehensive measurement of biomass burning emissions to date and it should enable improved representation of smoke composition in atmospheric models. The results support a recent estimate of global NMOC emissions from biomass burning that is much higher than widely used estimates and they provide important insights into the nature of smoke. 31–72% of the mass of gas-phase NMOC species was attributed to species that we could not identify. These unidentified species are not represented in most models, but some provision should be made for the fact that they will react in the atmosphere. In addition, the total mass of gas-phase NMOC divided by the mass of co-emitted PM2.5 averaged about three (range ~2.0–8.7). About 35–64% of the NMOC were likely semivolatile or of intermediate volatility. Thus, the gas-phase NMOC represent a large reservoir of potential precursors for secondary formation of ozone and organic aerosol. For the single lab fire in organic soil about 28% of the emitted carbon was present as gas-phase NMOC and ~72% of the mass of these NMOC was unidentified, highlighting the need to learn more about the emissions from smoldering organic soils. The mass ratio of total NMOC to "NOx as NO" ranged from 11 to 267, indicating that NOx-limited O3 production would be common in evolving biomass burning plumes. The fuel consumption per unit area was 7.0 ± 2.3 Mg ha−1 and 7.7 ± 3.7 Mg ha−1 for pine-understory and semiarid shrubland prescribed fires, respectively.
Thermal-optical analysis is currently under consideration by the European standardization body (CEN) as the reference method to quantitatively determine organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) in ambient air. This paper presents an overview of the critical parameters related to the thermal-optical analysis including thermal protocols, critical factors and interferences of the methods examined, method inter-comparisons, inter-laboratory exercises, biases and artifacts, and reference materials. The most commonly used thermal protocols include NIOSH-like, IMPROVE_A and EUSAAR_2 protocols either with light transmittance or reflectance correction for charring. All thermal evolution protocols are comparable for total carbon (TC) concentrations but the results vary significantly concerning OC and especially EC concentrations. Thermal protocols with a rather low peak temperature in the inert mode like IMPROVE_A and EUSAAR_2 tend to classify more carbon as EC compared to NIOSH-like protocols, while charring correction based on transmittance usually leads to smaller EC values compared to reflectance. The difference between reflectance and transmittance correction tends to be larger than the difference between different thermal protocols. Nevertheless, thermal protocols seem to correlate better when reflectance is used as charring correction method. The difference between EC values as determined by the different protocols is not only dependent on the optical pyrolysis correction method, but also on the chemical properties of the samples due to different contributions from various sources. The overall conclusion from this literature review is that it is not possible to identify the "best" thermal-optical protocol based on literature data only, although differences attributed to the methods have been quantified when possible.
Although black carbon (BC) is one of the key atmospheric particulate components driving climate change and air quality, there is no agreement on the terminology that considers all aspects of specific properties, definitions, measurement methods, and related uncertainties. As a result, there is much ambiguity in the scientific literature of measurements and numerical models that refer to BC with different names and based on different properties of the particles, with no clear definition of the terms. The authors present here a recommended terminology to clarify the terms used for BC in atmospheric research, with the goal of establishing unambiguous links between terms, targeted material properties and associated measurement techniques.
Aerosol black carbon is a unique primary tracer for combustion emissions. It affects the optical properties of the atmosphere and is recognized as the second most important anthropogenic forcing agent for climate change. It is the primary tracer for adverse health effects caused by air pollution. For the accurate determination of mass equivalent black carbon concentrations in the air and for source apportionment of the concentrations, optical measurements by filter-based absorption photometers must take into account the "filter loading effect". We present a new real-time loading effect compensation algorithm based on a two parallel spot measurement of optical absorption. This algorithm has been incorporated into the new Aethalometer model AE33. Intercomparison studies show excellent reproducibility of the AE33 measurements and very good agreement with post-processed data obtained using earlier Aethalometer models, and other filter-based absorption photometers. The real-time loading effect compensation algorithm provides the high-quality data necessary for real-time source apportionment, and for determination of the temporal variation of the compensation parameter k.
Black carbon aerosol plays a unique and important role in Earth's climate system. Black carbon is a type of carbonaceous material with a unique combination of physical properties. This assessment provides an evaluation of black-carbon climate forcing that is comprehensive in its inclusion of all known and relevant processes and that is quantitative in providing best estimates and uncertainties of the main forcing terms: direct solar absorption; influence on liquid, mixed phase, and ice clouds; and deposition on snow and ice. These effects are calculated with climate models, but when possible, they are evaluated with both microphysical measurements and field observations. Predominant sources are combustion related, namely, fossil fuels for transportation, solid fuels for industrial and residential uses, and open burning of biomass. Total global emissions of black carbon using bottom-up inventory methods are 7500 Gg yr(-1) in the year 2000 with an uncertainty range of 2000 to 29000. However, global atmospheric absorption attributable to black carbon is too low in many models and should be increased by a factor of almost 3. After this scaling, the best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W m(-2) with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W m(-2). Total direct forcing by all black carbon sources, without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W m(-2). Direct radiative forcing alone does not capture important rapid adjustment mechanisms. A framework is described and used for quantifying climate forcings, including rapid adjustments. The best estimate of industrial-era climate forcing of black carbon through all forcing mechanisms, including clouds and cryosphere forcing, is +1.1 W m(-2) with 90% uncertainty bounds of +0.17 to +2.1 W m(-2). Thus, there is a very high probability that black carbon emissions, independent of co-emitted species, have a positive forcing and warm the climate. We estimate that black carbon, with a total climate forcing of +1.1 W m(-2), is the second most important human emission in terms of its climate forcing in the present-day atmosphere; only carbon dioxide is estimated to have a greater forcing. Sources that emit black carbon also emit other short-lived species that may either cool or warm climate. Climate forcings from co-emitted species are estimated and used in the framework described herein. When the principal effects of short-lived co-emissions, including cooling agents such as sulfur dioxide, are included in net forcing, energy-related sources (fossil fuel and biofuel) have an industrial-era climate forcing of +0.22 (-0.50 to +1.08) W m(-2) during the first year after emission. For a few of these sources, such as diesel engines and possibly residential biofuels, warming is strong enough that eliminating all short-lived emissions from these sources would reduce net climate forcing (i.e., produce cooling). When open burning emissions, which emit high levels of organic matter, are included in the total, the best estimate of net industrial-era climate forcing by all short-lived species from black-carbon-rich sources becomes slightly negative (-0.06 W m(-2) with 90% uncertainty bounds of -1.45 to +1.29 W m(-2)). The uncertainties in net climate forcing from black-carbon-rich sources are substantial, largely due to lack of knowledge about cloud interactions with both black carbon and co-emitted organic carbon. In prioritizing potential black-carbon mitigation actions, non-science factors, such as technical feasibility, costs, policy design, and implementation feasibility play important roles. The major sources of black carbon are presently in different stages with regard to the feasibility for near-term mitigation. This assessment, by evaluating the large number and complexity of the associated physical and radiative processes in black-carbon climate forcing, sets a baseline from which to improve future climate forcing estimates.
Airborne particles containing elemental carbon (EC) are currently at the forefront of scientific and regulatory scrutiny, including black carbon, carbon black, and engineered carbon-based nanomaterials, e.g., carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, and graphene. Scientists and regulators sometimes group these EC-containing particles together, for example, interchangeably using the terms carbon black and black carbon despite one being a manufactured product with well-controlled properties and the other being an undesired, incomplete-combustion byproduct with diverse properties. In this critical review, we synthesize information on the contrasting properties of EC-containing particles in order to highlight significant differences that can affect hazard potential. We demonstrate why carbon black should not be considered a model particle representative of either combustion soots or engineered carbon-based nanomaterials. Overall, scientific studies need to distinguish these highly different EC-containing particles with care and precision so as to forestall unwarranted extrapolation of properties, hazard potential, and study conclusions from one material to another.
Comparison of black carbon (BC) measurements obtained by two methods was performed for aerosols samples collected on Whatman 41 (W-41) filters, using an optical method (Magee Scientific Optical Transmissometer Model OT-21) and a thermal-optical method (Sunset Laboratory Thermal-optical analyzer). Samples were collected from four sites: Albany (a small urban site, NY), Antalya (coastal site, Turkey), Whiteface Mountain (remote site, NY) and Mayville (rural site, NY). At Albany, comparison between the two methods showed excellent agreement; a least-squares regression line yielded a slope of 1.02, and r2 = 0.88. Similar comparisons at Antalya (slope of 1.02, r2 = 0.5) and Whiteface Mountain (slope of 0.92 and r2 = 0.58) also gave very good relationship. At Mayville, the relationship between the two methods yielded somewhat lower regression: a slope of 0.75, and r2 = 0.44. The data from the four locations, when plotted together, yielded an excellent agreement: a slope of 0.91, and r2 of 0.84. Based on our measurements, it appears that optical measurement using the OT-21 can be successfully applied to determination of BC in W-41 filters. However, because of the variability in the chemical composition of BC aerosol at different locations, it is suggested that the calibration of OT-21 when using W-41 filters should be performed with a statistically significant numbers of samples for specific sites.
We characterized the gas- and speciated aerosol-phase emissions from the open combustion of 33 different plant species during a series of 255 controlled laboratory burns during the Fire Laboratory at Missoula Experiments (FLAME). The plant species we tested were chosen to improve the existing database for U.S. domestic fuels: laboratory-based emission factors have not previously been reported for many commonly-burned species that are frequently consumed by fires near populated regions and protected scenic areas. The plants we tested included the chaparral species chamise, manzanita, and ceanothus, and species common to the southeastern US (common reed, hickory, kudzu, needlegrass rush, rhododendron, cord grass, sawgrass, titi, and wax myrtle). Fire-integrated emission factors for gas-phase CO{sub 2}, CO, CH{sub 4}, C{sub 2-4} hydrocarbons, NH{sub 3}, SO{sub 2}, NO, NO{sub 2}, HNO{sub 3} and particle-phase organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), SO{sub 4}{sup 2-}, NO{sub 3}{sup -}, Cl{sup -}, Na{sup +}, K{sup +}, and NH{sub 4}{sup +} generally varied with both fuel type and with the fire-integrated modified combustion efficiency (MCE), a measure of the relative importance of flaming- and smoldering-phase combustion to the total emissions during the burn. Chaparral fuels tended to emit less particulate OC per unit mass of dry fuel than did other fuel types, whereas southeastern species had some of the largest observed EF for total fine particulate matter. Our measurements often spanned a larger range of MCE than prior studies, and thus help to improve estimates for individual fuels of the variation of emissions with combustion conditions.
Many different thermal, optical, and thermal/optical carbon analysis methods for organic carbon(OC), elemental carbon (EC) or black carbon (BC) have been applied throughout the world toevaluate visibility and the Earth's radiation balance. Dozens of intermethod and interlaboratorycomparison studies have been conducted. Several of these studies are catalogued and summarizedhere. BC or EC concentrations are found to differ by up to a factor of 7 among different methods;factor of 2 differences are common. Differences between methods are not consistent amongcomparison studies, with some methods showing higher BC for one set of samples and lower BC forother sets relative to a common benchmark. The absorption efficiency relating light absorption (babs)to EC that is derived from collocated optical and chemical measurements can vary by a factor of 10,depending on the collocated babs and EC measurement methods. Future intermethod andinterlaboratory comparisons must include components that seek to understand the causes of thesedifferences.
As part of the Tropical Forest and Fire Emissions Experiment (TROFFEE), tropical forest fuels were burned in a large, biomass-fire simulation facility and the smoke was characterized with open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), gas chromatography (GC), GC/PTR-MS, and filter sampling of the particles. In most cases, about one-third of the fuel chlorine ended up in the particles and about one-half remained in the ash. About 50% of the mass of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC) emitted by these fires could be identified with the available instrumentation. The lab fire emission factors (EF, g compound emitted per kg dry fuel burned) were coupled with EF obtained during the TROFFEE airborne and ground-based field campaigns. This revealed several types of EF dependence on parameters such as the ratio of flaming to smoldering combustion and fuel characteristics. The synthesis of data from the different TROFFEE platforms was also used to derive EF for all the measured species for both primary deforestation fires and pasture maintenance fires – the two main types of biomass burning in the Amazon. Many of the EF are larger than those in widely-used earlier work. This is mostly due to the inclusion of newly-available, large EF for the initially-unlofted smoldering emissions from residual logs in pastures and the assumption that these emissions make a significant contribution (~40%) to the total emissions from pasture fires. The TROFFEE EF for particles with aerodynamic diameter
This is an experimental study on the characterization of particulate (soot) emissions from burning polymers. Emissions of polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics were studied. Combustion took place in a laboratory-scale, electrically heated, drop-tube furnace at temperatures of 1300 and 1500 K, in air. The nominal bulk (global) equivalence ratio, phi, was varied in the range of 0.5-1.5, and the gas residence time in the nearly isothermal radiation zone of the furnace was approximately 1 sec. The particulate emissions were size-classified at the exit of the furnace, using a multi-stage inertial particle impactor. Results showed that both the yields and the size distributions of the emitted soot were remarkably different for the five plastics burned. Soot yields increased with an increasing bulk equivalence ratio. Combustion of PS yielded the highest amounts of soot (most highly agglomerated), several times more than the rest of the polymers. More soot was emitted from PS at 1500 than at 1300 K. Substantial amounts of soot agglomerates were larger than 9 microns. At 1500 and 1300 K, 35 and 29% of the soot mass, respectively, was PM2 (2 microns or smaller). Emissions from PE and PP were remarkably similar to each other. These polymers produced very low emissions at phi < or = 0.5, but emissions increased drastically with phi, and most of the soot was very fine (70-97% of the mass was PM2, depending on phi). Emissions from the combustion of PMMA were comparatively low and were the least influenced by the bulk phi, and 79-95% of the emissions were PM2. Combustion of PVC yielded the lowest amounts of soot; moreover, only 13-34% of the mass was PM2. On a comparative basis, at 1500 K, the following ranges of particulate yields were PM2: 19-75 mg/g of PS, 8-36 mg/g of PE, 1.5-47 mg/g of PP, 11-20 mg/g of PMMA, and 2-8 mg/g of PVC, depending on phi. These comparative results demonstrate that PS produces the highest amounts of fine particulates, followed by PP, PE, and PMMA, and then PVC. Burning these materials with excess oxygen drastically reduces the particulate emissions of PE and PP, substantially reduces those of PS, and mildly reduces those of PMMA and PVC.
A simple method for correcting for the loading effects of aethalometer data is presented. The formula BC(CORRECTED) = (1 + k x ATN) x BC(NONCORRECTED), where ATN is the attenuation and BC is black carbon, was used for correcting aethalometer data obtained from measurements at three different sites: a subway station in Helsinki, an urban background measurement station in Helsinki, and a rural station in Hyytiälä in central Finland. The BC data were compared with simultaneously measured aerosol volume concentrations (V). After the correction algorithm, the BC-to-V ratio remained relatively stable between consequent filter spots, which can be regarded as indirect evidence that the correction algorithm works. The k value calculated from the outdoor sites had a clear seasonal cycle that could be explained by darker aerosol in winter than in summer. When the contribution of BC to the total aerosol volume was high, the k factor was high and vice versa. In winter, the k values at all wavelengths were very close to that obtained from the subway station data. In summer, the k value was wavelength dependent and often negative. When the k value is negative, the noncorrected BC concentrations overestimated the true concentrations.
The production and use of polymeric materials worldwide has reached levels of 150 million tonnes per year, and the majority of plastic materials are discarded in waste landfills where are burned generating toxic emissions. In the present study we conducted laboratory experiments for batch combustion/burning of commercial polymeric materials, simulating conditions of open fire combustion, with the purpose to analyze their emissions for chemical characteristics of toxicological importance. We used common types of plastic materials: poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), low and high density poly(ethylene) (LDPE, HDPE), poly(styrene) (PS), poly(propylene) (PP) and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET). Samples of particulate smoke (soot) collected on filters and residue solid ash produced by controlled burning conditions at 600-750 degrees C are used for analysis. Emissions of particulate matter, persistent free radicals embedded in the carbonaceous polymeric matrix, heavy metals, other elements and PAHs were determined in both types of samples. Results showed that all plastics burned easily generating charred residue solid ash and black airborne particulate smoke. Persistent carbon- and oxygen-centered radicals, known for their toxic effects in inhalable airborne particles, were detected in both particulate smoke emissions and residue solid ash. Concentrations of heavy metals and other elements (determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry, ICP, method) were measured in the airborne soot and residue ash. Toxic heavy metals, such as Pb, Zn, Cr, Ni, and Cd were relatively at were found at low concentrations. High concentrations were found for some lithophilic elements, such as Na, Ca, Mg, Si and Al in particulate soot and residue solid ash. Measurements of PAHs showed that low molecular weight PAHs were at higher concentrations in the airborne particulate soot than in the residue solid ash for all types of plastic. Higher-ringed PAHs were detected at higher concentrations in the residue solid ash of PVC as compared to those from the other types of plastic. The open-air burning of plastic material and their toxic emissions is of growing concern in areas of municipal solid waste where open-fires occur intentionally or accidentally. Another problem is building fires in which victims may suffer severe smoke inhalation from burning plastic materials in homes and in working places.
We compared two approaches (denoted as Virkkula” and “Drinovec” equations) for the determination of black carbon via attenuation measurements with a transmissometer OT-21 (Magee Scientific) on quartz fiber filters from different station types (urban-traffic, rural-background and remote) within the Austrian air monitoring network. First, we evaluated the entire data set to compare the performance of the models in the determination of the loading parameter k and the mass attenuation cross section σ. Then we investigate k and σ for different station types. The data set comprises 299 filters, all representative for 24 h samples collected with High-Volume-Samplers. Mass concentrations ranged from approximately 5-100 μg m⁻³ and covered all seasons.
Both approaches give statistically indistinguishable results of k with values of 1.00*10⁻³ ( ±2*10⁻⁴) and 0.97*10⁻³ ( ±1*10⁻⁴), respectively, if the entire data set is evaluated. The “Drinovec” approach gives slightly lower values for σ than “Virkkula” with values of 32.1 m² g⁻¹ ( ±1.1 m² g⁻¹) and 35.3 m² g⁻¹ ( ±1.9 m² g⁻¹). If the data set is restricted to ATN<300 only, no statistically relevant changes are obtained for k and σ using the “Virkkula” equation. Applying the “Drinovec” equation both parameters, k and σ increase when the data set is restricted.
The investigation of the different station types yields values of k statistically not different from zero, whereas σ values are different for the respective station types. Highest values of σ = 33.7 m² g⁻¹ ( ±1.4 m² g⁻¹) were observed for the remote, followed by σ = 31.8 m² g⁻¹ ( ±0.5 m² g⁻¹) for the rural-background station and lowest values of σ = 24.4 m² g⁻¹ ( ±0.5 m² g⁻¹) for the urban-traffic stations, possibly reflecting the respective aerosol type.
Based on the results for k and σ using either overall values or station type specific values we performed an extensive validation, discussing the application of the transmissometer measurements for a quick, easy and non-destructive quantification of eBC on either fresh sampled or archived filters of different station types. Applying the method for stations not classified as urban, rural or remote a deviation of eBC and EC values up to 23% can be expected. If the station type is known and the respective k and σ values are used this deviation goes down to 10% or lower. This would allow users to obtain long-term time-series going back to times when no on-line instruments were existing, and to obtain these data sets for sites where no on-line instruments are installed even now.
Uncontrolled burning of municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important source of air pollution and is wide spread in many developing countries, but only limited data quantify the extent of domestic open burning of household waste. Here, we present some of the first field data to be reported on the uncontrolled domestic burning of waste. A representative community of Mexico (Huejutla de Reyes Municipality) was investigated and household surveys, interviews with waste operators and a waste characterisation analysis were completed to assess the extent of, and factors controlling, the open burning of waste. Waste collection provision to rural communities was very limited and, consequently 92% of households in rural areas reported that they disposed of waste by uncontrolled burning in backyards or unofficial dumps. Overall, 24% of the total MSW generated in the Municipality was disposed by uncontrolled burning. Urban and periurban areas received twice-weekly collections and the rate of uncontrolled burning was considerably smaller compared to rural households, corresponding to approximately 2% of total waste generation. Carbon equivalency calculations showed that burning waste in backyards represented approximately 6% of the total and 8.5% of fuel related CO2Eq emissions by the municipality. Moreover, the equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2Eq) from black carbon (BC) emitted by uncontrolled burning in backyards was over fifteen times larger compared to methane (CH4) potentially released from equivalent amounts of combustible biodegradable waste disposal at the official dumpsite. An assessment of local respiratory health data showed the incidence of disease was higher in rural than in urban areas, when the opposite trend is typically observed in the international literature; given the high rate of burning activity found in rural areas we suggest that open burning of waste could be a major reason for the apparent poorer respiratory health status of the rural population and requires further investigation. The results emphasise the importance of including BC from uncontrolled burning of waste in international emission inventories of greenhouse gases and in the assessment of the health status of local communities in developing countries where this practice is prevalent.
An emission sensor/sampler system was coupled to a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) hexacopter unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to characterize gases and particles in the plumes emitted from open burning of military ordnance. The UAV/sampler was tested at two field sites with test and sampling flights spanning over 16 h of flight time. The battery-operated UAV was remotely maneuvered into the plumes at distances from the pilot of over 600 m and at altitudes of up to 122 m above ground level. While the flight duration could be affected by sampler payload (3.2–4.6 kg) and meteorological conditions, the 57 sampling flights, ranging from 4 to 12 min, were typically terminated when the plume concentrations of CO2 were diluted to near ambient levels. Two sensor/sampler systems, termed “Kolibri,” were variously configured to measure particulate matter, metals, chloride, perchlorate, volatile organic compounds, chlorinated dioxins/furans, and nitrogen-based organics for determination of emission factors. Gas sensors were selected based on their applicable concentration range, light weight, freedom from interferents, and response/recovery times. Samplers were designed, constructed, and operated based on U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) methods and quality control criteria. Results show agreement with published emission factors and good reproducibility (e.g., 26% relative standard deviation for PM2.5). The UAV/Kolibri represents a significant advance in multipollutant emission characterization capabilities for open area sources, safely and effectively making measurements heretofore deemed too hazardous for personnel or beyond the reach of land-based samplers.
An increasing number of air pollution source apportionment studies in Europe and the United States have focused on the black carbon (BC) fraction of ambient particulate matter (PM) given its linkage with adverse public health and climate impacts. We conducted a critical review of European and US BC source apportionment studies published since 2003. Since elemental carbon (EC) has been used as a surrogate measure of BC, we also considered source apportionment studies of EC measurements. This review extends the knowledge presented in previous ambient PM source apportionment reviews because we focus on BC and EC and critically examine the differences between source apportionment results for different methods and source categories. We identified about 50 BC and EC source apportionment studies that have been conducted in either Europe or the US since 2003, finding a striking difference in the commonly used source apportionment methods between the two regions and variations in the assigned source categories. Using three dominant methodologies (radiocarbon, aethalometer, and macro-tracer methods) that only allow for BC to be broadly apportioned into either fossil fuel combustion or biomass burning source categories, European studies generally support fossil fuel combustion as the dominant ambient BC source, but also show significant biomass burning contributions, in particular in wintertime at non-urban locations. Among US studies where prevailing methods such as chemical mass balance (CMB) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) models have allowed for estimation of more refined source contributions, there are fewer findings showing the significance of biomass burning and variable findings on the relative proportion of BC attributed to diesel versus gasoline emissions. Overall, the available BC source apportionment studies provide useful information demonstrating the significance of both fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning BC emission sources in Europe and the US, although further studies are needed to evaluate the uncertainties and comparability of the methodologies.
Open burning of solid wastes, a potential nonpoint emission source, has recently become a topic of interests, particularly in the metropolitan area of Seoul, Korea. To estimate the effects of irregular open burning on local air quality, we evaluated the emission levels of harmful substances from test combustion of individual types of domestic municipal solid waste (MSW), including paper, wood, and plastics. The emission factors of PM10, PM2.5, PAHs, and heavy metals obtained from laboratory tests differed depending on the combustion material. A brief survey of residents and local government officials showed that more than 10.6% of homes in the metropolitan area have eliminated waste by irregular burning. Based on the public survey in the test area, the average annual emissions of hazardous materials from frequent open burning was estimated to be 71 tons for PM10, 46.6 tons for PM2.5, 914 kg for heavy metals, and 67 kg for PAHs. Open burning creates nearly 0.44% of regional air pollution from PM10.
Black carbon (BC) is a primary particle matter component emitted as a result of incomplete combustion. Due to its light-absorbing nature, BC can exert both direct and indirect influence on global climate. There is no universal research or regulatory definition of BC; instead, a variety of instruments and analytical methods define BC operationally. This study used a constant, source-generated BC concentration in order to quantify the variation in BC measurements using 10 different instruments and methodologies. Instruments examined include a multiangle absorption photometer, a transmissometer, rack-mount, portable, and micro-aethalometers, a thermal-optical carbon analyzer (using IMPROVE, NIOSH 5040, and NIST-EPA methods), a single-particle soot photometer (SP2), and a three-wavelength photoacoustic soot spectrometer (PASS3). BC-bearing soot was generated using an ethylene-air diffusion flame, diluted to *100 lg/m3, which was subjected to simultaneous analyses. Measured BC and elemental carbon (EC) concentrations ranged from 20.5 to 39.9 lg/m3. BC concentrations measured by aethalometers and transmissometer instruments varied by < 15%. However, measurements of BC were as much as 52% greater than EC determined by thermal-optical techniques. Gravimetric data from the current study suggest that the thermal-optical measurements of EC likely underestimated the carbon in flame soot samples, indicating an inability to close a carbon mass balance.
The open burning of waste, whether at individual residences, businesses, or dump sites, is a large source of air pollutants. These emissions, however, are not included in many current emission inventories used in chemistry and climate modeling applications. This paper presents the first comprehensive and consistent estimates of the global emissions of greenhouse gases, particulate matter, reactive trace gases, and toxic compounds from open waste burning. Global emissions of CO2 from open waste burning are relatively small compared to total anthropogenic CO2. However, regional CO2 emissions, particularly in many developing countries in Asia and Africa, are significant. Further, emissions of reactive trace gases and particulate matter from open waste burning are more significant on regional scales. For example, the emissions of PM10 from open domestic waste burning in China is equivalent to 22 % of China's total reported anthropogenic PM10 emissions. The results of the emissions model presented here suggest that emissions of many air pollutants are significantly underestimated in current inventories because open waste burning is not included, consistent with studies that compare model results with available observations.
The original goals of this project were to establish the shape of a smoke curve for fine suspended particulates in New York City comparable to the International Smoke Curve used in British and other European practice, and to relate two commonly used reporting units of surface concentration, μg/m (European practice) and Coh/1000 lineal feet (United States practice), to each other. While not directly a goal of the project, it was essential in the course of work to study the relationship between particulate density readings taken for one hour and two hour sampling periods. Progress toward achievement of these goals is presented in the following pages.
Every year more than 5 million ha of cereal fields are affected by fires in order to eliminate cereal waste in Spain. The characteristics of this type of fire with intense flames are similar to those of the African dry savanna heading fires. This paper surveys the atmospheric emission caused by this process by combining results of field and combustion chamber experiments. Combustion chamber experiments show that during the flaming phase 88% of the fire exposed carbon is converted into CO2 and during the smoldering phase this percentage changes to 74%. These combustion chamber experiments also show that the soluble part of the aerosols emitted during the course of fires only represent 3% of the total particulate matter (TPM) produced, being the ions K+ and CI− the predominant ones. The cereal waste fire process can be represented by an arithmetic combination that takes into account the amounts of mass burned during the two phases of the fire: 0.90 flaming +0.10 smoldering. Emission factor estimates from field burning experiment are 13±7g TPMkg−1(dm) and 2.8±0.2g NOxkg−1 (dm). Finally, we obtain average emissions of 80–130Gg TPM, 17–28Gg NOx, 210–350Gg CO and 8–14Tg CO2 in Spain. These emissions represent nearly 25% of the total NOx and 50% of the total CO2 emissions by other pollution sources during the burning period in Spain.
The transport sector emits a wide variety of gases and aerosols, with distinctly different characteristics which influence climate directly and indirectly via chemical and physical processes. Tools that allow these emissions to be placed on some kind of common scale in terms of their impact on climate have a number of possible uses such as: in agreements and emission trading schemes; when considering potential trade-offs between changes in emissions resulting from technological or operational developments; and/or for comparing the impact of different environmental impacts of transport activities.
The specific attenuation cross-section σATN which relates the attenuation of light by a particleloaden quartz fiber filter to the black carbon (BC) content of deposited fine dust is the most important parameter far optical BC determination using an aethalometer. A simple model is presented to describe the effects of light scattering particles on the specific attenuation cross-section. It is found that σATN varies with the BC fraction of total mass f according to δATN = σabs + (f−1 − 1)σscat The average specific scattering cross-section σscat depends on the light scattering dry fraction of fine dust particles, while the specific absorption cross-section σabs is determined by the light absorbing BC particles. The application of the model to an externally mixed BC-NaCl aerosol shows excellent agreement between the proposed theory and our experiments. The suitability of the outlined model is confirmed by analyses of attenuation data sets obtained from several measuring sites in Germany. For the examined data sets the average attenuation cross-section σATN of ambient BC varies between 8 m2 g−1 (rural sites) and 19 m2 g−1 (street crossing). These variations can be explained by assuming a site-independent BC absorption cross-section σabs = 4 m2 g−1 which is derived from experiments with a BC test aerosol, and by varying the σscat value from 0.45 m2 g−1 (rural sites) to 1.2–1.4 m2 g−1 (urban areas). Finally, the particle size dependence of the specific absorption cross-section σabs is examined for a particle size range from 0.05 μm to 1.1 μm. As it is suggested by the fractal nature of BC particles no size dependence of σabs with respect to the used BC test aerosol is found.
The fine particle and gas emissions from the residential wood combustion (RWC) appear to be a major contributor to winter-time pollution in Europe. In this study, we characterised the effect of two different combustion conditions on particulate and gaseous emissions from a conventional masonry heater. Normal combustion (NC) is the best available operational practice for the heater, whereas smouldering combustion (SC) mimicked slow heating combustion. It was found that the operational practice in RWC can significantly influence the quantity and quality of particle and gaseous emissions into the atmosphere. In SC, the emissions of carbon monoxide were 3.5-fold, total volatile organics 14-fold and PM1 6-fold to those of NC, whereas the mass of the inorganic compounds (“fine ash”) and particle number emissions were lower from SC than from NC. According to electron microscopy analyses, the observed fine ash particles seemed to occur mainly as separate spherical or irregularly shaped particles but not as agglomerates. Ultrafine (<100 nm) fine ash particles were composed mainly of K, S and Zn, but also in a lesser extent of C, Ca, Fe, Mg, Cl, P and Na. Large agglomerates were found to contain mainly carbon and are considered to be primarily soot particles. The larger spherical and irregularly shaped particles were composed of same alkali metal compounds as ultrafine particles, but they were probably covered with heavy organic compounds. From SC, particles were composed mainly of carbon compounds and they had a more closed structure than the particles from NC, due to organic matter on the particles. In the present experiments, the ultrafine mode in the particle number distributions seemed to be determined mainly by the amount of released ash forming material in combustion, and the shifting of particle size during different combustion conditions seemed to be determined by the amount of condensed organic vapour in the flue gas.
In optical analysers devoted to the analysis of atmospheric black carbon concentration, the specific attenuation cross-section, σ is the factor used to convert the attenuation of a light beam due to the absorption of aerosols deposited on a filter into their black carbon content.We have tried to gain further insight for a suitable choice of sigma value, using both optical analysis (with an aethalometer) and thermal analysis of black carbon aerosols and comparison of the two sets of results. Samples which were investigated originate from varying environments, including suburban areas, tropical areas where biomass burning was prevalent and from more remote locations. In a given type of atmospheric environment, σ values are found to be constant. However, σ displays an important variability (range: 5–20 m2 g−1) which may be related to the variability of the aerosol mix (internal or external mixture) and the aging of the atmospheric particulate phase.Our results quote unambiguously the need for a modulated calibration of optical analysers depending on the type of atmospheric environments which are studied. They suggest the need to reconsider carefully the black carbon data obtained at remote locations.
We describe an instrument that measures the concentration of optically absorbing aerosol particles in real time. This absorption is normally due to black carbon, which is a good tracer for combustion emission. The minimum resolving times range from seconds in urban environments to minutes in remote locations. We present results obtained during operation on an aircraft. Due to the time resolution capability, we can determine the spatial distributions of absorbing aerosol. From the Greek word “αιϑλoυν,” “to blacken with soot,” we have named this instrument the .
During a soot aerosol measurement campaign the response of two different aethalometers (AE10 with white light and AE30 with multiwavelength capability) to several types of soot was investigated. Diesel soot, spark-generated carbon particles, and mixtures of these soot particles with ammonium sulfate and oxidation products of α-pinene were used in this evaluation. The determination of the particles light absorption coefficient (babs) with the AE10 aethalometer is a difficult task because of an ill-defined spectral sensitivity of this instrument. Provided that the proper numerical corrections are performed, the AE30 instrument allows for the measurement of babs over a wide spectral range (λ=450–). During all experiments it was found that with increasing filter load the optical path in the aethalometer filter decreased. As a result, an increased underestimation of the measured aethalometer signals (babs or black carbon mass concentrations) occurs with increasing filter loads. This effect, which is attributed to a “shadowing” of the particles in the fiber matrix, is very pronounced for “pure” soot particles while almost negligible for aged atmospheric aerosols. An empirical correction for this bias is presented and requires information on the light scattering behavior (i.e. light scattering coefficient) of the sampled particles. Without this additional information, the applicability of the instruments is limited. Comparison with a reference method shows that multiple scattering in the nearly unloaded fiber filter is responsible for enhanced light absorption by a factor of about 2.14.
Observations regarding emissions of organic air toxics from open burning sources were made. The studies show that biomass open burning sources emit less volatile organic compounds (VOC) than anthropogenic sources. Biomass open burning sources also emit less semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Burning pools of crude oil and diesel fuel produce significant amounts of PAHs relative to other types of open burning. PAH emissions are highest when combustion of polymers is involved.
Open burning for waste disposal is, in many countries, the dominant source of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls (PCDD/PCDF/PCB) release to the environment. To generate emission factors for open burning, experimental pile burns of about 100 kg of household waste were conducted with emissions sampling. From these experiments and others conducted by the same authors it is found that less compaction of waste or active mixing during the fire--"stirring"--promotes better combustion (as evidenced by lower CO/CO(2) ratio) and reduces emissions of PCDD/PCDF/PCB; an intuitive but previously undemonstrated result. These experiments also support previous results suggesting PCDD/PCDF/PCB generation in open burning - while still highly variable - tends to be greater in the later (smoldering) phases of burning when the CO/CO(2) ratio increases.
Emissions from the combustion of biomass and fossil fuels are a significant source of particulate matter (PM) in ambient outdoor and/or indoor air. It is important to quantify PM emissions from combustion sources for regulatory and control purposes in relation to air quality. In this paper, we review emission factors for several types of important combustion sources: road transport, industrial facilities, small household combustion devices, environmental tobacco smoke, and vegetation burning. We also review current methods for measuring particle physical characteristics (mass and number concentrations) and principles of methodologies for measuring emission factors. The emission factors can be measured on a fuel-mass basis and/or a task basis. Fuel-mass based emission factors (e.g., g/kg of fuel) can be readily used for the development of emission inventories when the amount of fuels consumed are known. Task-based emission factors (g/mile driven, g/MJ generated) are more appropriate when used to conduct comparisons of air pollution potentials of different combustion devices. Finally, we discuss major shortcomings and limitations of current methods for measuring particle emissions and present recommendations for development of future measurement techniques.
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