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So when will we have enough papers on microplastics and ocean litter?
... The Web of Science (accessed June 30, 2022) returned a total of 45,471 articles containing the words plastic (i.e., '*plastic*') and pollution (i.e., 'pollut*') in their topic between 1950 (the beginning of industrialization of plastic production) and 2022, a figure that has been highly significantly exponentially growing (r 2 > 0.99, Fig. 1A). To assemble the literature search, we deliberately used the word pollution, instead of contamination-though they are often used interchangeably in the ocean litter literature-as there is a critical need to separate the anthropogenic presence of the materials (i.e., contamination) from pollution, the adverse biological effects at one of more levels of biological organization, that is sensu lato pollution (Borja and Elliott, 2019). Overall, these 45,471 articles were predominantly related to 3 subject areas ("Environmental Sciences and Ecology", "Public Environmental and Occupational Health", and "Toxicology"; Fig. 2A). ...
... (i) the increasing awareness of the scientific community on the need to shift our focus from one that solely describes levels and geographic location of plastic contaminations to one that identifies ecological effects and solutions of plastic contamination and predicts impacts to the projected increase of plastic litter (Borja and Elliott, 2019), (ii) the acknowledged need to raise the publication bar for microplastic research through harmonized methods and quality assurance practices, and more incentive for journals, editors and reviewers to be more proactive in ensuring clear, repeatable methods of research articles, an absolute prerequisite to contribute to a constructive and factual discourse on plastic pollution (Provencher et al., 2020), (iii) the growing demand from reviewers for the inclusion of polymer types to microplastic particles in environmental and biological samples, and plastic particle chemical characterization as a condition of final manuscript acceptance (Ivar do Sul, 2021), even though it may remain legitimate to consider that stating "we found the amount Q of litter at location X" is appropriate-hence worthy of publication-depending on the nature of the study and the scientific question. ...
... In this context, we claim-especially given the intrinsic interdisciplinary nature of microplastic research, and beyond the question of the pertinence of keeping publishing descriptive studies about the presence of plastics in virtually any location on Earth (see Borja and Elliott (2019) for an in-depth discussion on this specific issue)-that it is of utmost importance for microplastic research to bridge the gap between studies focusing on the biological and ecological effects of plastic pollution and characterizing and quantifying the intrinsic and extrinsic chemicals behind the observed so-called effects. We believe this is a legitimate plea for a few fundamental reasons. ...
Plastic is one of the most ubiquitous sources of both contamination and pollution of the Anthropocene, and accumulates virtually everywhere on the planet. As such, plastic threatens the environment, the economy and human well-being globally. The related potential threats have been identified as a major global conservation issue and a key research priority. As a consequence, plastic pollution has become one of the most prolific fields of research in research areas including chemistry, physics, oceanography, biology, ecology, ecotoxicology, molecular biology, sociology, economy, conservation, management, and even politics. In this context, one may legitimately expect plastic pollution research to be highly interdisciplinary. However, using the emerging topic of microplastic and nanoplastic leachate (i.e., the desorption of molecules that are adsorbed onto the surface of a polymer and/or absorbed into the polymer matrix in the absence of plastic ingestion) in the ocean as a case study, we argue that this is still far from being the case. Instead, we highlight that plastic pollution research rather seems to remain structured in mostly isolated monodisciplinary studies. A plethora of analytical methods are now available to qualify and quantify plastic monomers, polymers and the related additives. We nevertheless show though a survey of the literature that most studies addressing the effects of leachates on marine organisms essentially still lack of a quantitative assessment of the chemical nature and content of both plastic items and their leachates. In the context of the ever-increasing research effort devoted to assess the biological and ecological effects of plastic waste, we subsequently argue that the lack of a true interdisciplinary approach is likely to hamper the development of this research field. We finally introduce a roadmap for future research which has to evolve through the development of a sound and systematic ability to chemically define what we biologically compare.
... Another early topic was that on oil-spill pollution monitoring, as prompted by the Torrey Canyon wreck (1967), releasing 119,000 t, and then after each major oil-spill accident (especially in the 1970's and the 1980's, with at least 15 major accidents releasing 2.2 million tons of oil to the seas) there has been an increased awareness (Borja and Elliott, 2019). With better safety and ship-design measures, and perhaps with a reduced movement of oil, there appears to have been a reduction in the very large oil-spills and in turn monitoring of hydrocarbons in the environment. ...
... This and other environmental catastrophes involving metal spillages (such as those in the Doñana National Park in southern Spain, in 1998, Riba et al., 2002), together with the development of the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, allowing contaminants to be accurately monitored, enhanced the need for and ability to achieve the monitoring. Furthermore, there was an increase in national and regional legislation requiring contaminants to be monitored (e.g., CWA, WFD, MSFD, and Priority Substances Directive (PSD), in 2013) (Borja and Elliott, 2019). The European Dangerous Substances Directive in 1976, together with its 'Daughter' Directives on mercury, pesticides, other organohalogens, etc. (all of which were absorbed into the WFD) also gave impetus to monitoring and, for the first studies working on such problems, the ability to get the work published in international journals. ...
... When referring to marine monitoring, many of the earlier papers seem to be concerned more with 'contamination', as the presence of the materials in the environment, rather than 'pollution' per se, as the biological and environmental effects of that contamination (Borja and Elliott, 2019). However, there are notable changes in recent years, focusing more on experimental-based approaches (Rodrigues et al., 2021), and especially on topics related to the Ecosystem Approach and Ecosystem-based Management (Kirkfeldt, 2019), climate change, and holistic approaches to monitoring (Elliott and Whitfield, 2021;Sheppard et al., 2021). ...
It is axomatic that a system cannot be managed unless it is measured and that the measurements occur in a rigorous, defendable manner covering relevant spatial and temporal scales. Furthermore, it is not possible to predict the future direction of a system unless any predictive approach or model is supported by empirical evidence from monitoring. The marine system is no different from any other system in these regards. This review indicates the nature and topics of marine monitoring, its constraints in times of economic austerity, the sequence of topics subject to monitoring and the amount of monitoring of various topics carried out as indicated by the number of publications and researchers. We discuss the way in which the nature of monitoring is decided and we use examples to comment on the way monitoring leads to and responds to marine management and governance.
... Here we distinguished between contamination, as the presence of a human-derived material in the environment, and pollution per se, as the biological effect of those contaminants which will reduce the fitness for survival of one or more levels of biological organization from the cell to the ecosystem (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Souza et al., 2020). We emphasize this distinction given the Latin root of contamination meaning to make impure, i.e., the addition of materials in type or quantity not normally present in the environment but in which a biological impact is not assumed. ...
... We emphasize this distinction given the Latin root of contamination meaning to make impure, i.e., the addition of materials in type or quantity not normally present in the environment but in which a biological impact is not assumed. The current review aims to test the earlier suggestion that for plastics there are more studies on contamination than on pollution per se (Borja and Elliott, 2019). ...
... While the number of studies related to MPs has increased greatly in recent decades (Borja and Elliott, 2019), considerably fewer publications have focused on the relationship between MPs and plankton organisms. It is of note that many studies, for example, those that collected water samples using plankton nets, only aimed to investigate MPs contamination (MPs concentration in water) and did not include interactions with the plankton. ...
Due to their ubiquitous presence, size and characteristics as ability to adsorb pollutants, microplastics are hypothesized as causing a major impact on smaller organisms, such as plankton. Despite this, there is a need to determine whether these impacts just relate to the environmental presence of the materials or their effects on biological processes. Therefore, we aimed to 1) review current research on plankton and microplastics; 2) compare field and laboratory experimental findings, and 3) identify knowledge gaps. The systematic review showed that 70% of the 147 relevant scientific publications were from laboratory studies and microplastics interactions with plankton were recorded in 88 taxa. Field study publications were relatively scarce and the characteristics of microplastics collected in the field were very different from those used in laboratory experiments thereby limiting the comparison between studies. Our systematic review highlighted knowledge gaps in: 1) the number of field studies; 2) the non-comparability between laboratory and field conditions, and 3) the low diversity of plankton species studied. Furthermore, this review indicated that while there are many studies on contamination by microplastics, the effects of this contamination (i.e., pollution per se) have been less well-studied, especially in the field at population, community, and ecosystem levels.
... It is listed within the UN SDGs (United Nations, 2016), being the subject of a number of national and regional initiatives such as the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Although not necessarily the largest threat to ocean health (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Tiller et al., 2019), marine litter has also become a pressing issue for the general public, and high public awareness and media attention have led to the creation of numerous entrepreneurial start-up initiatives to address the problem of marine litter, although little academic research has documented their effectiveness (Dijstra et al., 2021). ...
... There have been various collection efforts to remove litter from marine environments (LIFE LEMA, 2020;Dijstra et al., 2021), including vessel or land-based structures, and should be environmentally friendly. Borja and Elliott (2019) emphasize the need for a holistic and multidisciplinary approach to solving the challenge of ocean plastics, which considers the ecological, economic, technological, societal, legal, administrative, political, cultural, ethical, and communication aspects. "Fishing for litter" schemes engage the fishing sector in the protection of the marine environment and raising awareness; currently, 10 European countries are participating in the Fishing for Litter initiative (KIMO, 2021). ...
The ocean is facing multiple pressures from human activities, including the effects of climate change. Science has a prominent role in identifying problems and communicating these to society. However, scientists are also increasingly taking an active role in developing solutions, including strategies for adapting to and mitigating climate change, increasing food security, and reducing pollution. Transmitting these solutions to society changes our narrative about the ocean and motivates actions. The United Nations triple initiatives for this decade—the Sustainable Development Goals, the Decade on Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, and the Decade of Ecosystem Restoration—provide the momentum for this change in narrative and focus. Here, we reflect on the search for solutions and the need for better ways of communicating science in a positive way. We synthesize insights from a summer school held during the COVID-19 pandemic and present some examples of successes and failures and the lessons learned from these.
... Responses are management measures (Borja and Elliott, 2019) and the responsibility for this management lies with the last stakeholders involved in the chain: government, private institutions, scientific academy and non-governmental institutions (ONGs), in addition to civil society and industry, both also acting as interested parties. Government is at the center of the responsibility in this issue, due to being responsible for creating regulations and laws for their correct application. ...
... Such as effective communication (i.e. environmental education, public awareness and media) that will make the society aware, especially the new generations, of tolerance and morality (ethic), about not leave debris or generate the least amount of debris possible (Borja and Elliott, 2019). ...
Single-use plastic, few global engagement and lack of policies contribute to the global challenge about plastic marine litter. This form of contamination can cause injury and death of marine wildlife. Microplastics (>5 mm) represent an important fraction of plastic litter. They include the plastic pellets that are used as raw material within plastic industry that can be unintentionally spilled into the environment during the industrial processes. In an initiative in order to facilitate the understanding and communication of plastic pellets as a social and environmental problem, we applied the Drivers-Activities-Pressures-State changes-Impacts (on Welfare)-Responses (as Measures) (DAPSI[W]R[M]) framework to plastic pellets chain. We also analyzed possible mitigating measures and their actions along the plastic pellets chain. This DAPSI(W)R(M) framework aim to show an overview of the plastic pellets chain and solutions for politicians and decision makers to help solve this socio-environmental problem that needs the engagement of all stakeholders involved.
... The research community began publishing studies on plastic and marine litter as early as 1968and 1975(Borja and Elliott, 2019. These became regular topics in the literature from 1981 to 1987, respectively, but with a decidedly heavy focus on contamination (waste that enters nature) and pollution (when the contamination causes harm to humans or animals). ...
... This focus is corroborated by the agreements stemming from this period, namely the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, MARPOL, and the Basel Convention. The focus has now, however, shifted to seafood with microplastics ending up on our dinner tables as well as entangled in marine wildlife (Borja and Elliott, 2019). This type of research has set the tone for human emotion in the plastic arena, where citizens react to eating and visually seeing the harm of plastic in the global environment. ...
In February 2022, the United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA) is expected to mandate negotiations for a legally binding plastic agreement. In preparations for such discussions, it is important to understand the academic research behind what a global treaty on plastic will require to succeed. Therefore, a systematic literature review was conducted on 64 peer-reviewed articles published before July 4th, 2021, that focused on global plastic governance and avenues to mitigate our pollution crisis. Once reviewed, the articles were organized into a series of four main categories: (1) plastic pollution overview articles, (2) top-down solutions, (3) bottom-up solutions, and finally a (4) global treaty as a solution. The analysis of these articles enabled an overarching review and discussion of what the literature suggested is required for the creation of a global plastics agreement. First, the researchers argued that previous global plastics governance literature is characterized by an optimist governance perspective, i.e., a view of governance as a problem-solving mechanism. Second, global plastics governance as a research field could make headway by engaging in further empirical investigation of current negotiations and solutions at the national level, especially in developing nations. In the end we found that a global agreement is feasible if it allows for multi-stakeholder solutions involving industry, governance, stakeholders, and citizens.
... It is widely accepted that marine litter is a global phenomenon, recognized of concern at international levels therefore included in the UNEP initiatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) or in G7 and G20 statements (Borja and Elliott, 2019). Indeed, SDG14 (Life below water) specifically has an extremely ambitious target to reduce or remove this source of pollution by 2025 (UN, 2015) although without further development that target has been criticized as being inaccurate and unattainable (Cormier and Elliott, 2017). ...
... As remarked by Borja and Elliott (2019), it is no longer time to report occurrences of plastics without proposing solutions. It is also timely to tailor general solutions such as "increasing awareness; reducing littering; etc." to the specific context, i.e. defining system components, boundaries, and dynamics of interaction. ...
As sites of floating marine material deposition, sandy beaches accumulate marine litter. While research and assessment on beach litter is increasing and involves various actors (scientists, society and NGOs), there is the need to assess current and future dominant trends, directions and priorities in that research. As such, a textural co-occurrence analysis was applied to published scientific literature. Words were considered both singly and as part of compound terms related to concepts relevant to sandy beach ecology: morphodynamic state; Littoral Active Zone; indicator fauna. Litter as a compound term was also included. The main co-occurrences were found within compounds, with scarce interaction of "morphodynamic state" with the others, indicating the need for further integration of beach ecology paradigms into beached plastics studies. Three approaches are proposed to overcome the research limits highlighted: the unequivocation of terms, the consideration of adequate scales, and the attention to dynamics rather than just patterns.
... One of the knowledge gaps is the insufficient information from the distribution of MPs in situ and its impact on plankton species globally. Quantification of MPs influence on the trophic transfer in marine ecosystems are urgently needed (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Rodrigues et al., 2021). Thus, the aim of this study is to assess the presence of MPs within ichthyoplankton communities in the coastal and open waters of the Northwestern Black Sea (Ukrainian shelf) by 1) quantifying and qualifying MP pollution in terms of interaction with ichthyoplankton at two surface layers of water (neuston and hyponeuston) of the Northwestern Black Sea; and 2) understanding the spatial distribution of MPs and ichthyoplankton in the coastal and open waters. ...
The ability of planktonic and neustonic organisms to feed on microplastics and subsequently transfer it through the marine food web has been studied extensively. However, there are no studies on microplastic in the Northwestern Black Sea. The present study assesses the diversity and spatial distribution of microplastics and ichthyoplankton in two surface layers: 0–5 cm (neuston surface layer; NL) and 5–20 cm (hyponeuston layer; HL). The sampling was undertaken in June 2020 – October 2021 in the coastal (CW) and open (OW) waters of the Northwestern Black Sea. Microplastics was observed at all studied sites and was composed of fibres (75 %) and fragments (25 %). Black and red fibres were the most abundant type of fibre, and black particles dominated the fragments. Four types of polymers were identified by Raman spectroscopy: polyethylene, polyester, polyurethane, polypropylene. The concentration of microplastics near the coast significantly exceeded that of open waters; the average microplastics concentration in the CW reached 136±74 (±SE) and 46±30 particles.m-3 in the NL and HL, respectively, whereas it reached 18±3 and 2±0.8 particles.m-3 in the NL and HL of the OW, respectively. In the NL, ichthyoplankton was found only at 31 % of the sites, and at only 24 % of sites in the HL. In total, 6 species of fish were recorded. The most abundant species was the European anchovy, one of the main commercial species in the Black Sea. The ratio of microplastics to ichthyoplankton was 0.34 (or 1:2.87) for both layers, where ichthyoplankton was present. When considering all studied sites, the ratio of microplastics to ichthyoplankton was 1.07 (or 1:0.93). As ichthyoplankton is an ephemeral component of the neuston community, but microplastics is omnipresent, we may consider that comparable densities of microplastics:ichthyoplankton favour their interrelation, negative effect, and transport through the food web.
... Human activities inland are producing an increasing amount of litter arriving in estuaries and coasts, and there has long been the demand for the monitoring of this litter, especially the non-degradable plastics, linked to the biological repercussions (Borja and Elliott, 2019). Hence, spatial models assessing drivers of estuarine debris can be important tools to take management decisions, as studied by Gacutan et al. (2024) across four estuaries of New South Wales, Australia. ...
... This waste leads to an increase in microplastics, which are defined as particles smaller than 5 mm. Since 2000, the pollution of the world's oceans has been the subject of increasing scientific interest [37]. Microplastics can persist in the environment for hundreds of years and enter the natural ecosystem through various pathways. ...
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in numerous cases of illness and death worldwide. Research has shown that there are associations between transmission, as well as the severity of SARS-CoV‑2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) infections, and various environmental factors. For example, air pollution with particulate matter is thought to play a crucial role, and both climatic and geographical aspects must be considered. Furthermore, environmental conditions such as industry and urban lifestyle have a significant impact on air quality and thus on health aspects of the population. In this regard, other factors such as chemicals, microplastics, and diet also critically impact health, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted how closely health and the environment are linked. This review discusses the impact of environmental factors on the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Growing activities to defend environmental health like the United Nations initiatives (Simmonds 2012) are promising. And yet, if there is any chance to solve the problem, it seems urgently necessary to raise more public awareness (Arthur et al. 2014, Abreu andPedrotti 2019), especially in the young generation (Borja andElliot 2019, Panti et al. 2019). ...
The pollution of the oceans with plastic and other anthropogenic litter is alarming, as is evidenced by an abundance of research on marine debris. In contrast, terrestrial anthropogenic litter and its impacts are largely lacking scientific attention. Therefore, the main objective of the present study is to find out whether the litter burden is as severe in terrestrial flora and fauna as it is in the ocean. For this purpose, five meadows and the gastric content of 100 slaughtered cattle as well as 50 slaughtered sheep have been examined for persistent man-made debris in Northern Bavaria, Germany (49°18’N, 10°24’E).
All of the five meadows contained garbage, and plastics were always part of it. 521 persistent anthropogenic objects were detected altogether in a total survey area of 139050 m², equalling a litter density of 37.5 items per hectare (3747 items/km²). The litter spectrum included 245 plastic items (17.6 items/ha = 1762 items/km²), with a significantly higher abundance in meadows which were either adjacent to waste dumps or frequently used by pedestrians. The plastic abundance was only, though not significantly, surpassed by glass with 263 items (18.9 items/ha = 1891 items/km²) and significantly underrun by metal with 13 pieces (0.9 items/ha = 93 items/km²). 92.7 % of all the meadow-litter were fragments, 73.3 % represented packaging material, and 75.5 % had documented equivalents in marine debris.
Of the 100 examined cattle, 30 animals harboured anthropogenic foreign bodies in their gastric tract, reaching a total amount of 82 items, with a mean of 0.8 ± 2.5 items per animal. Among the 50 examined sheep, 3 animals (6.0 %) contained a total of 9 anthropogenic items with a mean of 0.2 ± 0.8 objects per sheep. Plastics were the most dominant litter material, encompassing 68.3 % of the man-made objects in the bovine and 100 % in the ovine gastric tracts. Fibres were the most frequent plastic litter type, with a share of 71.4 % of the bovine and 44.4 % of the ovine plastic foreign bodies. Glass, ceramic and metallic objects have also been detected, but only in cattle. 93.9 % of the bovine and 100 % of the ovine anthropogenic foreign bodies were fragments. Two young cows (2.0 %) showed traumatic lesions in the reticulum associated with long pointed metal items, a nail in one cow and two wire fragments in the second one. In three other cattle (3.0 %), metal wires were accompanied by punctual tongue lesions. In the rumen of two other cattle (2.0 %), bezoars had conglomerated around plastic fibres. Stones in the abomasum, mainly in the company of sand, were related to abomasitis geosedimentosa in 9 cattle (9.0 %). In one sheep (2.0 %), a necrotic spot on the ruminal mucosa coincided with the presence of 5 rubber-balloon fragments in the ruminal content.
Altogether 68.2 % of the anthropogenic objects in the bovine and ovine gastric tracts could be traced back to agricultural equipment, mainly wrapping materials from silage, straw or hay bales, while 28.6 % of the foreign bodies originated in common end-consumer products. 26.4 % of the anthropogenic litter items ingested by the studied farm ruminants had direct equivalents in the studied meadows, 30.8 % in the debris of marine environments and 29.7 % in the gastrointestinal foreign bodies of marine animals. At least in this study region, waste pollution affected terrestrial environments and domestic animals, with clear equivalents in the marine world. Ingested foreign bodies produced lesions that may have reduced the animal’s welfare and, regarding commercial purposes, their productivity.
... In recent years, several studies began to focus on the presence of MPs in every kind of environmental samples. Since 2014, the number of publications on MP contamination has increased rapidly (He et al. 2018;Borja and Elliott 2019), and the list is daily updated. The pathways that different MP types follow from sources to sinks and the dynamics of their transfer through the food web, as well as the complex patterns of biological effects on living organisms are the main knowledge gaps to be filled (Horton et al. 2017;Worm et al. 2017). ...
Microplastic pollution is one of the greatest environmental concerns for contemporary times and the future. In the last years, the number of publications about microplastic contamination has increased rapidly and the list is daily updated. However, the lack of standard analytical approaches might generate data inconsistencies, reducing the comparability among different studies. The present study investigates the potential of two image processing tools (namely the shapeR package for R and ImageJ 1.52v) in providing an accurate characterization of the shape of microplastics using a restricted set of shape descriptors. To ascertain that the selected tools can measure small shape differences, we perform an experiment to verify the detection of pre-post variations in the shape of different microplastic types (i.e., nylon [NY], polyethylene [PE], polyethylene terephthalate [PET], polypropylene [PP], polystyrene [PS], and polyvinylchloride [PVC]) treated with mildly corrosive chemicals (i.e., 10% KOH at 60 °C, 30% H2O2 at 50 °C, and 15% H2O2 + 5% HNO3 at 40 °C; incubation time ≈ 12 h). Analysis of surface area variations returns results about the vulnerability of plastic polymers to digestive solutions that are aligned with most of the acquired knowledge. The largest decrease in surface area occurs for KOH-treated PET particles, while NY results in the most susceptible polymer to the 30% H2O2 treatment, followed by PVC and PS. PE and PP are the most resistant polymers to all the used treatments. The adopted methods to characterize microplastics seem reliable tools for detecting small differences in the shape and size of these particles. Then, the analytic perspectives that can be developed using such widely accessible and low-cost equipment are discussed.
... This is supported by the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which considers marine litter as one of the Descriptors, i.e., Descriptor 10, to monitor the good environmental status of European seas and oceans. Some authors have argued that it is not by far one of the most urgent matters, pointing instead to climate change, habitats and biodiversity loss, overfishing, interactions of different pollutants (especially those contaminants of emerging concern such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides), and cumulative impacts of different human pressures (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Tiller et al., 2019). Nonetheless other authors state that marine litter influences all of the above due to their capacity to alter the carbon cycle (Shen et al., 2020) or to transport pollutants and different species (Capolupo et al., 2020;Kesy et al., 2019;Kooi et al., 2017). ...
Numerical models point to the south-east Bay of Biscay as a convergence area for floating particles, including plastics. The few existing studies on plastic abundance in the area mainly focus on open waters and yet information on the coastal area is limited. To fill this gap, neustonic samples were taken along the coastal waters of the south-east Bay of Biscay (2017–2020) to define the spatial distribution of plastic abundances and composition. Results show an average plastic abundance of 739,395 ± 2,625,271 items/km² (998 ± 4338 g/km²). French waters were more affected, with five times higher plastic abundances than Spanish coasts. Microplastics represented 93 % of the total abundance of plastic items (28 % in weight), mesoplastics 7 % (26 %) and macroplastics 1 % (46 %). This study demonstrates that this area is a hotspot for plastic with levels in coastal waters similar to those in the Mediterranean Sea or other litter aggregation areas.
... There were more proposals for solutions to global problems and collations of information such as the UN World Oceans Assessment I at the start of the decade and preparing for the second (II) iteration at the end (United Nations 2021). There was an increasing number of papers on micro-and mega-plastics and ocean litter, even if many of the papers merely showed the degree of contamination rather than the impact of pollution on the biota, and there were the first indications of noise and light as contaminants/pollutants (Borja and Elliott 2019). Changes in beauty and health trends led to pharmaceutical and personal care pollutants as a new class of contaminants entering estuaries and the coastal zone -hence the development of nanotoxicology, including the realisation that microbeads in such products were a further source of microplastics. ...
Estuarine and coastal waters are acknowledged centres for anthropogenic impacts. Superimposed on the complex natural interactions between land, rivers and sea are the myriad consequences of human activity – a spectrum ranging from locally polluting effluents to some of the severest consequences of global climate change. For practitioners, academics and students in the field of coastal science and policy, this book examines and exemplifies current and future challenges: from upper estuaries to open coasts and adjacent seas; from tropical to temperate latitudes; from Europe to Australia. This authoritative volume marks the 50th anniversary of the Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association, and contains a prologue by founding member Professor Richard Barnes and a short history of the Association. Individual chapters then address coastal erosion and deposition; open shores to estuaries and deltas; marine plastics; coastal squeeze and habitat loss; tidal freshwaters – saline incursion and estuarine squeeze; restoration management using remote data collection; carbon storage; species distribution and non-natives; shorebirds; modelling environmental change; physical processes such as sediments and modelling; sea level rise and estuarine tidal dynamics; estuaries as fish nurseries; policy versus reality in coastal conservation; developments in estuarine, coastal and marine management.
... One of them is the increasing (60-80%) amount of plastic waste [2]. Plastic waste research was first reported in the early 1970s in various parts of the world [3,4] and has become a hot issue for pollution in the past two decades [5]. Marine debris comes from activities in the ocean (fishing, aquaculture, shipbuilding, etc.) or land (landfill, agriculture, etc.). ...
Microplastics pollution in water has been observed since the early 1970s and continues to develop. The microplastics transport route has been studied in more detail by researchers from various regions. One of the essential pathways for microplastics pollution is rivers, which contribute to 98% of the microplastics’ total concentration in the marine ecosystem. Previous studies have shown that the closer area to the river, the higher the microplastics pollution. The microplastics type (size and shape) that dominates in river waters varies depending on the surrounding community's activities. The abundance of microplastics in rivers is highly dependent on sources, geographic conditions, and hydrodynamic conditions. The abundance of microplastics in the river is also determined by the collection method (bulk/pump water or net) and extraction process. FTIR and µRaman are generally used to identify the type of microplastics synthetic polymer in rivers. Several studies have shown that microplastics in rivers contain heavy metals and bacteria, especially in biofilm.KeywordsDebrisWWTPsFateAbundanceFragmentsFiberSpatiotemporalHeavy metal
... Studies related to microplastics in abiotic compartments of the environment began in the 1970s and have been increasing at a very high rate in recent years, showing a high concern of researchers from all over the world regarding this theme (Borja & Elliott, 2019;Qin et al., 2020;Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2015b). ...
The aim of this review was to identify the current knowledge regarding the concentration of microplastics in bivalves in the marine, estuarine, and freshwater environments. For this purpose, researches were conducted from September 2020 to February 2021 in the Scopus, Web of Science, and Google scholar databases, following a meticulous selection of articles. To comprehensively understand the selected articles, an extensive review was carried out in order to identify the methodologies employed, sampling sites, species evaluated, characteristics of the microplastics (concentrations, shapes, sizes, and polymers) and their relationship with the concentration of this particles in the environment. A total of 93 articles were selected, with an exponential growth in the number of articles from April 2014 to February 2021. Worldwide, 80 articles were realized in the Northern Hemisphere and thirteen in the Southern Hemisphere. The samplings of organisms were carried out in 36 countries, besides one in Antarctica. The concentration of microplastics were studied in 70 species, with mussels Mytilus spp. and the oysters Crassostrea spp. being the main genus studied. Due to the different methodologies used to digest the tissues of organisms and identify microplastics and species, it is difficult to make comparisons between the results of different studies. In addition, data on the concentrations of microplastics in the environment, as well as their composition and characteristics, are needed, enabling the verification of relationships with the concentrations identified in organisms, which does not occur in most studies. Thus, we suggest an increase in the number of studies to be realized in the southern hemisphere, future studies use the same methodology of digestion, the polymer identification of microplastics and samplings of the surrounding environment, enabling a greater comparison between studies.
... Nowadays, MD is a global environmental issue that attracts the attention of the public and researchers (Haward, 2018). Studies on MD have been increasing consistently in the last two decades, and it is estimated that land is the main contributor to MD pollution in the sea (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Jambeck et al., 2015). The fundamental sources of land-based MD are industrial outfalls, rivers, runoff, storms, sewerage, tourism, and recreational activities (UNEP and United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2009). ...
Stranded marine debris (MD) has become a hot topic on Bali Island because it threatens coastal tourism sustainability. This study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal abundance and characteristics of MD on 14 touristic beaches in Bali Island. Sampling is carried out twice every season by adapting methods from NOAA's MD program. We found that the average MD abundance and weight were 0.356 ± 0.366 items/m2 and 4.057 ± 3.892 g/m2, respectively. Plastic dominated the MD based on abundance (86.9%) and weight (40.1%). Plastic bags, straws, and plastic cups are the most common items among plastics. The MD is originated from Indonesia and is dominated by land-based sources. The beaches are categorized as dirty in the rainy seasons and clean in the dry seasons. Statistically, the MD based on abundance, weight, category, source, and level of cleanliness varied significantly between seasons.
... Coastal systems are greatly valued for their social relevance as well as their ecological importance but are nevertheless subjected to marine litter pollution (Sathish et al., 2019). Marine litter is one among key issues threatening the health of global ocean ecosystems, and it is gaining momentum among the scientific community (Borja and Elliott, 2019). It is defined as 'any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment' (Buhl-Mortensen and Buhl-Mortensen, 2017). ...
Marine litter is a major global concern that is threatening marine ecosystems. This study assessed the meso-litter and microplastics density around Mauritius Island, South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) region. WIOMSA guidelines were used for meso-litter and microplastics sampling from October to December 2019 at 12 sites. A total of 1095 meso-litter items (weighing 1250 g) was sampled. Plastics were the most abundant litter category. ‘Shoreline and recreational activities’ were the main meso-litter source. Microplastics density was highest at the vegetation line (VL) zone. Fragments, mostly blue-coloured, were the most encountered type of microplastics, and polyethylene was the most prevalent polymer type. This study provides important baseline data which can be used by relevant authorities for more effective waste management strategies and awareness campaigns that will help further mitigate the marine litter problem in Mauritius, and to check the effectiveness of management measures in place.
... It was not until the 1970s that we see the first official reports on the presence of plastic debris in the marine environment (Rochman 2018), although it is likely that it was occurring well before then. Since then, the scientific literature recording plastic in aquatic environments and wildlife has grown exponentially (Dris et al. 2015;Worm et al. 2017), with increasing focus on the presence and effects of microplastic (plastic B 5 mm) (Borja and Elliott 2019). Overall, microplastic ingestion has been documented in over 700 marine species and there are many studies showing plastic in sea turtles, sea birds and other charismatic megafauna, such as whales and dolphins (Besseling et al. 2015;Gall & Thompson 2015;Germanov et al. 2018;Kuhn & van Franeker 2020;Worm et al. 2017). ...
Plastic contamination is ubiquitous, with plastic found in hundreds of species of aquatic wildlife, including fish. Lacking a broad and comprehensive view of this global issue across aquatic environments, we collated and synthesised the literature that focuses on microplastic ingestion in fish from marine, freshwater and estuarine environments. First, we assessed how the approaches used to investigate microplastic in fish have changed through time, comparing studies globally. A greater understanding of this changing landscape is essential for rigorous and coherent comparisons with only 42% of published studies following recommended approaches of chemical digestions and verifying plastic via polymer identification. Then, using this subset of studies, we found that 49% of all fish sampled globally for microplastic ingestion had plastic (average of 3.5 pieces per fish), with fish from North America ingesting more plastic than fish from other regions. We then evaluated the role of environment, habitat, feeding strategy and source (i.e. aquaculture or wild-caught) in the ingestion of microplastic. Research from marine environments dominated (82% of species) but freshwater fish ingested more plastic, as did detritivores, fish in deeper waters and those from aquaculture sources. By collating global microplastic research we identified regional disparities and key knowledge gaps that support research towards freshwater environments and aquaculture sources. Overall, we highlight the need for consistent guidelines in methods used to evaluate microplastic in fish, to ensure data are unambiguous, comparable and can be widely used to support mitigation and management strategies, inform potential policy actions, and evaluations of environmental, food safety, and human health goals.
Graphic abstract
... Knowledge of the quantification, characteristics and mechanisms of marine pollution (be it discrete or chronic, from a non-point source or point source) is increasing exponentially (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Lebreton et al., 2017). Further, high social awareness and knowledge about the problems at hand is available (Gelcich et al., 2014). ...
Despite an increasing understanding of the issue of marine pollution, humanity continues on a largely unsus-tainable trajectory. This study aimed to identify and classify the range of scientific studies and interventions to address coastal and marine pollution. We reviewed 2417 scientific papers published between 2000 and 2018, 741 of which we analysed in depth. To classify pollution interventions, we applied the systems-oriented concept of leverage points, which focuses on places to intervene in complex systems to bring about systemic change. We found that pollution is largely studied as a technical problem and fewer studies engage with pollution as a systemic social-ecological issue. While recognising the importance of technical solutions, we highlight the need to focus on under-researched areas pertaining to the deeper drivers of pollution (e.g. institutions, values) which are needed to fundamentally alter system trajectories.
... Approximately half of the global waste production, which is expected to be 8 billion tons in 2025, are non-biodegradable materials such as plastic and metal (Galgani et al., 2015). Therefore, it has become one of the important problems that have been focused on in recent years (Borja and Elliott, 2019). According to the Cheshire et al. (2009), marine litter is "waste, discarded or lost material resulting from human activitiesmarine litter is any such material that has made it into the marine environment, including material found on beaches or material that is floating or has sunk at sea". ...
Marine litter, which can be seen in almost all seas in recent years, is a serious problem for the environment. Similarly, the same problem also exists in Turkey's seas. This study was carried out in 4 different areas, each of which is 100m², in the Yumurtalık Fishing Port in İskenderun Bay. Marine litter was removed from the seabed by diving in these selected areas in April 2016 and June 2017. In the study, a total of 157.2 kg of rubber (49.5%), 118.9 kg of glass (37.4%), 21.61 kg of plastic (6.8%) and 19.94 kg of metal (6.3%) marine litter were detected and removed. It was determined that the marine litter extracted in 2017 was less by weight compared to 2016. Although collecting marine litter from underwater reduces their amount, it appears to occur again the next year. Our result shows that different solutions should be produced to reduce marine litter.
... Furthermore, it is possible that the European Union's goal of requiring all plastics to be recyclable by 2030 is a driving factor in plastic research (European Commission, 2018). It may be that the increase in literature is due to the tendency for researchers to participate in "hot trend" research that occurs after a specific event in history (Borja and Elliott, 2019). Since microplastics can be easily sampled from the environment, it is plausible that the increase in microplastic research stems from the relative lower cost of the research than other disciplines. ...
Identifying leading publications, authors, and countries in microplastic and nanoplastic research is beneficial for regulatory decisions, determining standardized research methodology, and solidifying definitions. Here, bibliometric analysis was performed using Web of Science's Core Collection to evaluate publication trends. A total of 3820 publications were downloaded and analyzed with the majority being journal articles. Since 2009, the number of publications has substantially increased. Results revealed that although the USA and China are the topmost publishing countries, two out of three of the top publishing institutions lie outside of these countries. The year with highest total number of citations was 2019 (42,000 citations), followed by 2018 (25,000 citations) and 2017 (13,000 citations). The journal Marine Pollution Bulletin published the highest number of records and included the top cited publications. Top publishing countries and the top cited publications and authors will likely pave the way for standardization in both microplastic and nanoplastic research.
... Since no biological effects are taken into consideration, MPs are referred to as a contaminant. 57 During sampling, numerous articles of plastic waste in various sizes were found within different layers of the depth proles (cf. Fig. 3). ...
Microplastics in the environment are a relatively new form of anthropogenic contamination. Right now, the research focus is on the detection of microplastic accumulation in different environmental compartments and understanding the processes that have led to its transport. Detailed information on microplastics in floodplain areas and their distribution in depth are still missing to better understand accumulation points. Therefore, this study presents on the one hand microplastic detection in fluvial sediments from nine sampling sites along a river course. Polymers were determined with infrared spectroscopy and additional sedimentary analysis of the grain size and heavy metal concentration was performed. In total, there was less microplastic in the upper than in the lower river course and slip-off slopes were identified as accumulation hotspots also in deeper sediment layers. Mostly, microplastic particles were detected in fine sediment and heavy metal concentrations along the river were similar to those of microplastics. On the other hand, besides the spatial distribution of microplastics and accumulation in floodplain areas, microplastic analysis offered information in a sedimentary context. Sedimentation rates (0.29–4.00 cm a⁻¹) and patterns between temporal deposition and microplastic polymers were identified. The basis for the development of a dating method by detection of MPs in sediments was thus established. Microplastics as a contaminant provide, in addition to the identification of deposition areas, further data in a temporal and sedimentary perspective.
... Still, since currently the definition of MP < 5 mm is mainly used within research, it was applied in this study. Furthermore, the accumulation of MP in the environment is here referred to as contamination, since the biological effects are not discussed further (Borja and Elliott, 2019;Chapman, 2007). ...
Various studies show a contamination of the marine environment with microplastics due to the material persistence and a resulting accumulation. Right now, the environmental impact of microplastics is not fully determined and in order to obtain further information on contaminated areas, water surface samples and (deep sea) sediment from the Atlantic Ocean south of Algarve Coast (Portugal) were taken and analysed. Microfibres, 3 black fibres, were visually detected in 2 of the 20 sediment samples without verifying their polymeric identity. Assuming that they are microplastics, concentration from 0.00–0.29 particles/g dry sediment result. In the eleven water samples, 81.8% contained microplastics including polymeric identification (0.00–14.09 particles/m3) with an average contamination of 1.36 4.03 particles/m3. A significant positive correlation between the microplastic concentration in the water and the average water depth during sampling was identified. This regional study is one of a few that analysed also deep sea sediment and provides results about microplastics as anthropogenic contaminants south of the Algarve coast.
... Microplastic research is saturated 30 with novel methodological approaches and publications utilizing different processing and isolation steps. In order to assess the state of the science we have chosen to focus on reviews published in the past five years (Table S1, Supplemental Material) as well as utilizing a brief primary literature review focusing on data published between January and July 2019. ...
... Microplastic research is saturated 30 with novel methodological approaches and publications utilizing different processing and isolation steps. In order to assess the state of the science we have chosen to focus on reviews published in the past five years (Table S1, Supplemental Material) as well as utilizing a brief primary literature review focusing on data published between January and July 2019. ...
Researchers have been identifying microplastics in environmental samples dating back to the 1970s. Today, microplastics are a recognized environmental pollutant attracting a large amount of public and government attention, and in the last few years the number of scientific publications has grown exponentially. An underlying theme within this research field is to achieve a consensus for adopting a set of appropriate procedures to accurately identify and quantify microplastics within diverse matrices. These methods should then be harmonized to produce quantifiable data that is reproducible and comparable around the world. In addition, clear and concise guidelines for standard analytical protocols should be made available to researchers. In keeping with the theme of this special issue, the goals of this focal point review are to provide researchers with an overview of approaches to isolate and extract microplastics from different matrices, highlight associated methodological constraints and the necessary steps for conducting procedural controls and quality assurance. Simple samples, including water and sediments with low organic content, can be filtered and sieved. Stepwise procedures require density separation or digestion before filtration. Finally, complex matrices require more extensive steps with both digestion and density adjustments to assist plastic isolation. Implementing appropriate methods with a harmonized approach from sample collection to data analysis will allow comparisons across the research community.
... For example, increasing awareness of plastics in the marine environment has led to widespread public support, just as the protection of iconic species, the so-called charismatic megafauna, may resonate more easily with the public. However, detecting the problem is only the start of devising management measures (Borja and Elliott 2019). ...
The complexity of interactions and feedbacks between human activities and ecosystems can make the analysis of such social-ecological systems intractable. In order to provide a common means to understand and analyse the links between social and ecological process within these systems, a range of analytical frameworks have been developed and adopted. Following decades of practical experience in implementation, the Driver Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) conceptual framework has been adapted and re-developed to become the D(A)PSI(W)R(M). This paper describes in detail the D(A)PSI(W)R(M) and its development from the original DPSIR conceptual frame. Despite its diverse application and demonstrated utility, a number of inherent shortcomings are identified. In particular the DPSIR model family tend to be best suited to individual environmental pressures and human activities and their resulting environmental problems, having a limited focus on the supply and demand of benefits from nature. We present a derived framework, the “Butterfly”, a more holistic approach designed to expand the concept. The “Butterfly” model, moves away from the centralised accounting framework approach while more-fully incorporating the complexity of social and ecological systems, and the supply and demand of ecosystem services, which are central to human-environment interactions.
... The issue of marine litter, especially marine plastic, has been highly visible on all media types and has focused public concerns on this type of pollution as an important societal problem. Efforts to tackle marine litter have focused on the management aspect, rather than monitoring pressures [204,205]. ...
Coastal and marine management require the evaluation of multiple environmental threats and issues. However, there are gaps in the necessary data and poor access or dissemination of existing data in many countries around the world. This research identifies how remote sensing can contribute to filling these gaps so that environmental agencies, such as the United Nations Environmental Programme, European Environmental Agency, and International Union for Conservation of Nature, can better implement environmental directives in a cost-effective manner. Remote sensing (RS) techniques generally allow for uniform data collection, with common acquisition and reporting methods, across large areas. Furthermore, these datasets are sometimes open-source, mainly when governments finance satellite missions. Some of these data can be used in holistic, coastal and marine environmental management frameworks, such as the DAPSI(W)R(M) framework (Drivers–Activities–Pressures–State changes–Impacts (on Welfare)–Responses (as Measures), an updated version of Drivers–Pressures–State–Impact–Responses. The framework is a useful and holistic problem-structuring framework that can be used to assess the causes, consequences, and responses to change in the marine environment. Six broad classifications of remote data collection technologies are reviewed for their potential contribution to integrated marine management, including Satellite-based Remote Sensing, Aerial Remote Sensing, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Unmanned Surface Vehicles, Unmanned Underwater Vehicles, and Static Sensors. A significant outcome of this study is practical inputs into each component of the DAPSI(W)R(M) framework. The RS applications are not expected to be all-inclusive; rather, they provide insight into the current use of the framework as a foundation for developing further holistic resource technologies for management strategies in the future. A significant outcome of this research will deliver practical insights for integrated coastal and marine management and demonstrate the usefulness of RS to support the implementation of environmental goals, descriptors, targets, and policies, such as the Water Framework Directive, Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Ocean Health Index, and United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Additionally, the opportunities and challenges of these technologies are discussed.
... With only 14 studies detecting negative effects of plastic ingestion and of a total of 34 that looked for impacts, our review suggests we need research across a range of vertebrate study species that explores plastic ingestion impacts at a variety of physiological levels. This argues against suggestions that the scientific community has enough information on plastic pollution (Borja and Elliott, 2019) Table 1: Terms synonymous with the Impact of Plastic Ingestion on Vertebrate Animals were used in a Web of Science search to capture the available literature on this topic. Search terms were run in a single search, with topics separated by 'AND'. ...
Studies documenting plastic ingestion in animals have increased in recent years. Many do not describe the less conspicuous, sub-lethal impacts of plastic ingestion, such as reduced body condition or physiological changes. This means the severity of this global problem may have been underestimated. We conducted a critical review on the sub-lethal impacts of plastic ingestion on marine vertebrates (excluding fish). We found 34 papers which tried to measure plastics' impact using a variety of tools, and less than half of these detected any impact. The most common tools used were visual observations and body condition indices. Tools that explore animal physiology, such as histopathology, are a promising future approach to uncover the sub-lethal impacts of plastic ingestion in vertebrates. We encourage exploring impacts on species beyond the marine environment, using multiple tools or approaches, and continued research to discern the hidden impacts of plastic on global wildlife.
The yield potential of rice and wheat has doubled with Green revolution technologies, particularly in Asia. The system of high input production needs the best quality of pesticides, fertilizers, machines, and irrigation facilities. However, neglecting the ecological integrity of the land, water, and forest resources, and endangering natural resources cannot be carried on for long. Primitive and natural practices of agriculture might be able to play the leading role in designing a sustainable and eco-friendly system of agriculture that would increase the likelihood that rural people would accept it, develop it, and maintain its interventions and innovations. From this perspective, eco-friendly system are considered to be environment friendly, biodegradable, safe, economical, and renewable substitutes to use in the organic method of farming, also called eco-friendly farming. The answer to all the problems being faced by farmers in agriculture is Eco-friendly farming or Organic farming. This new system would keep agriculture more sustainable. Sample of 109 experts from agriculture and environment field were surveyed to know the benefits, issues and impact of eco-friendly farming in India. It is found that there is a significant impact of organic farming on the environment.
Indian Economy depends upon the backbone of agriculture for consumable products like staple crop yielding plants like rice, wheat etc. Since day by day there is a huge increase in the global wide. Due to the application in the agricultural fields it possess a hazardous toxic substances from leaching over through the aquatic ecosystem where non-target organisms get indirectly affected. Finally the fishes are vulnerable which could affect the physiological status that would be determined by biomarker tools.
This chapter focuses on the human activities in estuaries and on coasts and the spatial and temporal conflicts between them. Estuarine and coastal marine environments are complex dynamic ecosystems characterized by highly variable conditions often altered by intense anthropogenic activities driving change in physico-chemical processes, ecosystem structure and functioning. Here we examine the sources of the problems, and we assess the causes and consequences of change. It becomes apparent that we are increasingly emphasizing to stakeholders and policymakers the need to consider the ability of estuarine and coastal marine environments to deliver a set of fundamental ecosystem services leading to societal goods and benefits. We show in particular the need for a multidisciplinary approach linking natural and social sciences, especially the ability to protect ecosystem services and to deliver societal benefits. This includes the management and governance responses as required both by society and by the need to protect the natural system.
Preserving biodiversity against the adverse effects of plant protection products (PPPs) is a major environmental and societal issue. However, despite intensive investigation into the ecotoxicological effects of PPPs, the knowledge produced remains fragmented given the sheer diversity of PPPs. This is due, at least in part, to a strong streetlight effect in the field of ecotoxicology. Indeed, while some PPPs have been investigated in numerous ecotoxicological studies, there are many for which the scientific literature still has little or no information on their ecotoxicological risks and effects. The PPPs under the streetlight include a large variety of legacy substances and a more limited number of more recent or currently-in-use substances, such as the herbicide glyphosate and the neonicotinoid insecticides. Furthermore, many of the most recent PPPs (including those used in biocontrol) and PPP transformation products (TPs) resulting from abiotic and/or biotic degradation are rarely addressed in the international literature in the field of ecotoxicology. Here, based on a recent collective scientific assessment of the effects of PPPs on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the French and European contexts, this article sets out to illustrate the limitations and biases caused by the streetlight effect and numbers of gray areas, and issue recommendations on how to overcome them.
In contrast to the abundance of research on marine debris, terrestrial anthropogenic litter and its impacts are largely lacking scientific attention. Therefore, the main objective of the present study is to find out whether ingested litter produces pathological consequences to the health of domestic ruminants, as it does in their relatives in the ocean, the cetaceans. For this purpose, five meadows (49°18'N, 10°24'E) with a total survey area of 139,050 m2 as well as the gastric content of 100 slaughtered cattle and 50 slaughtered sheep have been examined for persistent man-made debris in Northern Bavaria, Germany. All the five meadows contained garbage, and plastics were always part of it. Including glass and metal, 521 persistent anthropogenic objects were detected altogether, equalling a litter density of 3747 items per km2. Of the examined animals, 30.0% of the cattle and 6.0% of the sheep harboured anthropogenic foreign bodies in their gastric tract. As in the case of cetaceans, plastics were the most dominant litter material. Bezoars had formed around plastic fibres of agricultural origin in two young bulls, whereas pointed metal objects were associated in cattle with traumatic lesions in the reticulum and the tongue. Of all the ingested anthropogenic debris, 24 items (26.4%) had direct equivalents in the studied meadows. Comparing with marine litter, 28 items (30.8%) were also present in marine environments and 27 items (29.7%) were previously reported as foreign bodies in marine animals. At least in this study region, waste pollution affected terrestrial environments and domestic animals, with clear equivalents in the marine world. Ingested foreign bodies produced lesions that may have reduced the animals' welfare and, regarding commercial purposes, their productivity.
Sustainable development is central to the current societal functioning, whose complexity demands consideration on a regional scale. However, there are disparate methods to express sustainable development, many of which use qualitative analysis cumbersome for policy-makers. Previous studies focused on environmental, economic, and social impacts without fully considering the regulation mechanisms of the plethora of administrative bodies. To fill this research gap, this research establishes an integrated assessment framework involving four pillars: environment and ecology, society and culture, economics, and governance and policy. Further, indicator systems and quantitative analysis give comparable and objective results. The current study applied them to one of the most economically significant and developed Chinese regions, the Yangtze River Delta. The result shows a dynamic variation in regional sustainability from 2010 to 2019, indicating an annual increase. Although economic and societal development has been increasing steadily, environmental development has stagnated in the past two years, and the influencing policy has fluctuated dramatically. Our analysis was done in Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui. Even though all regions showed increasing sustainability, we observed an imbalance in regional sustainable development. Achieving a regional approach and enhanced regional coordination in the Yangtze River Delta is imperative and cannot be ignored by local, regional, and national policy-makers. More importantly, this study created a model capable of predicting the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on regional sustainable development. The model showed that, compared with predicted values, a 6.65% decrease in the integrated sustainability index ensued, attributed to the pandemic in Zhejiang province.
The predominance of irresponsible and unsustainable plastic usage in Indonesia poses an urgent and alarming danger to the ecosystem. This paper discussed the legislative and regulatory mechanism in place in Indonesia to manage marine plastic pollution, the limitations and obstacles it faces, and the possibility of remedies being implemented to resolve Indonesia's marine plastic pollution predicament. The ecological approach, sustainable development goals, human right to a healthy environment, and sociopolitical context will all be used to advise this research. The findings demonstrate both top-down and bottom-up initiatives to marine plastic pollution law and regulations are ineffectual. If not adequately regulated, the government, political, and economic structural proclivities would most likely favor economic expansion at the expense of appropriate protection of the environment. Indonesia has to consider not just more comprehensive law and regulation to handle the complex concerns of marine plastic pollution, but it also sought to acknowledge other drivers that hamper the success of efforts to conserve the marine ecosystem. As a result, it is suggested that Indonesia initially focus on short-term measures prior to progressing on to long-term remedies, with effective cohesion across all approaches and collaboration with all involved parties.
The Philippines is identified as one of the major marine plastic litter polluters in the world with a discharge of approximately 0.75 million tons of marine plastic debris per year. However, the extent of the plastic problem is yet to be defined systematically because of limited research. Thus, this study aims to quantify plastic litter occurrence in mangrove areas as they function as sinks for plastic litter due to their inherent nature of trapping plastics. To define the extent of marine plastic pollution on an island scale, mangrove areas in 14 municipalities around Cebu Island were sampled, with 3 to 9 transects in each site depending on the length of coastline covered by mangroves. Sampling and characterization of both plastics and the mangrove ecosystem was performed in three locations along the transect - landward, middle, and seaward. A total of 4501 plastic items were sampled throughout the study sites with an average of 1.29 ± 0.67 items/m2 (18.07 ± 8.79 g/m2). The average distribution of plastic loads were 2.68 ± 1.9 items/m2 (38.52 ± 25.35 g/m2), 0.27 ± 0.10 items/m2 (6.65 ± 4.67 g/m2), and 0.94 ± 0.61 items/m2 (9.04 ± 4.28 g/m2) for the landward, middle, and seaward locations, respectively. The most frequent plastic types found were i) packaging, ii) plastic bags and iii) plastic fragments. The plastic loads and types suggest most plastic wastes trapped in mangroves come from the nearby communities. Fishing-related plastics originated from the sea and were transported across the mangrove breadth. The findings confirm mangroves are major traps of plastic litter that might adversely affect the marine ecosystem. The study underscores the urgent need for waste mitigation measures, including education, community engagement, infrastructure, technological solutions and supporting policies.
Globally, the problem of microplastics (MPs) pose to water resources is current concern to scientists. Sources of MPs to water resources include wastewater, atmospheric deposition, surface runoff and leaching. Many marine animals suffer from ingesting high amounts of MPs accumulating in the gut and cause obstruction and inflammation in their organs. Humans are equally exposed from the use of surface water and drinking water or ground water. In view of these problems and in a bid to mitigate potential risks from the release of MPs to receiving waters, stringent water quality requirements for effluents are required and scientists are now developing methods or techniques to remove MPs from water resources. We reviewed techniques developed or modified for MPs removal in water and wastewater such as Dynamic Membranes Technology (DM), membrane bioreactors (MBR), reverse osmosis (RO), dissolved air flotation (DAF), rapid sand filtration (RSF), disc filter (DF), inorganic–organic hybrid silica gels, metal based-coagulation and electrocoagulation. The principles of these techniques were discussed as well as the advantages and disadvantages. Conclusions were drawn and future areas of research were recommended.
Plastic production is an essential part of the world economy that has mushroomed exponentially with c.9.2 billion tonnes estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. Now, each year c.8–11 million tonnes of plastic waste escapes into the oceans. Plastic usage is varied but the packaging industry accounts for 47%. Recycling and the circular economy are seen as keys to unlocking the plastic problem, for example, via the
Extended Producer Responsibility scheme; a Deposit Return Scheme. The circular economy is a fine idea and has been around a long time, but has it made any real difference? The amount of plastic in circulation keeps getting bigger and bigger. More thought must be given to creating technologies and designs that can deal with waste
management, integrate international collaboration and cut waste to a bare minimum at its source point upstream. No single solution exists, but there is a need for a legally binding global governance arrangement that would effectively and measurably limit and control plastic pollution. Many governments are in favour of this.
This chapter synthesises the current knowledge and future directions of research into estuarine fish, their habitats and the estuarine fisheries. It also aims to present the main lessons for our current and future understanding of fish in estuaries. There is a focus on developing an understanding of the socioecological system by considering the relationship between the organisms and their environment, and fish tolerance of environmental master factors. It covers the current ideas on ecosystem structure and functioning, such as growth, productivity, competitive interactions and predator‐prey relationships. A knowledge of these then leads to an understanding of the estuarine ecosystem services, for example the delivery of fish which can be exploited and ensuring clean water and nutrient and carbon cycling. These services in turn lead to the creation and exploitation of estuarine goods and benefits.
The accumulation of human-derived debris in the oceans is a global concern and a serious threat to marine wildlife. There is a volume of evidence that points to deleterious effects of marine debris (MD) on cetaceans in terms of both entanglement and ingestion. This review suggests that about 68% of cetacean species are affected by interacting with MD with an increase in the number of species reported to have interacted with it over the past decades. Despite the growing body of evidence, there is an ongoing debate on the actual effects of plastics on cetaceans and, in particular, with reference to the ingestion of microplastics and their potential toxicological and pathogenic effects. Current knowledge suggests that the observed differences in the rate and nature of interactions with plastics are the result of substantial differences in species-specific diving and feeding strategies. Existing projections on the production, use and disposal of plastics suggest a further increase of marine plastic pollution. In this context, the contribution of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic to marine plastic pollution appears to be substantial, with potentially serious consequences for marine life including cetaceans. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic offers an opportunity to investigate the direct links between industry, human behaviours and the effects of MD on cetaceans. This could help inform management, prevention efforts, describe knowledge gaps and guide advancements in research efforts. This review highlights the lack of assessments of population-level effects related to MD and suggests that these could be rather immediate for small populations already under pressure from other anthropogenic activities. Finally, we suggest that MD is not only a pollution, economic and social issue, but also a welfare concern for the species and populations involved.
This new edition - now with Nancy Jackson as a co-author - continues the themes of the first edition: the need to restore the biodiversity, ecosystem health, and ecosystem services provided by coastal landforms and habitats, especially in the light of climate change. The second edition reports on progress made on practices identified in the first edition, presents additional case studies, and addresses new and emerging issues. It analyzes the tradeoffs involved in restoring beaches and dunes - especially on developed coasts - the most effective approaches to use, and how stakeholders can play an active role. The concept of restoration is broad, and includes physical, ecological, economic, social, and ethical principles and ideals. The book will be valuable for coastal scientists, engineers, planners, and managers, as well as shorefront residents. It will also serve as a useful supplementary reference textbook in courses dealing with issues of coastal management and ecology.
Marine litter, including plastics and microplastics, is accumulating in the world’s oceans at an unprecedented rate. The volume of plastics currently in the oceans has been estimated at between 75 million and 199 million tons1. Found in sea floor sediments and on beaches, among many other locations globally, plastics are are becoming part of the Earth’s fossil record. Plastic pollution is one of the characteristics of the present geological era, the Anthropocene. A new marine microbial habitat has been designated the “plastisphere”.
This publication aims to provide a global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution. The key findings include:
Marine litter, including plastics and microplastics, has grown drastically and is projected to more than double by 2030
Marine litter and plastics are a grave threat to all marine life and are influencing the climate
Human health and well-being are also at risk
The hidden costs of plastics for the global economy
Marine litter and plastics are threat multipliers
Half of marine litter and plastics comes from uncontrolled waste streams on land
Movement and accumulation of litter and plastics occurs over decades
Advances in technologies and growing citizen science activities are improving detection, but consistency of measurements remains a challenge
Plastic recycling rates are less than 10 per cent and plastics-related greenhouse gas emissions are significant but solutions are emerging
Progress is being made at all levels, with a potential global instrument in sight
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous anthropogenic contaminants, and their abundance in the entire ecosystem raises the question of how far is the impact of these MPs on the biota, humans, and the environment. Recent research has overemphasized the occurrence, characterization, and direct toxicity of MPs; however, determining and understanding their genotoxic effect is still limited. Thus, the present review addresses the genotoxic potential of these emerging contaminants in aquatic organisms and in human peripheral lymphocytes and identified the research gaps in this area. Several genotoxic endpoints were implicated, including the frequency of micronuclei (MN), nucleoplasmic bridge (NPB), nuclear buds (NBUD), DNA strand breaks, and the percentage of DNA in the tail (%Tail DNA). In addition, the mechanism of MPs-induced genotoxicity seems to be closely associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, inflammatory responses, and DNA repair interference. However, the gathered information urges the need for more studies that present environmentally relevant conditions. Taken into consideration, the lifestyle changes within the COVID-19 pandemic, we discussed the impact of the pandemic on enhancing the genotoxic potential of MPs whether through increasing human exposure to MPs via inappropriate disposal and overconsumption of plastic-based products or by disrupting the defense system owing to unhealthy food and sleep deprivation as well as stress. Overall, this review provided a reference for the genotoxic effect of MPs, their mechanism of action, as well as the contribution of COVID-19 to increase the genotoxic risk of MPs.
Marine policy and management has to cope with a plethora ofhuman activities that cause pressures leading to changes to the natural and human systems. Accordingly, it requires many policy and management responses to address traditional, cultural, social, ecological, technical, and economic policy objectives. Because of this, we advocate that a fully-structured approach using the IEC/ISO 31010 Bow-tie analysis will allow all elements to be integrated for a cost-effective system. This industry-standard system, described herewith examples for themarine environment, will fulfilmany ofthe demands by the users and uses of the marine system and the regulators of those users and uses. It allows for bridging several aspects: the management and environmental sciences, the management complexity and gover- nance demands, the natural and social sciences and socio-economics and outcomes. Most importantly, the use of the Bow-tie approach bridges systems analysis and ecosystem complexity. At a time when scientific decisions in policy making and implementation are under question, we conclude that it provides a rigorous, transparent and defendable system of decision-making.
Since the 1950s the amount of plastics in the marine environment has increased dramatically. Worldwide there is a growing concern about the risks and possible adverse effects of (micro)plastics. This paper reflects on the sources and effects of marine litter and the effects of policies and other actions taken worldwide. Current knowledge offers a solid basis for effective action. Yet, so far the effects of policies and other initiatives are still largely insufficient. The search for appropriate responses could be based on possible interventions and profound understanding of the context specific factors for success. Moreover, the scope, timeframe and dynamics of all initiatives are distinctly different and orchestration at all levels, in close cooperation with one another, is currently lacking.
The marine environment is a complex system formed by interactions between ecological structure and functioning, physico-chemical processes and socio-economic systems. An increase in competing marine uses and users requires a holistic approach to marine management which considers the environmental, economic and societal impacts of all activities. If managed sustainably, the marine environment will deliver a range of ecosystem services which lead to benefits for society. In order to understand the complexity of the system, the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) approach has long been a valuable problem-structuring framework used to assess the causes, consequences and responses to change in a holistic way. Despite DPSIR being used for a long time, there is still confusion over the definition of its terms and so to be appropriate for current marine management, we contend that this confusion needs to be addressed. Our viewpoint advocates that DPSIR should be extended to DAPSI(W)R(M) (pronounced dap-see-worm) in which Drivers of basic human needs require Activities which lead to Pressures. The Pressures are the mechanisms of State change on the natural system which then leads to Impacts (on human Welfare). Those then require Responses (as Measures). Furthermore, because of the complexity of any managed sea area in terms of multiple Activities, there is the need for a linked-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework, and then the connectivity between marine ecosystems and ecosystems in the catchment and further at sea, requires an interlinked, nested-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework to reflect the continuum between adjacent ecosystems. Finally, the unifying framework for integrated marine management is completed by encompassing ecosystem structure and functioning, ecosystem services and societal benefits. Hence, DAPSI(W)R(M) links the socio-ecological system of the effects of changes to the natural system on the human uses and benefits of the marine system. However, to deliver these sustainably in the light of human activities requires a Risk Assessment and Risk Management framework; the ISO-compliant Bow-Tie method is used here as an example. Finally, to secure ecosystem health and economic benefits such as Blue Growth, successful, adaptive and sustainable marine management Responses (as Measures) are delivered using the 10-tenets, a set of facets covering all management disciplines and approaches.
Marine plastic pollution has been a growing concern for decades. Single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads) are a significant source of this pollution. Although research outlining environmental, social, and economic impacts of marine plastic pollution is growing, few studies have examined policy and legislative tools to reduce plastic pollution, particularly single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads). This paper reviews current international market-based strategies and policies to reduce plastic bags and microbeads. While policies to reduce microbeads began in 2014, interventions for plastic bags began much earlier in 1991. However, few studies have documented or measured the effectiveness of these reduction strategies. Recommendations to further reduce single-use plastic marine pollution include: (i) research to evaluate effectiveness of bans and levies to ensure policies are having positive impacts on marine environments; and (ii) education and outreach to reduce consumption of plastic bags and microbeads at source.
This paper fulfils a gap in environmental management by producing a typology of stakeholders for effective participatory processes and co-design of solutions to complex social–environmental issues and then uses this typology for a stepwise roadmap methodology for balanced and productive stakeholder engagement. Definitions are given of terminology that is frequently used interchangeably such as “stakeholders,” “social actors,” and “interested parties.” Whilst this analysis comes from a marine perspective, it is relevant to all environments and the means of tackling environmental problems. Eleven research questions about participative processes are addressed, based on more than 30 years of experience in water, estuarine, coastal, and marine management. A stepwise roadmap, supported by illustrative tables based on case-studies, shows how a balanced stakeholder selection and real engagement may be achieved. The paper brings these together in the context of several up-to-date concepts such as complex, nested governance, the 10 tenets for integrated, successful, and sustainable marine management, the System Approach Framework and the evolution of DPSIR into DAPSI(W)R(M) framework. Examples given are based on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the Water Framework Directive, the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive, the Framework Directive for Maritime Spatial Planning, as well as for Regional Sea Conventions. The paper also shows how tools that have been developed in recent projects can be put to use to implement policy and maximize the effectiveness of stakeholder participation.
The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires Member States to assess the costs and benefits of Programmes of Measures (PoMs) put in place to ensure that European marine waters achieve Good Environmental Status by 2020. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to carry out such an assessment whereby economic analysis is used to evaluate the outputs from ecological analysis that determines the expected effects of such management measures. This paper applies and tests an existing six-step approach to assess costs and benefits of management measures with potential to support the overall goal of the MSFD and discusses a range of ecological and economic analytical tools applicable to this task. Environmental cost-benefit analyses are considered for selected PoMs in three European case studies: Baltic Sea (Finland), East Coast Marine Plan area (UK), and the Bay of Biscay (Spain). These contrasting case studies are used to investigate the application of environmental cost-benefit analysis (CBA) including the challenges, opportunities and lessons learnt from using this approach. This paper demonstrates that there are opportunities in applying the six-step environmental CBA framework presented to assess the impact of PoMs. However, given demonstrated limitations of knowledge and data availability, application of other economic techniques should also be considered (although not applied here) to complement the more formal environmental CBA approach.
Traditional and emerging human activities are increasingly putting pressures on marine ecosystems and impacting their ability to sustain ecological and human communities. To evaluate the health status of marine ecosystems we need a science-based, integrated Ecosystem Approach, that incorporates knowledge of ecosystem function and services provided that can be used to track how management decisions change the health of marine ecosystems. Although many methods have been developed to assess the status of single components of the ecosystem, few exist for assessing multiple ecosystem components in a holistic way. To undertake such an integrative assessment, it is necessary to understand the response of marine systems to human pressures. Hence, innovative monitoring is needed to obtain data to determine the health of large marine areas, and in an holistic way. Here we review five existing methods that address both of these needs (monitoring and assessment): the Ecosystem Health Assessment Tool; a method for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in the Bay of Biscay; the Ocean Health Index (OHI); the Marine Biodiversity Assessment Tool, and the Nested Environmental status Assessment Tool. We have highlighted their main characteristics and analyzing their commonalities and differences, in terms of: use of the Ecosystem Approach; inclusion of multiple components in the assessment; use of reference conditions; use of integrative assessments; use of a range of values to capture the status; weighting ecosystem components when integrating; determine the uncertainty; ensure spatial and temporal comparability; use of robust monitoring approaches, and address pressures and impacts. Ultimately, for any ecosystem assessment to be effective it needs to be: transparent and repeatable and, in order to inform marine management, the results should be easy to communicate to wide audiences, including scientists, managers, and policymakers.
The ubiquity of anthropogenic debris in hundreds of species of wildlife and the toxicity of chemicals associated with it has begun to raise concerns regarding the presence of anthropogenic debris in seafood. We assessed the presence of anthropogenic debris in fishes and shellfish on sale for human consumption. We sampled from markets in Makassar, Indonesia, and from California, USA. All fish and shellfish were identified to species where possible. Anthropogenic debris was extracted from the digestive tracts of fish and whole shellfish using a 10% KOH solution and quantified under a dissecting microscope. In Indonesia, anthropogenic debris was found in 28% of individual fish and in 55% of all species. Similarly, in the USA, anthropogenic debris was found in 25% of individual fish and in 67% of all species. Anthropogenic debris was also found in 33% of individual shellfish sampled. All of the anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in Indonesia was plastic, whereas anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in the USA was primarily fibers. Variations in debris types likely reflect different sources and waste management strategies between countries. We report some of the first findings of plastic debris in fishes directly sold for human consumption raising concerns regarding human health.
The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large number of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
The presence and accumulation of plastics and microplastics in the marine environment (including open sea and coastal systems) is of growing concern. Once discarded in the environment, plastic debris disperse and accumulate in marine habitats
all over the world (Cózar et al., 2017; Imhof et al., 2017; van Sebille et al., 2015). Reported concentrations in seawater, in intertidal and subtidal sediments, and within marine organisms are highly variable spatially, even within fairly enclosed bodies of water (Eriksen et al., 2014; GESAMP, 2016). Thus, the environmental contamination caused by plastics raises many complex issues and represents an increasing threat to marine organisms and ecosystems. The presence of small plastic fragments in the open ocean was first documented in the 1970s (Carpenter & Smith, 1972), and the term “microplastics” was first used in 2004 (Thompson et al., 2004). Since then, research in this area has increased exponentially, leading to over 150 publications in 2014 (Barboza & Gimenez, 2015), and much more since then. Microplastics are ubiquitous in the world’s oceans and represent approximately 92.4% of the global particle count of
plastics (Eriksen et al., 2014). They are present in sediments, throughout the water column, and in digestive systems, and in tissues of marine organisms (Anderson, Park, & Palace, 2016). Their ability to interact with other environmental contaminants and adsorb them at the surface, their propensity to be ingested by biota and their long residence times in the environment, make them a global concern (Fonte, Ferreira, & Guilhermino, 2016; GESAMP, 2016; Holmes, Turner, & Thompson, 2014; Jabeen et al., 2017; Luís, Ferreira, Fonte, Oliveira, & Guilhermino, 2015; Mato el al., 2001). However, despite recent research, many questions still remain, particularly in ecotoxicology studies (Law & Thompson, 2014).
This chapter compiles microplastics information regarding: (i) their sources, fate, and environmental behavior; (ii) their global distribution in the marine environment; (iii) occurrence in wild marine organisms; and (iv) their effects and toxicity
in marine species; and aims to further contribute to the international debate on the microplastics global paradigm. We briefly suggest priorities and opportunities for future research.
The banning of organotin biocides, such as tributyltin (TBT), from use in marine antifouling paints is now leading to reproductive health recovery in marine gastropod populations all over the world. TBT induces so-called imposex (superimposition of male sexual characters onto females) in certain marine gastropods, such as the common dogwhelk Nucella lapillus. In this publication, the results of the Norwegian TBT and imposex monitoring in N. lapillus from the period 1991-2017 are presented. Significantly higher levels of TBT and imposex were measured in coastal areas close to shipping lanes along most of the coast prior to 2008 than afterwards. Levels started declining after restrictions were imposed on the use of TBT in all antifouling paint applications, with a total ban in 2008. In 2017, no sign of imposex was found in N. lapillus in any of the monitoring stations along the Norwegian coastline. Based on monitoring data shown herein, the importance of long-term biomonitoring and international chemical regulations, as well as the TBT and imposex story in general, are discussed.
Marine debris is a recognized global ecological concern. Increasing numbers of quantitative studies worldwide are investigating litter distribution and its influence on deep habitats (50–7,000 m depth), but little is still known about the extent of the problem. Anthropogenic and environmental factors influence the distribution of debris that enters the seas from both land-based and marine sources. Debris can be displaced for long distances by wind and currents before sinking and can converge in accumulation areas, such as canyons. Plastics typically comprise 50–80 % of debris, due to their wide use and high resistance to degradation. Plastic related-fishing debris are typical in rocky habitats (≈70 % of items), which traditionally are subject to intense fishing effort. The widespread presence of debris is strongly impacting deep-water organisms and habitats worldwide. Standardized approaches and specific conservation measures are needed in order to protect unique deep-sea ecosystems that are progressively under threat.
Global contamination of the marine environment by plastic has led to the discovery of microplastics in a range of marine species, including those for human consumption. In this study, the presence of microplastics and other anthropogenic debris in seawater and mussels (Mytilus edulis) from coastal waters of the U.K., as well as supermarket sources, was investigated. These were detected in all samples from all sites with spatial differences observed. Seawater samples taken from 6 locations (in triplicates) displayed 3.5 ± 2.0 debris items/L on average (range: 1.5-6.7 items/L). In wild mussels sampled from 8 locations around the U.K. coastal environment, the number of total debris items varied from 0.7 to 2.9 items/g of tissue and from 1.1 to 6.4 items/individual. For the supermarket bought mussels, the abundance of microplastics was significantly higher in pre-cooked mussels (1.4 items/g) compared with mussels supplied live (0.9 items/g). Micro-FT-IR spectroscopy was conducted on 136 randomly selected samples, with 94 items characterized. The spectra found that 50% of these debris items characterized were microplastic, with an additional 37% made up of rayon and cotton fibers. The microplastic levels detected in the supermarket bought mussels present a route for human exposure and suggests that their quantification be included as food safety management measures as well as for environmental monitoring health measures.
The objective of this review is to summarize information on microfibers in seawater and sediments from available scientific information. Microfibers were found in all reviewed documents. An heterogeneous approach is observed, with regard to sampling methodologies and units. Microfibers in sediments range from 1.4 to 40 items per 50 mL or 13.15 to 39.48 items per 250 g dry weight. In the case of water, microfibers values ranges from 0 to 450 items·m − 3 or from 503 to 459,681 items·km − 2. Blue is the most common color in seawater and sediments, followed by transparent and black in the case of seawater, and black and colorful in sediments. Related with polymer type, polypropylene is the most common in water and sediments, followed by poly-ethylene in water and polyester in water and sediments. Some polymers were described only in water samples: high-density polyethylene, low-density polyethylene and cellophane, whilst only rayon was reported in sediments .
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), adopted in September 2015, are accompanied by targets which have to be met individually and collectively by the signatory states. SDG14 Life Below Water aims to lay the foundation for the integrated and sustainable management of the oceans. However, any environmental management has to be based around targets which are SMART – specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time bounded – otherwise it is not possible to determine whether management actions are successful and achieve the desired aims. The discussion here shows that many of the targets adopted for SDG14, and especially a detailed analysis of Target 1, are aspirational rather than fully quantified. In order to move towards making the targets operational, we advocate merging the language of environmental management with that used by industry for linking risks to the environment, management performance and ensuing controls. By adopting an approach which uses Key Performance Indicators (‘KPIs’), Key Risk Indicators (‘KRIs’) and Key Control Indicators (‘KCIs’), we advocate that a degree of rigour leading to defendable actions can be brought to marine management.
The blue mussel (Mytilus spp.) is widely used as a bioindicator for monitoring of coastal water pollution (mussel watch programs). Herein we provide a review of this study field with emphasis on: the suitability of Mytilus spp. as environmental sentinels; uptake and bioaccumulation patterns of key pollutant classes; the use of Mytilus spp. in mussel watch programs; recent trends in Norwegian mussel monitoring; environmental quality standards and background concentrations of key contaminants; pollutant effect biomarkers; confounding factors; particulate contaminants (microplastics, engineered nanomaterials); climate change; harmonization of monitoring procedures; and the use of deployed mussels (transplant caging) in pollution monitoring. Lastly, the overall state of the art of blue mussel pollution monitoring is discussed and some important issues for future research and development are highlighted.
The ingestion of microplastic fragments, spheres, and fibers by marine mollusks, crustaceans, and fish, including a number of commercially important species, appears to be a widespread and pervasive phenomenon. Evidence is also growing for direct impacts of microplastic ingestion on physiology, reproductive success and survival of exposed marine organisms, and transfer through food webs, although the ecological implications are not yet known. Concerns also remain over the capacity for microplastics to act as vectors for harmful chemical pollutants, including plastic additives and persistent organic pollutants, although their contribution must be evaluated alongside other known sources. The potential for humans, as top predators, to consume microplastics as contaminants in seafood is very real, and its implications for health need to be considered. An urgent need also exists to extend the geographical scope of studies of microplastic contamination in seafood species to currently underrepresented areas, and to finalize and adopt standardized methods and quality-assurance protocols for the isolation, identification, and quantification of microplastic contaminants from biological tissues. Such developments would enable more robust investigation of spatial and temporal trends, thereby contributing further evidence as a sound basis for regulatory controls. Despite the existence of considerable uncertainties and unknowns, there is already a compelling case for urgent actions to identify, control, and, where possible, eliminate key sources of both primary and secondary microplastics before they reach the marine environment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:516–521. © 2017 SETAC
Key Points
Ingestion of microplastics by marine species, including bivalves, crustaceans, and fish of commercial importance, is a widespread and pervasive phenomenon, as is the transfer of these contaminants through food webs. Evidence for direct impacts of microplastics on the physiology and health of marine species is growing, and concerns remain regarding their potential role in accumulating, transferring, and delivering doses of harmful pollutants. It is almost inevitable that humans consuming seafood will also be ingesting some level of microplastic pollution, although the possible health implications are only beginning to be considered. Other urgent priorities include harmonization of methods for isolation and analysis of microplastics from biological tissues, to allow reliable investigation of spatial and temporal trends, as well as efforts to identify, control, and, where possible, eliminate sources of plastic pollution.
Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an ‘ecocorona’, increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
Using the vas deferens sequence index (VDSI) and relative penis size index (RPSI) in dogwhelks (Nucella lapillus), imposex levels were assessed at 63 sites within 11 sea inlets during 2010/2011 and compared these with levels gathered since 1987. Sterile females (VDS>5.0) were found at 14 of the 63 sites and 47 sites (75%) met the EcoQO (VDSI<2.0). The absence of imposex in 'control' areas on the west coast is due to the lack of vessel paint applications or net dips with TBT being used as an active anti-fouling ingredient. A significant decline was observed following 2005 when comparing VDSI levels which is consistent with the decline of TBT usage. Current levels are consistent with an overall improvement towards achieving Good Environmental Status according to the requirements under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
The three basic principles of sustainable development, relating to ecology, economy and society, have long been embedded within national and international strategies. In recent years we have augmented these principles by a further seven considerations giving rise to the so-called 10-tenets of sustainable management. Whilst theoretically appealing, discussion of the tenets to date has been largely generic and qualitative and, until the present paper, there has been no formal and quantitative application of these tenets to an actual example. To promote the concept of successful and sustainable environmental management there is the need to develop a robust and practical framework to accommodate value judgements relating to each of the tenets. Although, as originally presented, the tenets relate specifically to management measures, they may also be applied directly to a specific development or activity. This paper examines the application of the tenets in both of these contexts, and considers their incorporation into an assessment tool to help visualise and quantify issues of sustainability.
The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires EU Member States (MS) to achieve Good Environmental Status (GEnS) of their seas by 2020. We address the question of what GEnS entails especially with regard to the level at which targets are set (descriptors, criteria, indicators), to scales for assessments (regional, sub-divisions, site-specific), and to difficulties in putting into practice the GEnS concept. We propose a refined and operational definition of GEnS, indicating the data and information needed to all parts of that definition. We indicate the options for determining when GEnS has been met, acknowledge the data and information needs for each option, and recommend a combination of existing quantitative targets and expert judgement. We think that the MSFD implementation needs to be less complex than shown for other similar directives, can be based largely on existing data and can be centred on the activities of the Regional Seas Conventions.
The European Atlantic area has been the scene of a number of extensive shipping incidents with immediate and potential long-term impacts to marine ecosystems. The occurrence of accidental spills at sea requires an effective response that must include a well executed monitoring programme to assess the environmental contamination and damage of the affected marine habitats. Despite a number of conventions and protocols developed by international and national authorities that focused on the preparedness and response to oil and HNS spills, much remains to be done, particularly in relation to the effectiveness of the environmental monitoring programmes implemented after oil and HNS spills. Hence, the present study reviews the status of the environmental monitoring programmes established following the major spill incidents over the last years in European waters, aiming at identifying the key monitoring gaps and drawing priorities for an effective environmental monitoring of accidental spills.
This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.
The ongoing oil spill from the blown-out well by the name of Macondo, drilled by the ill-fated rig Deepwater Horizon, has many features in common with another blowout in the Mexican Gulf that happened three decades ago. Then the oil gushed out from the Ixtoc I well drilled by the Sedco 135-F semi-submersible rig. In the years between these catastrophes, the source and nature of oil spills have undergone large changes. Huge spills from tankers that ran aground or collided used to be what caught the headlines and caused large ecological damage. The number and size of such accidental spills have decreased significantly. Instead, spills from ageing, ill-maintained or sabotaged pipelines have increased, and places like Arctic Russia, the Niger Delta, and the northwestern Amazon have become sites of reoccurring oil pollution. As for blowouts, there is no clear trend with regard to the number of incidences or amounts of spilled oil, but deepwater blowouts are much harder to cap and thus tend to go on longer and result in the release of larger quantities of oil. Also, oil exploration and extraction is moving into ever-deeper water and into stormier and icier seas, increasing potential risks. The risk for reoccurring spills like the two huge Mexican Gulf ones is eminent and must be reduced.
Through implementing environmental Directives, Europe has moved towards coordinated and integrated catchment-to-coast management, following the most novel legislation on ecosystem-based approaches worldwide. The novel joint synthesis of this direction reviewed here allows us to regard the Water Framework Directive (WFD) as a 'deconstructing structural approach' whereas the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is a 'holistic functional approach', i.e. the WFD has split the ecosystem into several biological quality elements, then it compares the structure of these (such as species complement) individually before combining them and attempting to determine the overall condition. In contrast the MSFD concentrates on the set of 11 descriptors which together summarize the way in which the whole system functions. We emphasize that both Directives are frameworks on which many other directives are linked but that they need to be fully and seamlessly integrated to give a land to open sea system of assessment and management. Hence, by taking account of the experience gained in the WFD implementation, together with that from regional sea conventions, such as OSPAR (North East Atlantic) or HELCOM (Baltic Sea), we propose in this contribution an integrative approach for the environmental status assessment, within the MSFD.
/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the council establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive)
European Commission, 2008. Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of
the council establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine
environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). Off. J. Eur. Union
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- C M Rochman
- A Tahir
- S L Williams
- D V Baxa
- R Lam
- J T Miller
- F.-C Teh
Rochman, C.M., Tahir, A., Williams, S.L., Baxa, D.V., Lam, R., Miller, J.T., Teh, F.-C.,
Editorial
Marine Pollution Bulletin 146 (2019) 312-316