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Current Status of PM2.5 Pollution and its Mitigation in Vietnam
Abstract
Vietnam is experiencing serious fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution as a result of local activities and long-range transport (LRT) pollutants. In this article, we summarize and analyze PM2.5 data from ground stations and manual measurements showing PM2.5 status, characteristics and emission sources in the period from 1996 to 2017 in Vietnam. In addition, we provide a brief impact assessment of PM2.5 pollution on public health regarding diseases and deaths. Conscious of PM2.5's harmful effects, Vietnam has been taking steps to mitigate PM2.5 pollution in various forms through efforts by the government, non-governmental organizations, media, communities and individuals, and has obtained initial results. This article presents a comprehensive review of current PM2.5 pollution and its mitigation in Vietnam.
... The northeast monsoon is commonly drier; however, it accompanies heavy rains along the East coast in the first months and light but frequent rains in the North. The annual rainfall ranges from 1200 to 3000 mm with the rainfall happening mostly from May to October in the North and the South and from September to January in the Central (Irish Aid, 2017;Nguyen et al., 2018). ...
... There are also many large-scale thermal power plants and cement manufacturers that consume a lot of fossil fuels, leading to large PM emissions in this region. Moreover, long-range transported PM 2.5 contributed a larger amount to PM 2.5 in the northern provinces, via the northeast monsoons, compared to the South (Hien et al., 2004;Nguyen et al., 2018). ...
... Ha Noi (S2) suffered the highest PM 2.5 pollution among 8 monitoring sites. In Ha Noi, local PM 2.5 emissions mainly came from traffic, industry, construction, biomass burning, and coal combustion (Hai and Kim Oanh, 2013;Nguyen et al., 2018). The traditional farming practice of burning rice straws by farmers in suburban areas has also contributed to poor air quality. ...
Air pollution, especially in urban regions, is receiving increasing attention in Vietnam. Consequently, this work aimed to study and analyze the air quality in several provinces and cities in the country focusing on PM2.5. Moreover, the impacts of COVID-19 social distancing on the PM2.5 level were investigated. For this purpose, descriptive statistic, Box and Whisker plot, correlation matrix, temporal variation, and trend analysis were conducted. R-based program and the R package “openair” were employed for the calculations. Hourly PM2.5 data were obtained from 8 national air quality monitoring sites. The study results indicated that provinces and cities in the North experienced more PM2.5 pollution compared to the Central and South. PM2.5 concentrations at each monitoring site varied significantly. Among monitoring sites, the northern sites showed high PM2.5 correlations with each other than the other sites. Seasonal variation was observed with high PM2.5 concentration in the dry season and low PM2.5 concentration in the wet season. PM2.5 concentration variation during the week was not so different. Diurnal variation showed that PM2.5 concentration rose at peak traffic hours and dropped in the afternoon. There was mainly a decreasing trend in PM2.5 concentration over the studied period. The COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to PM2.5 reduction. In the months implemented social distancing for preventing the epidemic, PM2.5 concentration declined but it would mostly increase in the following months. This study provided updated and valuable assessments of recent PM2.5 air quality in Vietnam.
... Chất lượng không khí có tác động lớn đến đời sống, sức khỏe của nhân dân [1-4]. Việt Nam là quốc gia đang phát triển với lượng phát thải khổng lồ phát sinh từ số lượng phương tiện giao thông, các khu công nghiệp, nhà máy nhiệt điện [5][6][7][8]; dẫn tới Việt Nam đang phải đối diện với những hậu quả của ô nhiễm không khí, nhất là ô nhiễm bụi PM (Particulate Matter). Gần đây, vấn đề ô nhiễm bụi mịn (PM2.5) ...
... Chất lượng không khí có tác động lớn đến đời sống, sức khỏe của nhân dân [1][2][3][4]. Việt Nam là quốc gia đang phát triển với lượng phát thải khổng lồ phát sinh từ số lượng phương tiện giao thông, các khu công nghiệp, nhà máy nhiệt điện [5][6][7][8]; dẫn tới Việt Nam đang phải đối diện với những hậu quả của ô nhiễm không khí, nhất là ô nhiễm bụi PM (Particulate Matter). Gần đây, vấn đề ô nhiễm bụi mịn (PM2.5) ...
... Moreover, in some provinces, although the annual average concentration of PM 2.5 was lower than the Vietnamese standard, there were still areas with very high levels of PM 2.5 concentration in those provinces (VNU-UET et al., 2021). Besides, local ground monitoring stations showed that PM 2.5 pollution is serious and long-term in many big cities in Vietnam (Nguyen et al., 2018). In the period from 2010 to 2017, the annual average concentration of PM 2.5 at 556 Nguyen Van Cu station in Hanoi reached the highest in 2011 (70.3 μg/m 3 ) and then dropped to the lowest in 2017 (28.4 μg/m 3 ). ...
... In 2020, PM 2.5 concentrations ranged from 7.8 μg/m 3 to 35.72 μg/m 3 , which has been the lowest PM 2.5 level since 2012 as a result of social distancing policy in Vietnam because of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ngo et al., 2021). The trend of decreasing PM 2.5 pollution concentration over the years was also observed in ground station monitoring analyzed in the study of Thanh et al. (Nguyen et al., 2018). Most of the monitoring stations in Vietnam (i.e. ...
PM2.5 pollution is a serious problem in Vietnam and around the world, having bad impacts on human health, animals and environment. Regular monitoring at a large scale is important to assess the status of air pollution, develop solutions and evaluate the effectiveness of policy implementation. However, air quality monitoring stations in Vietnam are limited. In this article, we propose an approach to estimate daily PM2.5 concentration from 2012 to 2020 over the Vietnamese territory, which is strongly affected by cloudy conditions, using a modern statistical model named Mixed Effect Model (MEM) on a dataset consisting of ground PM2.5 measurements, integrated satellite Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), meteorological and land use maps. The result of this approach is the first long-term, full coverage and high quality PM2.5 dataset of Vietnam. The daily mean PM2.5 maps have high validation results in comparison with ground PM2.5 measurement (Pearson r of 0.87, R² of 0.75, RMSE of 11.76 μg/m³, and MRE of 36.57 % on a total of 13,886 data samples). The aggregated monthly and annual average maps from 2012 to 2020 in Vietnam have outstanding quality when compared with another global PM2.5 product. The PM2.5 concentration maps has shown spatial distribution and seasonal variations of PM2.5 concentration in Vietnam in a long period from 2012 to 2020 and has been used in other studies and applications in the environment and public health at the national scale, which has not been possible before because of the lack of monitoring stations and an appropriate PM2.5 modeling approach.
... These levels, however, were challenging to attain not only for recent periods but also in the near future since the air pollution level in 2019 of many provinces, especially in the Red River Delta, far exceeded the QCVN 05:2013 standards. While another study highlighted the failure of provinces to meet the WHO air quality guidelines [40], our results demonstrated that PM 2.5 exceeded by 7-30 μg/m 3 and NO 2 by 1-26 μg/m 3 in the majority of provinces. In contrast, we assessed the impact using the air pollutant concentration in 2021 as a counterfactual level. ...
Objectives: This paper explores the potential reduction in the number of deaths and the corresponding economic benefits in Vietnam that could have arisen from the decreased in concentrations of particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Methods: Using Global Exposure Mortality Models, we estimated the potential health and economic benefits on people aged 25 and above across Vietnam’s 63 provinces. The counterfactual scenario assumed reducing PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations to levels observed during the two COVID-19 epidemic waves in 2021 with national lockdowns and activity restrictions.
Results: In 2019, PM2.5 concentrations ranged from 12.8 to 40.8 μg/m³ while NO2 concentrations ranged between 2.9 and 36.98 μg/m³. The reduced levels of PM2.5 and NO2 resulted in 3,807 (95% CI: 2,845–4,730) and 2,451 (95% CI: 2,845–4,730) avoided deaths of adults aged 25 and above due to non-injury-related causes, respectively. Considering that every prevented death represents potential tangible and intangible cost savings, reduced levels of PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations during COVID-19 restrictions would have resulted in economic benefits of 510.6 million (95% CI: 381.3–634.9), respectively.
Conclusion: The COVID-19 lockdown led to decreased PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations, benefiting health and economy in Vietnam. Our findings highlight the potential advantages of implementing air quality control policies in the country.
... Zhao et al. 2019), that is also similar in India (Kandlikar and Ramachandran 2000). However, the dominant factors for increasing the concentration of PM2.5 in Vietnam are mainly agriculture, cooking, heating, construction, and urbanization (Nguyen et al. 2018). However, the concentration of PM2.5 in the atmosphere depends on several anthropogenic factors such as transportation, industrial developments, and cooking and heating activities (Gautam et al. 2016;Al-Hamdan et al. 2019). ...
Particulate matter (PM2.5) is one of the critical sources of ambient air pollution and poses the most significant public health threat. In Bangladesh, particularly in the major urban cities, PM2.5 has been identified as an important public health hazard. This research aims to perform a spatiotemporal mapping of PM2.5 from 2002-2019 to determine the hotspots in central Bangladesh. A time series of remotely sensed PM2.5 is used in mapping spatiotemporal and hotspot analysis, applying Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing. This research reveals that the annual concentration of PM2.5 increased by 47% during 2002-2019. On the other hand, the high hotspot zones are found in the middle of the study areas, the core urban areas of Dhaka, Narayanganj, and Gazipur Districts. Moreover, this research found that 16.5% (3,640,748 persons out of the total population) were in the age group 0-9, 0.95% (2,109,99 persons) were in the age group 60+, 5% (12,062,419 persons) were pregnant women, and 1% (24,621 persons) were pneumonia patients in very high- and high-hotspot zones. The relevant policymakers and departments may use these findings on the policy applications for health hazard risk reduction and local and regional air pollution mitigation.
... Air pollution is the leading environmental agent that poses a serious risk to human health (Jerrett, 2015;GreenID, 2017;Landrigan et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2020a;. Vietnam is a developing country with rapid population growth, and it has a substantial amount of emissions due to the government's mismanagement of the rapidly rising number of vehicles, industrial parks, and thermal power plants, which are becoming increasingly dense (Hung et al., 2017;Nguyen et al., 2018;MONRE, 2018;Do et al., 2021). Therefore, the obvious consequences of air pollution have been observed in Vietnam, typically particulate matter (PM) pollution. ...
Outdoor PM2.5 pollution issues have significantly impacted public health in megalopolis areas of Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). In this area, rapid urbanization and industrialization in recent years have been one of the main reasons for the rise in PM2.5-related emission precursors. Thus, clarifying the effects of anthropogenic and natural activities contributing to spatiotemporal PM2.5 concentration distribution in HCMC is necessary to propose emission reduction solutions and develop a clean air action plan. The inventory datasets of anthropogenic and biological (natural) emissions from the emissions of atmospheric compounds were applied to estimate the outdoor PM2.5 pollution level in HCMC and clarify the influence of PM2.5 precursor emissions on pollution contribution. Simultaneously, the study area was divided into five subdivisions (from SG1 to SG5) to analyze the role of the emission contribution in each subdivision. A coupled Weather Research and Forecasting Model/Community Multiscale Air Quality Model (WRF/CMAQ) and multiple linear regression models were also used to determine the dependence of PM2.5/pollution levels on meteorological conditions and precursor emissions. The modeling outcomes in 2018 reported that the annual mean PM2.5 concentration across the city ranged between 55.82 and 65.25 μg/m3. These values were 2.3–2.47 times higher than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), in which the high PM2.5 pollution mainly occurred in subdivisions SG4, SG3, and a part of subdivision SG5. In addition, six PM2.5 precursor emissions, including SO2, NOx, NMVOCs, BC, OC, and CO, from three sectors of industrial processes, road transportation, and residential areas were found to contribute to PM2.5 in each subdivision of HCMC. Meanwhile, wind direction (Wd) and temperature (T) at 2 m above the surface were the meteorological factors that affected PM2.5 concentration changes in subdivisions SG1, SG2, and SG4. The study results would support the authorities and policymakers of HCMC to build suitable PM2.5 control solutions and develop medium- (2020–2025) and long-term (2025–2030) strategies for the clean air action plan in HCMC.
... Zhao et al. 2019), that is also similar in India (Kandlikar and Ramachandran 2000). However, the dominant factors for increasing the concentration of PM2.5 in Vietnam are mainly agriculture, cooking, heating, construction, and urbanization (Nguyen et al. 2018). However, the concentration of PM2.5 in the atmosphere depends on several anthropogenic factors such as transportation, industrial developments, and cooking and heating activities (Gautam et al. 2016;Al-Hamdan et al. 2019). ...
Particulate matter (PM2.5) is one of the critical sources of ambient air pollution and poses the most significant public health threat. In Bangladesh, particularly in the major urban cities, PM2.5 has been identified as an important public health hazard. This research aims to perform a spatiotemporal mapping of PM2.5 from 2002-2019 to determine the hotspots in central Bangladesh. A time series of remotely sensed PM2.5 is used in mapping spatiotemporal and hotspot analysis, applying Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing. This research reveals that the annual concentration of PM2.5 increased by 47% during 2002-2019. On the other hand, the high hotspot zones are found in the middle of the study areas, the core urban areas of Dhaka, Narayanganj, and Gazipur Districts. Moreover, this research found that 16.5% (3,640,748 persons out of the total population) were in the age group 0-9, 0.95% (2,109,99 persons) were in the age group 60 + , 5% (12,062,419 persons) were pregnant women, and 1% (24,621 persons) were pneumonia patients in very high-and high-hotspot zones. The relevant policymakers and departments may use these findings on the policy applications for health hazard risk reduction and local and regional air pollution mitigation.
教育は現地の社会問題を解決するための重要な手段の一つであるが、現在、ベトナムにおける外国語教育（日本語教育を含む）のカリキュラムデザインは、ヨーロッパの民主的な社会に基づいたCEFR（日本語教育ではJFスタンダード）を基盤としている。このアプローチは、ベトナムなど欧米以外の社会文化には適切ではないと指摘されている（Van Huy & Hamid, 2015；Macedo, 2019）。さらに、現地の問題を解決するための内容はカリキュラムに取り入れられていない。そこで、本研究では社会学の研究結果に基づき、近年のベトナムで発生した一酸化炭素中毒などの商品リテラシーに関わる事件・事故・問題を取り上げる。また、ベトナム人学習者がより良い生活を送るために外国語を学ぶ際に適切な内容を提供するため、内容重視のアプローチに基づいて、日本語教育のカリキュラムデザインの方向性を提案する。
Motorbikes are by far the dominant mode of transportation in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). They solve mobility problems but represent a health risk since riders are directly exposed to noxious exhaust fumes. Hence, face masks emerge as a solution to reduce exposure to harmful particles. The manufacturers of these masks report that they can significantly reduce particle exposure on roads with vehicular traffic. Such reports are usually based on laboratory assessments, with limited data from field experiments. To evaluate the performance of the masks commonly worn by HCMC commuters under quasi-real exposure conditions, we tested the total inward leakage of particles (i.e., including penetration through the filter media, and leaks from the face seal and exhalation valve if the mask is equipped with one) of six representative masks mounted on manikins at the curbside of two busy roads during high traffic time periods. Several particle metrics, including mass and number concentrations, active surface area, and abundances of equivalent black carbon and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were measured to determine the protection level provided by masks against distinct types of particles. As part of this study, through a set of measurements using the same instrumentation we found that commuters are exposed to a mix of freshly emitted particles and aged particles, including contributions from sources other than motorbike exhaust, such as trash burning and street food stalls. Ultrafine particles, especially those in the nucleation mode (< 50 nm), turned out to be the dominant fraction in terms of number concentration. This study focused its evaluation on these particles. We found that no mask can completely remove all particles under practical conditions. It is largely due to inappropriate mask fitting. Performance efficiency of 60-80% was achieved by an N95 respirator, a reusable valved filtering mask, and a locally manufactured carbon-layer sandwiched mask. Surgical and cloth masks achieved efficiencies of 25-60%. The results show that any face mask provides some level of protection. Efforts should be made to provide end users with practical information on the effectiveness of masks under real conditions, and informing on how to best fit each mask to increase effectiveness.
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