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The impact of three forms of mindfulness training on mindfulness, wellbeing and goal attainment: Findings from a randomised controlled trial and implications for coaching
Abstract
Scholarly interest in mindfulness has increased dramatically over the past 15 years and its relevance to coaching has been widely acknowledged. However, much of this empirical work has been narrowly focused on perspectives drawn from Eastern contemplative traditions, rather than the broader body of psychological science. This study sought to examine the efficacy of three different approaches to mindfulness training based on an Eastern contemplative perspective (meditation), a cognitive-attentional perspective (attention training) and a socio-cognitive perspective (mindful creativity). Using a randomised controlled trial, 72 participants were assigned to one of three experimental conditions (or a control group) for the duration of a six-week mindfulness training programme. Data collection occurred at three time points (i.e. pre-, post- and three-months follow-up) and included measures of self-reported mindfulness, psychopathology, subjective wellbeing, psychological wellbeing and goal attainment. Findings indicated that all forms of mindfulness training were associated with significant increases in mindfulness, with each training approach showing a different pattern of improvements on mental and wellbeing variables. Interestingly for coaching, all forms of mindfulness training also produced pre-post increases in goal attainment, even though goal progression was not a feature of any programme. These findings are discussed and the implications for coaching practice briefly explored.
... The processes help people to notice that their circumstances are in a constant state of flux and that they can flex their attitude to embrace the continually evolving opportunities and possibilities (Ie et al., 2012). As such, studies have demonstrated positive links between socio-cognitive mindfulness and enhanced mental skills (Kee & Wang, 2008), increased self-fulfilment and resilience (Ghanizadeh et al., 2019), and improved goal attainment (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019). ...
... Correlational studies have also evidenced positive relationships between socio-cognitive mindfulness and an array of wellbeing benefits, such as increased positive affect (Ie et al., 2012), empathy (Trent et al., 2016) and resilience (Ghanizadeh et al., 2019). Further studies have demonstrated positive links to areas useful to coaching, such as enhanced goal setting (Kee & Wang, 2008), goal achievement (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019) and a greater complexity in thinking style (Ie et al., 2012). Therefore, as the proposed intervention aims to improve wellbeing via coaching, there appears to be potential synergistic benefits to integrating evidence-based strategies from the two fields of research as captured in Figure 2 below. ...
... This approach requires an understanding of how socio-cognitive mindfulness works and how it can be applied to everyday life. Therefore, coaching programmes could adopt a similar approach to the extended programmes by including psychoeducation to help coachees learn meaningful ways of embedding the strategies into everyday routines (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019). Furthermore, as the studies demonstrated a variety of wellbeing outcomes across different domains, coaching programmes can be tailored to allow coachees to explore areas of wellbeing that are relevant to them. ...
Introduction: The literature suggests that socio-cognitive mindfulness (Langer, 1989) is a suitable theory from which to develop a wellbeing coaching intervention due to its focus on environmental mastery and its links to increased wellbeing outcomes. The purpose of this study is to outline the process and the emerging findings of developing a coaching intervention based on the evidence-based strategies of socio-cognitive mindfulness.
Methods: The Medical Research Council’s updated framework for developing complex interventions has been used to guide the research methods chosen to design this coaching intervention (Skivington et al., 2021). The accumulated findings from three previous studies were triangulated to refine the programme theory of the intervention. The lead researcher incorporated her practice reflections as a coaching psychologist into the programme theory to operationalise the logic model into a prototype of the intervention.
Findings: A logic model was produced to articulate the findings of the method triangulation and the resulting programme theory. The mechanisms of the model include the establishment of a safe and personalised coaching environment where key coaching processes help to facilitate the activation of socio-cognitive mindfulness. By repeatedly stimulating and integrating states of socio-cognitive mindfulness into daily routines over an extended period, participants can potentially develop trait socio-cognitive mindfulness and increase the chances of sustaining meaningful wellbeing outcomes.
Conclusion: As the logic model is still hypothetical at this point, the intervention prototype should now be feasibility tested prior to a full study to address some of the outstanding key uncertainties, such as who the intervention appeals to, whether participants adhere to the programme as intended and which wellbeing measures are most likely to improve.
... Since these processes all represent aspects of goal pursuit, it is not surprising that an increasing amount of goal research has recently focused on the role of mindfulness. For example, Spence and Cavanagh (2019) demonstrated that interventions using different aspects of, or promoted by mindfulness (contemplative perspective [meditation] vs. cognitive-attentional perspective [attention training] vs. socio-cognitive perspective [mindful creativity]) were all effective in increasing goal progress for personal goals. Moreover, Marion-Jetten et al. (2022) reported negative longitudinal associations between dispositional mindfulness and action crises -the motivational conflict between continuing pursuing the goal versus letting it go, usually following accumulation of setbacks (Brandstätter & Schüler, 2013). ...
... Mindfulness was positively associated with autonomous goal motivation and negatively so with controlled goal motivation, mirroring past research on this topic (Donald et al., 2020;Marion-Jetten et al., 2022b;Ryan et al., 2021). Moreover, it was positively associated with goal progress (Smyth et al., 2020;Spence & Cavanagh, 2019). Corroborating previous findings, autonomous goal motivation was also positively correlated with goal progress (Koestner et al., 2008;Werner et al., 2016) and there was no significant opposite polarity. ...
... We found a small to moderate effect on goal progress in the mindfulness intervention but not in the control group. That is, our findings extend previous correlational data (Smyth et al., 2020;Spence & Cavanagh, 2019) by showing that increasing mindfulness promotes goal progress. Mindfulness interventions endorse attention on, and a non-judgmental reflection of internal and external events (Bishop et al., 2004;Ryan et al., 2021). ...
Previous correlational studies showed the importance of mindfulness and autonomous goal motivation for goal pursuit, goal setting, and goal disengagement processes. The present study examined the role of mindfulness in goal regulation processes for self-selected personal goals in a randomized waitlist control group design. Participants (N = 228, M = 30.7 years, 18–78 years; 84% female) either received daily 9-12-minute audio mindfulness exercises online for four weeks or were placed on a waitlist. Participants in the intervention group (N = 113) reported more goal progress compared with the control group (N = 116) at the end of the intervention. Autonomous goal motivation for already set goals did not influence change in goal progress. However, autonomous goal motivation for newly set goals was higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Additionally, we tested the role of mindfulness in interaction with goal attainability and autonomous motivation for goal adjustment processes (in this case, reduction of goal importance). In the control group, lower goal attainability at baseline was associated with a greater reduction in goal importance for less autonomous goals. For more autonomous goals, change in goal importance was independent from baseline attainability. In contrast, in the intervention group, all goals were slightly devalued over time independently from autonomous motivation and goal attainability at T1. Moreover, changes in goal attainability were positively linked to changes in goal importance over time. This effect was moderated by mindfulness and autonomous motivation. Overall, the findings point to the relevance of mindfulness and autonomous motivation for goal regulation processes.
... Mindfulness is an example of an established positive psychology theory which coaching psychologists have suggested offers theoretically-sound perspectives and empirically tested strategies to facilitate the coaching process and improve coach and coachee wellbeing (Virgili, 2013 Cavanagh & Spence, 2013;). Moreover, the western construct of mindfulness also referred to as socio-cognitive mindfulness (Langer, 1989), has demonstrated greater increases in goal attainment and environmental mastery compared to the eastern derived form of mindfulness meditation (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019), thus suggesting its compatibility with coaching. As socio-cognitive mindfulness emphasises an active learning and creative problem-solving approach (Baer, 2003) and has demonstrated links to multiple wellbeing benefits (Langer, 2010), it may offer complimentary strategies to incorporate into a coaching intervention for wellbeing development. ...
... The current proposal has adopted the approach of several socio-cognitive mindfulness intervention studies which taught participants the principles of how to apply socio-cognitive mindfulness in their everyday lives to maintain and build upon their wellbeing improvements (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019;Pagnini et al., 2021). Although most of the coaches agreed that the integration of psychoeducation on socio-cognitive mindfulness would benefit the coaching process, one coach challenged how much this approach was 'pure' coaching versus training. ...
... Another consideration was the suitability of a group coaching format versus dyadic coaching. However, it was noted that a group format brings additional benefits to the intervention by way of providing opportunities for participants to explore ideas and views with each other within a social context (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019) as well as practice interpersonal exercises in a safe psychological space (Kepner, 2008). This has been demonstrated in group health and wellbeing coaching studies which suggested that group support and shared learning helped to facilitate positive outcomes, such as improvements in self-efficacy, positive emotions and locus of control (Bezner et al., 2020;Nacif, 2021). ...
Introduction
Socio-cognitive mindfulness has evidenced links to improvements in wellbeing and appears to be a suitable theory from which to develop a wellbeing coaching intervention. The purpose of this study is to explore coaches’ views and examine the perceived acceptability and feasibility of a wellbeing coaching intervention based on socio-cognitive mindfulness.
Methods
A qualitative questionnaire and follow-up focus group examined coaches’ views of the proposed intervention. Ten practising coaches were recruited for the questionnaire, of which five also participated in the focus group. The questionnaire summarised information about the proposed intervention and gathered coaches’ views on the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention. The responses related to the barriers and facilitators to implementing the intervention were discussed in-depth during the focus group.
Results
The data collected from the coaches were thematically analysed and three core themes were developed: ‘clear contracting’, ‘impacts of group dynamics’, and ‘sustainability through autonomy and engagement’. The themes encompassed considerations and recommendations for ensuring intervention participants would be provided with clear expectations and a personalised, psychologically safe space to explore their wellbeing development.
Conclusion
The findings suggest that there may be limitations to the proposed intervention due to the significant input required from participants and the challenges which may arise from a group coaching format. However, refining the intervention according to the coaches’ recommendations may enhance its acceptability by ensuring participants are well-informed, supported and motivated to commit to the programme.
... Further studies have explored how socio-cognitive mindfulness can be developed during extended training programmes to help maintain subjective and psychological wellbeing improvements. For example, training programmes designed to teach participants how to apply socio-cognitive mindfulness in meaningful ways have shown sustained increases in goal attainment, environmental mastery, positive relationships and emotional wellbeing (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019;Pagnini et al., 2021). Despite yielding positive results in their study, Spence & Cavanagh (2019) recommend that further research is conducted to understand whether combining socio-cognitive mindfulness interventions and developmental coaching may lead to greater outcomes. ...
... For example, training programmes designed to teach participants how to apply socio-cognitive mindfulness in meaningful ways have shown sustained increases in goal attainment, environmental mastery, positive relationships and emotional wellbeing (Spence & Cavanagh, 2019;Pagnini et al., 2021). Despite yielding positive results in their study, Spence & Cavanagh (2019) recommend that further research is conducted to understand whether combining socio-cognitive mindfulness interventions and developmental coaching may lead to greater outcomes. To our knowledge, no research exists which examines a coaching intervention specifically developed from the sociocognitive approach to mindfulness. ...
This exploratory feasibility study examined a wellbeing coaching programme developed from the theory of socio-cognitive mindfulness (Langer, 1989). Six participants were recruited to attend the six-week programme and to complete surveys measuring mindfulness and wellbeing at baseline, post-intervention and follow-up. High attendance and completion rates suggest that the study and intervention procedures were feasible, with a preliminary assessment of outcomes indicating that the intervention may be effective in some cases for improving mindfulness and wellbeing. Participant responses infer that the coaching programme was acceptable and well-received but with suggestions for improvement which can inform intervention refinement and potential coach training.
... Second, the results of Study 2 showed that MLC could significantly facilitate postgraduate students' development of mindful learning, consistent with previous findings [64,73,74,81,[112][113][114]. Numerous coaching activities directly addressed students' positive resources and thus enabled increases in mindful learning and well-being. ...
Mindful learning is widely known to improve learning outcomes, yet its association with students’ well-being remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of mindful learning on subjective well-being (SWB) and psychological well-being (PWB) in postgraduate students, using survey questionnaires and a randomized experimental design. In Study 1, correlation and regression analyses based on 236 postgraduate students revealed significant positive associations among mindful learning, SWB, and PWB. In Study 2, 54 students were randomly assigned to three groups: the experimental (which received Mindful Learning Coaching), active-, and blank control groups. The results from repeated-measures ANOVA showed that coaching significantly improved students’ mindful learning. The participants’ SWB and PWB significantly decreased in both the active- and blank control groups, whilst their SWB and PWB tended to increase in the experimental group. In conclusion, mindful learning, SWB, and PWB are significantly correlated, while the enhancement of mindful learning may be a protective factor in students’ well-being.
... Second, the results of Study 2 showed that MLC could signi cantly facilitate postgraduate students' development of mindful learning, consistent with previous ndings (Grant, 2003;Grant, 2006;Grant & Cavanagh, 2007;Peng & Wang, 2019;Spence, 2008;Spence & Cavanagh, 2019;. Numerous coaching activities directly addressed students' positive resources and thus enabled increases in mindful learning and well-being. ...
Mindful learning is widely known to improve learning outcomes, yet its association with students’ well-being remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of mindful learning on subjective well-being (SWB) and psychological well-being (PWB) in postgraduate students, using survey questionnaires and a randomized experimental design. In Study 1, correlation and regression analyses based on 236 postgraduate students revealed significant positive associations among mindful learning, SWB, and PWB. In Study 2, 54 students were randomly assigned to three groups: the experimental (which received Mindful Learning Coaching), active-, and blank control groups. The results from repeated-measures ANOVA showed that coaching significantly improved students’ mindful learning. The participants’ SWB and PWB significantly decreased in both the active- and blank control groups, whilst their SWB and PWB tended to increase in the experimental group. In conclusion, mindful learning, SWB, and PWB are significantly correlated, while the enhancement of mindful learning may be a protective factor in students’ well-being.
The use of mindfulness in the practice of coaching has gained interest over recent years amongst coaching professionals. Whilst there has been research to examine and understand its role and place in coaching practice, much remains yet to be examined with respect to its purpose and how mindfulness may be acquired and used in coaching practice. Therefore, the aim of this study was to help coaches better understand and use mindfulness concepts in a coaching context. Three sets of data are presented from studies on how mindfulness in coaching is developed and acquired. The objectives of these studies, which involved 112 participants, concerned the experiences and perceptions of trainee-coaches learning mindfulness, experienced coaches using mindfulness and, finally, coach supervisors who use mindfulness in their supervision practice. Data were collected using interviews, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and personal learning logs. Analysis was conducted using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), content and inferential statistical analysis. Commonalities across definitions of mindfulness were recognised or identified by these three groups, which complemented and aided the development of personal and professional skills for mindfulness coaching. Key findings related to how and when to use mindfulness, the impact of mindfulness on coaching practice, how trainee coaches increased their own mindfulness during practice. The findings are developed into an enhanced operational definition and framework for mindfulness coaching.
This review investigates the relevance of socio-cognitive mindfulness (Langer, 1989) to wellbeing coaching by systematically synthesising the evidence to understand how socio-cognitive mindfulness interventions work. The search yielded 2,867 peer-reviewed studies with twelve papers meeting the eligibility criteria. The interventions induced socio-cognitive mindfulness with non-clinical adults via one or more psychological processes to achieve intrapersonal, interpersonal and environmental wellbeing. Six of the studies employed exercises to produce boosts in wellbeing, whilst six conducted extended programmes, of which three demonstrated sustained wellbeing improvements. The findings indicate that socio-cognitive mindfulness could provide valuable insights for practitioners and synergistic benefits for wellbeing coaching.
The research we report on here sought to explore the meaning of mindfulness for experienced coaching practitioners in a practice context. There are many formal definitions, but it is difficult to know how and which ones are used in practice and to what degree or effect. The purpose of the research was to obtain a clearer understanding of what mindfulness is from the practitioners’ perspective in terms of its available definitions and how it is used and is useful or beneficial in practice. The research used qualitative methodology, an interpretivist and constructivist approach, the in-depth interview method, and interpretative phenomenological analysis to analyze the data. Using purposive sampling, we interviewed 30 senior coach practitioners with respect to their position on mindfulness. The coaches’ perspectives are reflected in two metathemes: how coaches used mindfulness, and how coaches know mindfulness is useful or beneficial (i.e., the impact of mindfulness). The first is comprised of five subthemes: practicing with greater awareness in the here and now, being present or having presence and focus, being nonjudgmental and practicing with curiosity and kindness, creating space for clients, and practicing in a more effective and respectful way. The second is expressed in 10 subthemes related to how the coaches know mindfulness is useful or beneficial for themselves, the client, and the coach-client relationship. Further research and specific implications are proposed for the practice of mindfulness in coaching, including an enhanced operational definition and model for mindfulness in coaching.
This pilot study, based on Quiun's (2017) theoretical model, aimed to improve the wellbeing of victims of workplace bullying through their coping strategies. Quiun's (2017) model highlights the importance of rumination in workplace bullying's psychological effects as well as the negative role of thinking in its development. The program used the re ective nature of coaching and the bene ts of autogenous meditation in stress management training to promote coping skills and to reduce activation levels. The participants were people who reported being targets of workplace bullying. They were assessed in the three factors of rumination (Brooding, Re ection and Negative Thinking) and wellbeing at pre-post-and three-month levels after the end of the study to identify change levels resulting from the program. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney and the index for reliable change were employed to determine the statistical signi cance of the change, while Grounded Theory principles were used to explore qualitatively how coaching worked on promoting change. The quantitative analysis showed a signi cant change in negative thinking level (z=-1.98 p<.048) between post-intervention and three months after the project. The qualitative analysis indicates how coaching improves coping skills, self-esteem and personal growth, with the alliance with the participants and autogenous meditation suggested as the key elements that facilitated this change.
Mindfulness—the awareness of the present moment and experiences in daily life—contributes to genuine intrinsic and social-oriented values and curbs materialistic and hedonistic values. In the context of materialism, money is power. Avaricious individuals take risks and are likely to engage in dishonesty. Very little research has investigated the effects of mindfulness in reducing the avaricious monetary attitudes and enhancing ethical consumer beliefs. In this study, we theorize that mindfulness improves consumer ethics directly and indirectly by lowering avaricious monetary attitudes. To test our theory, we collected data from 523 individuals with the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) training and 307 individuals without MBSR. The results of our whole sample (N = 830) support our theory. Three multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses (MGCFAs) reveal intriguing discoveries. First, with MBSR training, mindfulness excites consumer ethical beliefs directly and indirectly. Without training, trait mindfulness fails to reduce monetary attitudes—mindfulness training matters. Second, the power of MBSR training holds for participants completing the training within 1 year, but wears off after 1 year—the duration after training matters. Finally, after 1 year, the training retains its strength for those who practice mindfulness, but weakens its power for those who do not—practice matters. We shed light on mindfulness, monetary wisdom, and consumer ethics, in particular, and business ethics, in general.
We conducted an experiment to assess the effects of mindfulness (active distinction making) training on the perception of and reaction to handicapped children. In a 2 × 2 factorial design, sixth graders received either a high- or low-mindfulness treatment and viewed slides that were either all of “normal” people or consisted primarily of “handicapped” individuals. The high-mindfulness treatment, especially when bolstered by explicit reference to the handicapped, revealed that teaching children to be more differentiated (i.e., more mindful) resulted in the view that handicaps are function specific and not people specific. Children in this group were less likely to inappropriately discriminate for or against the handicapped target. Most important, however, was the finding that subjects in this group were less likely to avoid a handicapped other.
Two of the problems that currently affect a large proportion of university students are high levels of anxiety and stress experienced in different situations, which are particularly high during the first years of their degree and during exam periods. The present study aims to investigate whether mindfulness training can bring about significant changes in the manifestations of depression, anxiety, and stress of students when compared to another group undergoing a physical activity program and a control group. The sample consisted of 125 students from the Bachelor of Education Program. The measuring instrument used was the Abbreviated Scale of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (DASS-21). The results indicate that the effects of reducing the identified variables were higher for the mindfulness group than for the physical education group and for the control group F(2) = 5.91, p = .004, η2 = .106. The total scores for all variables related to the mindfulness group decreased significantly, including an important stress reduction t(29) = 2.95, p = .006, d = .667. Mindfulness exercises and some individual relaxing exercises involving Physical Education could help to reduce manifestations of stress and anxiety caused by exams in students.
Objective:
The objective of this study was to determine whether a mindfulness program, created for the workplace, was both practical and efficacious in decreasing employee stress while enhancing resiliency and well-being.
Methods:
Participants (89) recruited from The Dow Chemical Company were selected and randomly assigned to an online mindfulness intervention (n = 44) or wait-list control (n = 45). Participants completed the Perceived Stress Scale, the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire, the Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale, and the Shirom Vigor Scale at pre- and postintervention and 6-month follow-up.
Results:
The results indicated that the mindfulness intervention group had significant decreases in perceived stress as well as increased mindfulness, resiliency, and vigor.
Conclusions:
This online mindfulness intervention seems to be both practical and effective in decreasing employee stress, while improving resiliency, vigor, and work engagement, thereby enhancing overall employee well-being.
Comprehensive, systematic, and balanced, Systems of Psychotherapy uses a wealth of clinical cases to help readers understand a wide variety of psychotherapies - including psychodynamic, existential, experiential, interpersonal, exposure, behavioral, cognitive, third wave, systemic, multicultural, and integrative. The ninth edition of this landmark text thoroughly analyzes 15 leading systems of psychotherapy and briefly surveys another 32, providing students and practitioners with a broad overview of the discipline.
The book explores each system's theory of personality, theory of psychopathology, and resulting therapeutic process and therapy relationship. Through these explorations the authors clearly demonstrate how psychotherapy systems agree on the processes producing change while diverging on the elements in need of change. Additionally, the authors present cogent criticisms of each approach from cognitive-behavioral, psychoanalytic, humanistic, cultural, and integrative perspectives. This ninth edition features updated meta-analytic reviews of the effectiveness of each system, new sections on Lacanian analysis, mentalization therapy, and psychotherapy with gender nonconforming people, as well as new sections and updates throughout the text.
Mindfulness (Langer, 1978, 1989, 1997, 2005)a process of actively making novel distinctions about objects in one's awarenesshas been shown to have personal, interpersonal, and health benefits. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that mindfulness is (a) perceived and preferred by children; and (b) has positive effects on them. The results indicate that children ages 9 to 12 not only preferred to interact with mindful adults, but devalued themselves following the mindless interaction, despite the fact that only positive content was discussed. Potential implications of adults' mindless responding to children are discussed.
Despite its high media profile and growing popularity there have been no empirical investigations of the impact of life coaching on goal attainment, metacognition or mental health. This exploratory study used life coaching as a means of exploring key metacognitive factors involved as individuals move towards goal attainment. In a within-subjects design, twenty adults completed a life coaching program. Participation in the program was associated with enhanced mental health, quality of life and goal attainment. In terms of metacognition, levels of self-reflection decreased and levels of insight increased. Life coaching has promise as an effective approach to personal development and goal attainment, and may prove to be a useful platform for a positive psychology and the investigation of the psychological mechanisms involved in purposeful change in normal, nonclinical populations.
The factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; S. H. Lovibond & P. F. Lovibond, 1995) and the 21-item short form of these measures (DASS–21 ) were examined in nonclinical volunteers (
n = 49) and patients with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) diagnoses of panic disorder (
n = 67), obsessive-compulsive disorder (
n = 54), social phobia (
n = 74), specific phobia (
n = 17), and major depressive disorder (
n = 46). This study replicates previous findings indicating that the DASS distinguishes well between features of depression, physical arousal, and psychological tension and agitation and extends these observations to the DASS–21. In addition, the internal consistency and concurrent validity of the DASS and DASS–21 were in the acceptable to excellent ranges. Mean scores for the various groups were similar to those in previous research, and in the expected direction. The implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reigning measures of psychological well-being have little theoretical grounding, despite an extensive literature on the contours of positive functioning. Aspects of well-being derived from this literature (i.e., self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth) were operationalized. Three hundred and twenty-one men and women, divided among young, middle-aged, and older adults, rated themselves on these measures along with six instruments prominent in earlier studies (i.e., affect balance, life satisfaction, self-esteem, morale, locus of control, depression). Results revealed that positive relations with others, autonomy, purpose in life, and personal growth were not strongly tied to prior assessment indexes, thereby supporting the claim that key aspects of positive functioning have not been represented in the empirical arena. Furthermore, age profiles revealed a more differentiated pattern of well-being than is evident in prior research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Interventions based on training in mindfulness skills are becoming increasingly popular. Mindfulness involves intentionally bringing one's attention to the internal and external experiences occurring in the present moment, and is often taught through a variety of meditation exercises. This review summarizes conceptual approaches to mind-fulness and empirical research on the utility of mindfulness-based interventions. Meta-analytic techniques were incorporated to facilitate quantification of findings and comparison across studies. Although the current empirical literature includes many methodological flaws, findings suggest that mindfulness-based interventions may be helpful in the treatment of several disorders. Methodologically sound investigations are recommended in order to clarify the utility of these interventions.
Sitting still while trying to pay attention implicitly reinforces the idea that to pay attention one should focus on a single aspect of the stimulus. Movement encourages attending to different aspects of the stimulus and as such is hypothesized to increase attention. We tested this with students from a traditional and a nontraditional school. Students were asked to observe and recall landmarks on a map. Students from the traditional school who viewed the map from multiple perspectives remembered more landmarks and locations than students who viewed the map from a single perspective. Students from a nontraditional school who are accustomed to movement while learning, did not show this effect. The experiment is discussed in terms of mindfulness theory.
An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that mindful attention to change regarding heart rate (HR) would result in greater control over HR. Experimental groups monitored the changing or stable nature of HR, respectively. All participants' HR slowed during the decrease phase. Participants whose attention was directed to the stable nature of HR performed the worst on the increase phase of the HR control task. These results suggest that mindfulness, instantiated here as attention to variability, is a means to increasing control. Psychology
This study investigated the relationships among mindfulness, marital satisfaction, and perceived spousal similarity. All 95 subjects responded to a questionnaire measuring each of these variables, and an additional series of demographic variables. A significant positive relationship was found between mindfulness and marital satisfaction, with no statistically significant relationship found between perceived spousal similarity and marital satisfaction. There was a stronger correlation between mindfulness and marital satisfaction than the correlation between marital satisfaction and any of the other variables, including similarity. These results carry meaningful implications for the role of mindfulness techniques within the context of building and maintaining happy marital relationships and general well-being. Psychology
Primary care physicians report high levels of distress, which is linked to burnout, attrition, and poorer quality of care. Programs to reduce burnout before it results in impairment are rare; data on these programs are scarce.
To determine whether an intensive educational program in mindfulness, communication, and self-awareness is associated with improvement in primary care physicians' well-being, psychological distress, burnout, and capacity for relating to patients.
Before-and-after study of 70 primary care physicians in Rochester, New York, in a continuing medical education (CME) course in 2007-2008. The course included mindfulness meditation, self-awareness exercises, narratives about meaningful clinical experiences, appreciative interviews, didactic material, and discussion. An 8-week intensive phase (2.5 h/wk, 7-hour retreat) was followed by a 10-month maintenance phase (2.5 h/mo).
Mindfulness (2 subscales), burnout (3 subscales), empathy (3 subscales), psychosocial orientation, personality (5 factors), and mood (6 subscales) measured at baseline and at 2, 12, and 15 months.
Over the course of the program and follow-up, participants demonstrated improvements in mindfulness (raw score, 45.2 to 54.1; raw score change [Delta], 8.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 7.0 to 10.8); burnout (emotional exhaustion, 26.8 to 20.0; Delta = -6.8; 95% CI, -4.8 to -8.8; depersonalization, 8.4 to 5.9; Delta = -2.5; 95% CI, -1.4 to -3.6; and personal accomplishment, 40.2 to 42.6; Delta = 2.4; 95% CI, 1.2 to 3.6); empathy (116.6 to 121.2; Delta = 4.6; 95% CI, 2.2 to 7.0); physician belief scale (76.7 to 72.6; Delta = -4.1; 95% CI, -1.8 to -6.4); total mood disturbance (33.2 to 16.1; Delta = -17.1; 95% CI, -11 to -23.2), and personality (conscientiousness, 6.5 to 6.8; Delta = 0.3; 95% CI, 0.1 to 5 and emotional stability, 6.1 to 6.6; Delta = 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3 to 0.7). Improvements in mindfulness were correlated with improvements in total mood disturbance (r = -0.39, P < .001), perspective taking subscale of physician empathy (r = 0.31, P < .001), burnout (emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment subscales, r = -0.32 and 0.33, respectively; P < .001), and personality factors (conscientiousness and emotional stability, r = 0.29 and 0.25, respectively; P < .001).
Participation in a mindful communication program was associated with short-term and sustained improvements in well-being and attitudes associated with patient-centered care. Because before-and-after designs limit inferences about intervention effects, these findings warrant randomized trials involving a variety of practicing physicians.
Can direct change in state of consciousness through specific mental techniques extend human life and reverse age-related declines? To address this question, 73 residents of 8 homes for the elderly (mean age = 81 years) were randomly assigned among no treatment and 3 treatments highly similar in external structure and expectations: the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program, mindfulness training (MF) in active distinction making, or a relaxation (low mindfulness) program. A planned comparison indicated that the "restful alert" TM group improved most, followed by MF, in contrast to relaxation and no-treatment groups, on paired associate learning; 2 measures of cognitive flexibility; mental health; systolic blood pressure; and ratings of behavioral flexibility, aging, and treatment efficacy. The MF group improved most, followed by TM, on perceived control and word fluency. After 3 years, survival rate was 100% for TM and 87.5% for MF in contrast to lower rates for other groups.
A theoretical model of psychological well-being that encompasses 6 distinct dimensions of wellness (Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive Relations with Others, Purpose in Life, Self-Acceptance) was tested with data from a nationally representative sample of adults (N = 1,108), aged 25 and older, who participated in telephone interviews. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the proposed 6-factor model, with a single second-order super factor. The model was superior in fit over single-factor and other artifactual models. Age and sex differences on the various well-being dimensions replicated prior findings. Comparisons with other frequently used indicators (positive and negative affect, life satisfaction) demonstrated that the latter neglect key aspects of positive functioning emphasized in theories of health and well-being.
Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced self-awareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress.
The purpose of this study is to examine the mechanisms by which personality traits influence performance and satisfaction. Specifically, the authors examined how 3 personality characteristics derived from self-determination theory (autonomy, control, and amotivated orientations) influence performance and enjoyment through achievement goal patterns, goal level, and mental focus. Data were collected from 284 students at 5 points in time. In particular, mental focus emerged as an important aspect of the self-regulation process. The results suggest that global personality traits can help researchers to understand and predict the motivational strategies that people use while working toward goals in achievement settings.
This book presents a thorough overview of a model of human functioning based on the idea that behavior is goal-directed and regulated by feedback control processes. It describes feedback processes and their application to behavior, considers goals and the idea that goals are organized hierarchically, examines affect as deriving from a different kind of feedback process, and analyzes how success expectancies influence whether people keep trying to attain goals or disengage. Later sections consider a series of emerging themes, including dynamic systems as a model for shifting among goals, catastrophe theory as a model for persistence, and the question of whether behavior is controlled or instead 'emerges'. Three chapters consider the implications of these various ideas for understanding maladaptive behavior, and the closing chapter asks whether goals are a necessity of life. Throughout, theory is presented in the context of diverse issues that link the theory to other literatures.
This chapter explores how sociocultural factors influence the cultivation, and maintenance, of mindfulness and work. It begins by acknowledging that scholarly work in the area has been strongly influenced by an epidemic of work stress and the desire to find systematic ways to ameliorate its harmful effects. Mindfulness has received a considerable amount of research attention in the past decade and led to the development of a vast literature. Indeed, the literature now boasts numerous meta-analytic and systematic reviews on the use of mindfulness within an array of contexts. Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation and personality development. Whilst the six mini-theories that comprise SDT address different aspects of motivational and personality processes, at its core is the proposition that human beings have a set of universal, fundamental psychological needs, the satisfaction of which are essential for healthy development, vital engagement, effective behaving, and psychological well-being.
Self-determination theory argues that motivational orientations that guide behavior have important consequences for healthy behavioral regulation and psychological well-being. This chapter discusses the nature of motivation in terms of its relative autonomy and reviews evidence in support of its role in positive psychological and behavioral outcomes. The chapter begins by describing variations in the orientation of motivations as outlined within SDT. It then address factors that impact motivation at two levels: how motivators and social contexts can foster or undermine autonomous motivation; how individuals can best access and harness self-regulatory powers from within. The chapter demonstrates that autonomous regulation of inner states and overt behavior is key to a number of positive outcomes that reflect healthy behavioral and psychological functioning. Autonomy can be facilitated both from without and from within, through the receptive attention and awareness to present experience that helps to characterize mindfulness.
Mindfulness techniques, having long played an important role in contemplative traditions around the world, are now recognized as having the potential to transform workplaces. As interest in the role of mindfulness in organizational settings continues to increase, this timely book fills a gap in the literature by providing an overview of the latest theoretical and empirical research on workplace mindfulness. It brings together world-leading scholars to explore the foundations, key discussions, diversity of approaches and applications of mindfulness in organizations. It acts as a catalyst for future research on the topic by suggesting research directions and stimulating organizational researchers to embark on new projects involving mindfulness. Furthermore, it provides valuable ideas for implementing mindfulness programs in organizations, for teaching mindfulness in business contexts, and for coaching with mindfulness. This must-read book will appeal to researchers and professionals in the fields of organizational behavior, organizational psychology and employee well-being.
Organizational life today is riddled by challenges. Maintaining the competitive advantage in a climate of certain and constant change can be a struggle. With globalization, strong competition, cultural differences, and a lurking risk of stress always on the doorstep, organizations tend to push to their limits and befuture-focused on objectives and outcomes. The failure to focus their energy and attention to the present, the only time when our actions have an impact, influences their ability to communicate, lead, inspire, and ultimately thrive. Mindfulness, the purposeful, nonjudgemental focus on the present, is one possible answer to these challenges. Mindfulness fosters a more inclusive and authentic vision of "reality" and promotes a more effective use of individual and organizational resources. In this chapter, we present a case for introducing mindfulness in the workplace and provide an overview of its links to other applied positive psychology constructs, all of which contribute to a healthier and more productive experience of work-life.
Introduction What is Coaching? What is Coaching Psychology? What is Mentoring? The Developing Research Agenda for Coaching and Mentoring Conclusion References
One of Andrew Mathews' most important contributions to our field has been the demonstration that anxiety is associated with an attentional bias towards threat-related material. This bias provides a plausible basis for understanding the origins and maintenance of anxiety-related disorders in terms of self-perpetuating, interacting processes: selective attention to threat means that experience is more likely to be interpreted in threatening ways; these interpretations will generate further anxiety; that anxiety will reinforce the attentional bias, and so on. From this perspective, it might seem counterproductive, even foolish, to train anxious patients to deliberately focus their attention towards unpleasant aspects of their experience. And yet this is a central component of the application of mindfulness training to emotional disorders, and there is encouraging evidence (reviewed by Baer, 2003) that such training can reduce symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic. Clearly, there is more than one way we might attend to unpleasant aspects of our experience. For example, we might attend to our unpleasant experience as if we were a scientist, curious about the precise nature of the constellation of thoughts, feelings and body sensations that comprise the experience; or, we might attend to the unpleasant experience as revealing an aspect of ourselves that we loathe and despise; or, indeed, we might attend to the unpleasant experience as a potential threat to our physical or mental well-being. In this chapter, I will consider how mindfully attending to unwanted experience may alleviate, rather than exacerbate, emotional disorders. Mindfulness, here, means ‘paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally’ (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, p. 4). © Cambridge University Press 2004 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Mindfulness, achieved without meditation, is discussed with particular reference to learning. Being mindful is the simple act of drawing novel distinctions. It leads us to greater sensitivity to context and perspective, and ultimately to greater control over our lives. When we engage in mindful learning, we avoid forming mind-sets that unnecessarily limit us. Many of our beliefs about learning are mind-sets that have been mindlessly accepted to be true. Consideration is given to some of the consequences that result from a mindful reconsideration of those myths of learning.
An ACT Approach Chapter 1. What is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy? Steven C. Hayes, Kirk D. Strosahl, Kara Bunting, Michael Twohig, and Kelly G. Wilson Chapter 2. An ACT Primer: Core Therapy Processes, Intervention Strategies, and Therapist Competencies. Kirk D. Strosahl, Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson and Elizabeth V. Gifford Chapter 3. ACT Case Formulation. Steven C. Hayes, Kirk D. Strosahl, Jayson Luoma, Alethea A. Smith, and Kelly G. Wilson ACT with Behavior Problems Chapter 4. ACT with Affective Disorders. Robert D. Zettle Chapter 5. ACT with Anxiety Disorders. Susan M. Orsillo, Lizabeth Roemer, Jennifer Block-Lerner, Chad LeJeune, and James D. Herbert Chapter 6. ACT with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Alethea A. Smith and Victoria M. Follette Chapter 7. ACT for Substance Abuse and Dependence. Kelly G. Wilson and Michelle R. Byrd Chapter 8. ACT with the Seriously Mentally Ill. Patricia Bach Chapter 9. ACT with the Multi-Problem Patient. Kirk D. Strosahl ACT with Special Populations, Settings, and Methods Chapter 10. ACT with Children, Adolescents, and their Parents. Amy R. Murrell, Lisa W. Coyne, & Kelly G. Wilson Chapter 11. ACT for Stress. Frank Bond. Chapter 12. ACT in Medical Settings. Patricia Robinson, Jennifer Gregg, JoAnne Dahl, & Tobias Lundgren Chapter 13. ACT with Chronic Pain Patients. Patricia Robinson, Rikard K. Wicksell, Gunnar L. Olsson Chapter 14. ACT in Group Format. Robyn D. Walser and Jacqueline Pistorello
This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.
Employees struggling with work‐related cognitions, emotions, and associated energy levels during non‐work time can find their private roles impaired and work – life balance derogated. To reduce unwanted psychological preoccupation with work concerns, boundary theory suggests employees find their ideal way to integrate or segment both life domains. In this study, the authors design and evaluate an intervention teaching mindfulness as a cognitive – emotional segmentation strategy to promote work – life balance. They use a randomized waitlist control group design to evaluate effects of a 3‐week online self‐training intervention, with 246 employees participating at pre‐ and post‐test, and 191 participating at a 2‐week follow‐up. As expected, experimental group participants, compared with control group participants, experienced significantly less strain‐based work – family conflict and significantly more psychological detachment and satisfaction with work – life balance.
Practitioner points
Mindfulness, a cognitive – emotional segmentation strategy, enables employees to balance between work and private life.
Voluntary organizational health and work – life balance programmes should include low‐cost but effective brief mindfulness interventions.
The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for reducing psychological distress in working adults. A comprehensive literature search of relevant databases included articles written in English published on December 2012. The meta-analysis included 19 controlled and uncontrolled intervention studies with a total of 1,139 participants. Analyses yielded medium-to-large mean effect sizes for the within-group (pre–post) comparison (Hedges's g = 0.68, 95 % confidence interval (CI) [0.58, 0.78]) and for the between-group (Hedges's g = 0.68, 95 % CI [0.48, 0.88]) comparison of MBI with an inactive control. Effectiveness was largely maintained at a median follow-up of 5 weeks (Hedges's g = 0.60, 95 % CI [0.46, 0.75]). Analyses based on subgroup comparisons suggested that brief versions of mindfulness-based stress reduction developed for organisational settings are equally effective as standard 8-week versions originally developed for clinical settings. However, there is little evidence to suggest that MBIs are more effective than other types of occupational stress management interventions, such as relaxation training and yoga, for reducing psychological distress in working adults. Overall, these findings support the use of MBIs in organisational settings for the reduction of psychological distress. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
Two studies were designed to test the hypothesis that actively creating novel distinctions and sonically portraying them during the performance of orchestral music is preferable to attempting to re-create a past performance. The data suggest that orchestral musicians preferred creating music when they were encouraged to mindfully incorporate subtle nuances into their performance. When audience members were played recordings of both types of performance, a significant majority expressed a preference for the performances that were created in a mindful state. Individual attention to novel distinctions and subtle nuances appears to alter the process of creative ensemble performance and lead to music that is more enjoyable to perform and hear.
This study evaluated the effectiveness of Attention Training (ATT; Wells, 1990) in the treatment of recurrent major depression. This technique is based on an information processing model of emotional disorders (Wells & Matthews, 1994) in which self-focused attention and metacognition maintain dysfunction. ATT was evaluated in a consecutive single-case series of patients referred for treatment of recurrent major depression. Patients were assigned to no-treatment baselines of 3 to 5 weeks, administered five to eight weekly sessions of ATT, and followed up at 3, 6, and 12 months posttreatment. The effects of ATT on depression, anxiety, negative automatic thoughts, rumination, self-focused attention, and metacognition were assessed. Following ATT, all patients showed clinically significant reductions in depression and anxiety. Reductions in negative automatic thoughts, rumination, and attentional and metacognitive factors showed similar improvements. All scores fell within the normal range on completion of ATT. Treatment gains were maintained at the 12-month follow-up assessments. However, randomized controlled trials of ATT are required before firm conclusions can be drawn.
The major patterns of self-regulatory failure are reviewed. Underregulation occurs because of deficient standards, inadequate monitoring, or inadequate strength. Misregulation occurs because of false assumptions or misdirected efforts, especially an unwarranted emphasis on emotion. The evidence supports a strength (limited resource) model of self-regulation and suggests that people often acquiesce in losing control. Loss of control of attention, failure of transcendence, and various lapse-activated causes all contribute to regulatory failure.
[This book] is written for students of cognitive psychology, and also for clinicians and researchers in the areas of cognition, stress and emotional disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The handbook, woven around the hope theory that has received the most attention in the 1990s, is divided into 6 sections. Two chapters describe the rise and fall of hope—that is, how hope develops normally in children and how it tragically can die for some people in their childhood or adult years. A chapter gives an overview of the various instruments for and approaches to measuring hope. Five chapters deal with how hope theory relates directly to the processes of helping people in general. 11 chapters cover hope theory applied to benefit various people: from children to adolescents to the elderly, minorities, athletes and others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study tested the effectiveness of a new cognitive technique involving attention training. A single case systematic replication series (Sidman, 1960) was used to replicate and extend previous findings. In particular the effects of attention training on panic frequency, general anxiety, and beliefs was investigated across two panic disorder cases and one social phobia case, and across different therapists, and settings. A true reversal design was used in one of the cases. In this case attention training was followed by an attentional manipulation incompatible with the hypothesized effects of attention training so that the effects of attention training on target problems could be clearly evaluated on its re-introduction. The results are consistent with those of a previous study (Wells, 1990) and provide preliminary evidence that panic attacks, anxiety and beliefs can be effectively and lastingly reduced by cognitive techniques which do not directly target the content of negative appraisal. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The aim of this study was to examine whether a mindful intervention, based on noticing distinctions, could be used to improve the attention of older individuals. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four attention interventions. In the mindfulness groups, participants studying a set of pictures were told to notice either three or five distinctions. In the control groups, participants were either told to pay attention or were not given any directions related to attention before exposure to the set of pictures. The results indicated that those who viewed the stimuli in terms of distinctions were able to remember significantly more pictures than did those in the control groups. Distinction drawing also increased liking for the stimuli. The findings suggest that if older individuals want to increase attention and recall, rather than focus their attention, they may want to find ways to vary their attention.
A case of relaxation induced anxiety in a patient with Panic Disorder is reported. The study reports the use of an attentional training procedure which was effective in eliminating panic and facilitated tension reduction without producing anxiety. A two treatment (ABCB) design revealed that a procedure evoking external attentional focus eliminated panic attacks, whereas autogenic training increased the frequency of panic attacks and the intensity of anxiety. The possible roles of self-focus in mediating panic and the effects of relaxation are briefly discussed.
The psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) were evaluated in a normal sample of N = 717 who were also administered the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). The DASS was shown to possess satisfactory psychometric properties, and the factor structure was substantiated both by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In comparison to the BDI and BAI, the DASS scales showed greater separation in factor loadings. The DASS Anxiety scale correlated 0.81 with the BAI, and the DASS Depression scale correlated 0.74 with the BDI. Factor analyses suggested that the BDI differs from the DASS Depression scale primarily in that the BDI includes items such as weight loss, insomnia, somatic preoccupation and irritability, which fail to discriminate between depression and other affective states. The factor structure of the combined BDI and BAI items was virtually identical to that reported by Beck for a sample of diagnosed depressed and anxious patients, supporting the view that these clinical states are more severe expressions of the same states that may be discerned in normals. Implications of the results for the conceptualisation of depression, anxiety and tension/stress are considered, and the utility of the DASS scales in discriminating between these constructs is discussed.
Empirical evidence indicates that manipulations of attention may facilitate changes in cognition and stress symptoms in emotional disorder.
The present study reports the effects of Attention Training (ATT) in a brief case series of three patients with primary hypochondriasis using an A-B-A design.
ATT produced clinically significant improvements in self-reported measures of affect, and illness-related behaviour and cognition. Treatment gains were maintained at 6 months follow-up assessments. Measures of body-focused attention indicated that the ATT procedure acted on attentional processes as intended.
The present case series extends the effects of ATT to problems of hypochondriasis. A number of studies now suggest that ATT is associated with a reduction in anxiety and negative beliefs across disorders of panic, social phobia and hypochondriasis. Controlled clinical trials are now required to establish firmly the effects of ATT as a component of cognitive therapy.