Article

Energy and macronutrient intake of advanced polish sport climbers

Authors:
  • Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Poland
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to assess energy and macronutrient intakes in a group of elite sport climbers. The study group comprised 23 climbers, including 13 males and 10 females. Energy and macronutrient intakes were estimated from a seven-day food diaries. Intakes of energy, protein, carbohydrates and fat expressed in unites per kilograms of body weight were, respectively: 33.30 (±6.47) kcal, 1.48 (±0.34) g, 3.96 (±0.95) g and 1.22(±0.32) g. No differences between female and male climbers were found in mean energy and macronutrients intake, although in the case of protein intake a tendency towards significance was found (p=0.073) with males consuming relatively more proteins than females: 1.59(±0.40) g/kg BW vs 1.34(±0.17) g/kg BW. In conclusion, our data suggest that energy intake of climbers is low, taking as a point of reference current intake guidelines. Suboptimal supply especially concerns carbohydrates while intakes of the remaining macronutrients, proteins and fats, were within the recommended values.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... However, the number of studies evaluating energy intake (EI) and assessing the dietary intake of sports climbers is still limited. Some studies involving small groups of climbers from different countries analyzed the intake of energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients [11][12][13], diet composition [14][15][16], and antioxidant intake [17]. ...
... The anthropometric measurements of body mass and height for both sexes were similar to the participants of other studies involving sports climbers [11,12,15,16]. However, the body fat percentage was higher in the male groups [12,16]. ...
... Climbers from the elite groups had the lowest BMI values, which were 20.1 in females and 21.2 in males. In a study by Sas-Nowosielski et al. [11], the BMI of climbers significantly predicted their climbing abilities on the most challenging route climbed in the so-called redpoint style. Kemmler et al. [16] demonstrated a moderate negative effect of low BMI value on bone mineral density (BMD). ...
Article
Full-text available
Proper nutrition is the basis for athletes’ performances when competing or training. The increasing training volume accompanying the increase in advancement should go hand in hand with the appropriate supply of energy as well as macro and micronutrients. The diet of climbing representatives due to the desire to achieve a low body weight may be deficient in energy and micronutrients. Our study aimed to evaluate the differences in energy availability and nutrient intake of female and male sport climbers at different climbing levels. Anthropometric parameters and the resting metabolic rate were measured, the questionnaire about climbing grade and training hours was filled, and a 3-day food diary was fulfilled by 106 sport climbers. Based on the collected data, the energy availability as well as the macro- and micronutrient intake was calculated. Low energy availability (EA) was observed among both genders of sport climbing representatives. A significant difference between EA in various levels of advancement was found in the male group (p < 0.001). Differences in carbohydrate intake (g/kg/BW) between sexes were observed (p = 0.01). Differences in nutrients intake between climbing grade were found in both the female and male groups. In the group of female elite athletes, the adequate supply of most of the micronutrients can imply a high-quality diet despite the low calorie content. It is necessary to educate sport climbing representatives about the importance of proper nutrition as well as the consequences of insufficient energy intake.
... Energy requirements in adolescent climbers were assessed only in a single study (Watts & Ostrowski, 2014), and recently a pilot study that monitored macronutrient intake and eating attitudes in recreational and competitive adolescent rock climbers was published . Both studies and others, performed with adult climbers (Gibson-Smith, Storey, & Ranchordas, 2020;Kemmler, et al., 2006;Merrells, Friel, Knaus, & Suh, 2008;Sas-Nowosielski & Wycislik, 2019;Zapf, Fichtl, Wielgoss, & Schmidt, 2001), report suboptimal energy intake (EI). The aforementioned studies, except for the study by Gibson-Smith et al. (2020), used energy balance (EB) as the traditional metric for determining the adequacy of EI. ...
... It is known that longer-lasting energy shortage and LEA lead to RED-S which may lead to a dysfunction of numerous physiological systems and may endanger health and performance (Desbrow, et al., 2014;Smith, Holmes, & McAllister, 2015), and in adolescents, also growth and maturation status (Desbrow, et al., 2014). All the studies with climbers known to us concluded that EI, when compared to predicted energy expenditure (calculated as a product of basal metabolic rate and physical activity factor), was too low in both adolescent and adult climbers (Kemmler, et al., 2006;Merrells, et al., 2008;Sas-Nowosielski & Wycislik, 2019;Zapf, et al., 2001). The only study that determined EA was conducted with adult climbers and the average EA of the participants was 41.4 ± 9 kcal/kg FFM/ day, with significantly higher EA in females than in males (45.6 ± 7 kcal/kg FFM/day vs. 37.2 ± 9 kcal/ kg FFM/day, respectively) (Gibson-Smith, et al., 2020). ...
... came to a similar conclusion, namely, 86 % of their adolescent climbers did not reach the same target, 5-g CHO/kg BM/day, their average daily CHO intake was 4.3 ± 1.6 g CHO/kg BM. Studies with adult climbers show even lower intakes of CHO, below 4.0 g CHO/kg BM/day (Gibson-Smith, et al., 2020;Sas-Nowosielski & Wycislik, 2019). Considering the lack of studies, the minimum daily recommended intake is unclear, so recommend 3-7 g CHO/kg BM, while setting 5-g CHO/kg BM as the value which would prevent the depletion of glycogen in activities with similar physiological requirements as sport climbing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Competitive adolescent sport climbers are reported to keep very low energy intake in order to achieve the highest possible strength-to-mass ratio required for their sport. Long term low energy availability (< 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day) is known to have a detrimental effect on health and performance. Due to the potential severity of the consequences and the lack of the data on specific population, our aim was to assess energy availability and dietary intake of 27 members of the Slovenian Youth Climbing Team (13–18 years of age). Three-day food and activity records, questionnaires and anthropometric measurements were used to determine participants’ energy availability, nutritional intake, avoidance of food groups and selected health history. Average energy availability in climbers was 27.5 ± 9.8 kcal/kg fat free mass/day and 63% of participants failed to meet the recommended 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day. Their average carbohydrate (4.3 ± 1.3 g/kg body mass/day), calcium (780 ± 300 mg/day) and vitamin D (2.6 ± 2.3 µg/day) intake were also too low. Average protein intake was in recommended range, but 56% of participants did not meet the minimum recommended limit. Iron intake was too low in females (10 ± 5 mg/day; target 15 mg/day). Only 15% of participants reported not avoiding any food groups. The menstrual dysfunction was detected in five female climbers (36%); all had energy availability < 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day. We recommend nutritional education of climbers, their coaches, and parents as well as regular individual nutritional assessment of competitive adolescent sport climbers.
... There were no between-gender differences found for intake of carbohydrate, protein, or fat when expressed relative to body mass, which is in agreement with previous research (27,56). No differences in macronutrient intake were found between intermediate/advanced and elite/higherelite climbers in males or combined genders, in agreement with the findings of Sas-Nowosielski and Judyta (56), who also found no difference between ability levels. ...
... There were no between-gender differences found for intake of carbohydrate, protein, or fat when expressed relative to body mass, which is in agreement with previous research (27,56). No differences in macronutrient intake were found between intermediate/advanced and elite/higherelite climbers in males or combined genders, in agreement with the findings of Sas-Nowosielski and Judyta (56), who also found no difference between ability levels. However, there was a significant correlation between climbing ability and protein intake in female athletes, supporting the work of Michael et al. (27), who found that elite climbers consumed more protein than intermediate climbers, although reported differences were small (1.8 vs. 1.7 g·kg −1 ·day −1 ). ...
... Mean carbohydrate intake of 3.7 g·kg −1 ·day −1 was similar to values previously reported (27,56) and within the suggested range of 3-7 g·kg −1 ·day −1 for climbers (57), although very much toward the lower end of the scale. Previous research that has attempted to provide guidelines on carbohydrate intake has primarily relied on extrapolations from other sports, so actual requirements are relatively unknown. ...
Article
Full-text available
Climbing has developed into a popular recreational and elite sport, evidenced by a growing number of licenced competition athletes, and the acceptance into the Olympic calendar for Tokyo 2020. A nutritional assessment, including the evaluation of anthropometric and biochemical data, has not been previously reported in climbing athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the dietary intake, body composition, and iron status in experienced climbers, across a range of performance levels. Forty climbers (n = 20 male, n = 20 female; 8.8 ± 6.6 years' experience; BMI 21.6 ± 1.7) aged 18–46 (30.3 ± 6.7 years) participated in the study. Dietary intake was recorded in a 3-days diet diary. Body composition was assessed using a skinfold profile and iron status via blood markers. Mean energy intake was 2154.6 ± 450 kcal·day⁻¹, with 30% of male climbers and 5% of female climbers failing to meet predicted resting metabolic rate. Furthermore, 77.5% of participants failed to meet a predicted energy requirement to support a “moderate” training programme. There were no significant correlations between daily energy intake and exercise volume. Mean intake of carbohydrate, protein and fat was 3.7 ± 0.9 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹, 1.6 ± 0.5 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹, and 1.4 ± 0.4 g·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹, respectively, with no significant difference between genders. Approximately 17% of males (n =3) and 45% of females (n = 9) had a sub-optimal iron status. Thirty percent of females met the classification criteria for iron deficiency. Mean serum ferritin was significantly greater in males, compared to females (102.7 ± 54.9 vs. 51.4 ± 24.2 μg·L⁻¹; p ≤ 0.01) and significantly lower in vegan/vegetarians vs. omnivores, in female climbers only (33.2 ± 14.8 vs. 57.5 ± 24 μg·L⁻¹; p = 0.05). No significant differences were observed between climbing ability groups (intermediate-advanced/elite-higher elite) for body composition, dietary intake, or iron status, for males or females. These findings suggest that experienced climbers are at risk of energy restriction and iron deficiency, therefore, routine assessment of nutritional status is warranted. Future research should consider iron status in relation to energy availability and investigate additional factors which may predispose this population to iron deficiency, as well as the risk of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S).
... However, these data should be interpreted with caution, given the need for longer dietary recording times to estimate individual intake more accurately [68,69]. Also, the use of population-based reference values such as RDAs or the high use of dietary supplements by climbing athletes may, respectively, aggravate or mask the diagnosis of specific nutritional deficiencies [70][71][72][73]. ...
... However, it can be deduced that these problems and deficient micronutrient intakes can be reversed by adjusting the energy intake of athletes [59,75]. Therefore, improving the nutritional status and energy status of climbers by adapting their dietary habits to the specific requirements of their sporting discipline seems to be the priority strategy in these athletes as in other Olympic sporting disciplines [76][77][78], and the safe, effective, and necessary use of certain nutritional supplements should be considered for situations involving diagnosed deficiencies, athletes who follow restrictive dietary patterns, or where there is a potential effect on the athlete's sporting performance [20,73,[79][80][81][82]. However, more studies are needed to monitor the statuses of different micronutrients in the climbing athlete, as well as their health and sporting effects. ...
Article
Full-text available
Climbing is an Olympic discipline in full development and multidisciplinary in nature, where the influences of body composition and nutritional status on performance have not yet been clarified despite the quest for a low weight in anti-gravity disciplines such as climbing. The present cross-sectional study aimed to conduct nutritional (3-day dietary diaries) and body composition (ISAK profile) assessments on sport climbing athletes by gender and climbing level during the months of February and March 2024. The t-test for independent samples and the Mann–Whitney U-test, as well as an ANOVA and the Kruskal–Wallis H-test, were used to compare the distributions of two or more groups, respectively, and Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients were used to estimate the correlations between the different variables. The mean age of the 46 Spanish climbers (22 men and 24 women) was 30 years (SD: 9) with 7.66 years of experience (SD: 6.63). The mean somatotype of the athletes was classified as balanced mesomorph. Negative correlations were observed between fat mass variables and climbing level (p < 0.010), and positive correlations were observed with forearm circumference (p < 0.050). The mean energy availability (EA) was 33.01 kcal-kg FFM⁻¹d⁻¹ (SD: 9.02), with 55.6% of athletes having a suboptimal EA status and 35.6% having low energy availability (LEA). The carbohydrate and protein intakes were below the recommendations in 57.8% and 31.1% of athletes, respectively. There were deficient intakes of all micronutrients except phosphorus in males. These findings suggest that climbing athletes are at a high risk of developing low energy availability states and concomitant problems. Optimal nutritional monitoring may be advisable in this type of athlete to try to reduce the risk of LEA.
... Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019).Krzysztof & Judyta (2019) state that there are already issues surrounding eating and diet for many climbers right across the sport (Arthur-Cameselle & Curcio, 2018;Martinsen et al., 2015;Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019). This then brings to the forefront the need for accurate and clear information on optimum dietary fuelling, accessible to parents, climbers and coaches alike. ...
... Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019).Krzysztof & Judyta (2019) state that there are already issues surrounding eating and diet for many climbers right across the sport (Arthur-Cameselle & Curcio, 2018;Martinsen et al., 2015;Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019). This then brings to the forefront the need for accurate and clear information on optimum dietary fuelling, accessible to parents, climbers and coaches alike. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Eating disorders (ED) have the highest mortality rate and long-term impact of any mental health difficulty (Reardon et al., 2019). Difficulties with maintaining healthy attitudes to eating, weight and body image, including eating disorders are a risk factor for climbers, particularly female at an elite level can develop obsession with thinness, body dissatisfaction and personal alienation (Joubert et al., 2020; Strand, 2022). How to ameliorate these risks will be crucial to coaches, teams, and federations wanting to promote athlete wellbeing. Protective factors include positive, person-centred (rather than performance centred) coaching practices, positive attitudes to food and weight from team members and other social influences and coaching and parenting practices which emphasise non-weight related contributions to performance (NEDA, 2023). For a highly motivated athlete, controlled eating behaviour can be part of a carefully regulated lifestyle for optimal performance (Smith et al., 2015). To minimise the threat to health and performance, many sports have adopted codes of practice for making weight. This is strongly encouraged as one of the most important prevention strategies for minimising the prevalence and risks associated with ED (Smith et al., 2015; Wells et al., 2020). In summary, education is needed at all levels, and we suggest that climbing federations and governing bodies should have position statements with guidelines related to optimising nutrition and body composition. To reduce the risk of extreme dieting and EDs, mandatory educational programmes for healthcare providers, athletes, coaches, and other athletics staff members should be implemented (Smith et al., 2015).
... Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019).Krzysztof & Judyta (2019) state that there are already issues surrounding eating and diet for many climbers right across the sport (Arthur-Cameselle & Curcio, 2018;Martinsen et al., 2015;Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019). This then brings to the forefront the need for accurate and clear information on optimum dietary fuelling, accessible to parents, climbers and coaches alike. ...
... Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019).Krzysztof & Judyta (2019) state that there are already issues surrounding eating and diet for many climbers right across the sport (Arthur-Cameselle & Curcio, 2018;Martinsen et al., 2015;Krzysztof & Judyza, 2019). This then brings to the forefront the need for accurate and clear information on optimum dietary fuelling, accessible to parents, climbers and coaches alike. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Eating disorders have the highest mortality rate and long term impact of any mental health difficulty, and must be taken seriously. Difficulties with maintaining healthy attitudes to eating, weight and body image, including eating disorders, are a risk for climbers. Whilst research is in its infancy, epidemiological data suggests that particularly female elite sport climbers are most at risk for developing disordered eating. Climbers, coaches and parents need to be aware of early signs and symptoms, risk factors, and how to seek help in a timely and effective manner. Coaches, the media and others in positions where they may be a role model to younger climbers must take care how they talk about food, eating and weight, in order to change the culture around eating and climbing. This consensus statement is aimed at teams, federations/ associations, and coaches, to highlight the relevant issues. Advice is given on how to ensure a supportive fuelling strategy, and how and when to access support for climbers. It is accompanied by infographics versions aimed at coaches/parents and climbers themselves, and can be widely distributed throughout climbing gyms, handbooks and training events.
... Not meeting dietary intake targets also recently been reported in a small sample size (n = 22) of adolescent climbers, with reference to fats and carbohydrates (Michael et al., 2019), although those participants were regarded as low risk for disorder eating. In the current study, this was further supported by the lower perceived value of carbohydrate loading or intake of carbohydrates during recovery, in line with a recent report in elite adult spot climbers (n = 23) who tended to avoid carbohydrates (Krzysztof & Judyta, 2019). Such approaches to nutrition, over the longer term, could indeed be compromised climbing performance and more importantly, have negative health consequences (Mountjoy et al., 2018). ...
... It would be a great interest to further explore the diets of rock climbers using recognised tools such as the food frequency questionnaire or food records. Several other studies have already provided specific insight in cohorts of advanced climbers (n = 23) reporting suboptimal energy intake (Krzysztof & Judyta, 2019), adolescent climbers (n = 22) who in generally fail to meet daily nutritional recommendations (Michael et al., 2019) and disordered eating amongst sport lead climbers (n = 498), and most prevalent in females (Joubert et al., 2020). Second, the current responses were only interpreted based upon self-reported climbing grades. ...
Article
The aim of this study was to describe the self-reported dietary practices and reported supplement use of rock climbers. A global survey was conducted (SurveymonkeyTM) (June–October, 2017). In total, 775 climbers completed the survey (males n = 522, females n = 251, not-identified n = 2, response-77%). This included elite (n = 56, 28 ± 8y, 65 ± 11kg), advanced (n = 449, 27 ± 7y, 67 ± 11kg) and intermediate (n = 270, 29 ± 8y, 71 ± 11kg) groups. Omnivorous diet was the most common and similar across the groups (elite 60%; advanced 56%; intermediate 61%). The prevalence rate of a vegan diet was also similar between groups (elite 7%, advanced 6%, intermediate 4%). Climbers reported (1: not important to 5: very important [mean ± SD) nutrition was most important for ‘hydration’ (elite 4.0±0.2, advanced 4.0 ± 0.1, intermediate 3.8 ± 0.1), ‘preparation’ (elite 3.5 ± 0.2, advanced 3.1 ± 0.1, intermediate 2.9 ± 0.1 p < 0.05) and ‘recovery’ (elite 3.8 ± 0.2, advanced 3.5 ± 0.1, intermediate 3.4 ± 0.1) where the prevalence of protein use for recovery was highest in elite 68% and advanced 69% compared to intermediate 55% (p < 0.05). Supplement intake was also equivalent between the groups (elite 1.5 ± 0.2, advanced 1.6 ± 0.1, intermediate 1.3 ± 0.1, p > 0.05). Caffeine was the most reported supplement used to improve performance and prevalence of consumption highest in elite climbers (elite 51%, advanced 40%, intermediate 33%, p < 0.05). Nitrate (<2%) and bicarbonate (<2%) were the lowest reported supplements. Climbers reported that nutrition was important to support their performance, despite a genuine lack of research in this area. Most notably, the self-reported use of nutritional supplements was low in elite and advanced climbers.
... Climbing can be considered an antigravitational sport and success is supported by a high strength-to-mass ratio, which diet may strongly influence (Tayne et al., 2019). Although research regarding the dietary intake patterns of climbers is scarce (Zapf et al., 2001;Merrells et al., 2008;Krzysztof and Judyta, 2019), there is anecdotal evidence and published personal testimony of climbers practicing DE behaviors in order to minimize body weight and thus potentially enhance performance (Taylor and Geldard, 2008;Samet, 2013). Because of the myriad of physical and mental consequences associated with long term energy deficiency, and the prevalence of "the lighter the better" mentality among some climbers, the medical community has shared concerns regarding the likely inadequate macronutrient intake and potential for EDs among many climbers (Lutter et al., 2017). ...
... A few recent studies suggest rock climbers may not be consuming adequate energy to support optimal health. These studies recognized low energy availability using 24 h dietary recall in a small group of advanced adolescent climbers (Michael et al., 2019) and 7 day food records in advanced adult climbers (Krzysztof and Judyta, 2019). Although our study did not evaluate dietary energy intake and we did not detect DE in the majority of our participants, it is possible that some of our participants, with or without DE, did not consume enough energy, which may lead to poor bone density, increased risk of injury, and compromised health (Tayne et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
Disordered eating (DE) is characterized as a range of irregular eating patterns or behaviors, which may lead to pathological eating or a clinical eating disorder diagnosis. DE patterns are associated with a variety of negative health outcomes. The prevalence of DE is highest in female athletes who participate in aesthetic or weight dependent sports. Elite rock climbers tend to be strong, small and lean, but the prevalence of DE in rock climbers is unknown. The purpose of the present study was to assess DE prevalence in a large group of international rock climbers and to explore the relationship between sport rock climbing ability and DE. A web-based survey assessed both DE (Eating Attitudes Test-26) and climbing ability based on the International Rock Climbing Research Association's position statement on comparative grading scales. The survey was distributed to international climbing communities; 810 individuals attempted the survey; 604 completed all questions; 498 identified as sport lead climbers. The majority of sport lead climbers were lower grade/intermediate (57.8%), compared to advanced (30.7%) and elite/higher elite (11.4%), and male (76.9%). Forty-three sport lead climbers reported a score of 20 or above on the EAT-26 indicating an 8.6% prevalence of DE in this sample. Male climbers had a DE prevalence of 6.3% (24 of 383) and female climbers more than doubled that with 16.5% (19 of 115). Chi-square analysis revealed that DE was associated with climbing ability level [χ2 (2, n = 498, 8.076, p = 0.02)], and when analyzed by sex, only the female climbers had a significant relationship of DE with climbing ability [χ2 (2, n = 115, 15.640, p = 0.00)]. These findings suggest sport lead rock climbers are not immune to DE and that the risk is elevated in female climbers, particularly at the elite/high elite climbing ability level. Our research indicates further investigations are warranted to determine if and how disordered eating behaviors affect health and performance of adult rock climbers.
... Similar to previous observations in Polish [42] and English [21] climbing athletes, protein powder supplements were the most commonly used by athletes in the present study. Similarly, the use of supplements such as different vitamins (vitamin C, D), minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium), amino acid mixtures, collagen, omega 3, caffeine or creatine, previously reported in work with climbers [21,42,74,75], was also reported. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Climbing is an Olympic discipline in full development and multidisciplinary in nature, in which the influence of body composition and nutritional status on performance has not yet been clarified despite the quest for low weight in anti-gravity disciplines such as climbing. The present study aimed to do a nutritional (3-day dietary diaries) and body composition (ISAK profile) assessment of sport climbing athletes of different genders and sport levels. The mean age of the forty-six Spanish climbers (22 men and 24 women) was 30 years (SD: 9) with 7.66 years of experience (SD: 6.63). The mean somatotype of the athletes was classified as balanced mesomorph. Negative correlations were observed between fat mass variables and climbing level (p
... Likewise, approximately 50% of the climbers in the study by Sas-Nowosielski et al. reported using BCAA supplements and 40% reported taking vitamin and mineral supplements. Only a small number of climbers reported taking other supplements, such as creatine or mixtures in the form of glucosamine and collagen hydrolysate; none of them were taking beta-alanine, thermogenics, protein isolates, or isotonic drinks [16]. In another recent study among 110 Polish climbers at different levels, protein isolate supplements were identified as one of the most frequently used product, followed by vitamin C and D, magnesium, and amino acid blends (i.e., BCAA) [17••]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose of Review As sport climbing has become an Olympic sport and keeps gaining in popularity, there is growing interest in the role of diet and the effect of dietary supplements on climbing performance. The aim of this review is to provide an insight into the dietary intake of climbers and discuss ergogenic aids that could improve their performance. Recent Findings Limited information is available regarding the dietary intake and eating habits of climbers, and the studies conducted are few and far between. The diet of climbers is apparently suboptimal, with inadequate energy intakes often owning to insufficient carbohydrate consumption. Likewise, supplement use and ergogenic aids for climbing performance are largely unexplored. Several ergogenic aids have been suggested to improve climbing performance; however, only two have been examined directly on climbing-specific outcomes. Summary The dietary intake, eating behaviors, and supplement use in sport climbers are not well studied, and available information is most likely outdated. Considerably, more work is needed to determine which ergogenic aids can be beneficial for climbing performance.
... In our study, the mean values of anthropometric measurements were similar to those involving sport climbers in other studies analyzing the body composition of sport climbing representants [14,15]. Compared with the group of advanced and elite climbers in Monedero et al. [14], the elite climbers in Gibson-Smith [15], and the Polish advanced climbers in Sas-Novosielki et al. [25], the male group was characterized with a higher body weight and fat percentage, but in the female group, the characteristic of the group was convergent. These differences may have been due to the different climbing levels of the study participants, while in the abovementioned studies, the specific characteristics were due to the study of a small group of top-level climbers. ...
Article
Full-text available
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) represents the energy required to maintain vital body functions. In dietary practice, RMR is determined by predictive equations on the basis of using body weight or fat-free mass. Our study aimed to assess whether predictive equations used to estimate RMR are reliable tools for estimating the energy requirements of sport climbers. The study included 114 sport climbers whose RMR was measured with a Fitmate WM. Anthropometric measurements were performed with X-CONTACT 356. The resting metabolic rate was measured by indirect calorimetry and was compared with the RMR estimated by 14 predictive equations on the basis of using body weight/fat-free mass. All equations underestimated RMR in male and female climbers, except for De Lorenzo’s equation in the group of women. The De Lorenzo equation demonstrated the highest correlation with RMR in both groups. The results of the Bland–Altman tests revealed an increasing measurement error with increasing metabolism for most of the predictive equations in male and female climbers. All equations had low measurement reliability according to the intraclass correlation coefficient. Compared with the indirect calorimetry measurement results, none of the studied predictive equations demonstrated high reliability. There is a need to develop a highly reliable predictive equation to estimate RMR in sport climbers.
... Sedangkan 70% responden lainnya kebanyakan lebih memilih mie instan sebagai bekal utama Ketika mendaki gunung dan juga membawa kopi. Padahal kedua makanan dan minuman itu tidak dapat memenuhi kebutuhan nutrisi dalam pendakian dan justru mempunyai kadungan gizi yang dapat membahayakan diri 13,14 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Mendaki gunung adalah salah satu kegiatan olahraga yang diminati banyak anak muda bahkan orang dewasa. Bahkan jumlah pendaki gunung tiap tahun semakin meningkan dikarenakan trend. Kecelakaan dalam dunia pendakian juga semakin meningkat karena banyaknya pendaki pemula yang lebih mementingkan eksistensi daripada keselamatan diri. Banyak pendaki yang asal asalan bahkan membahayakan diri mereka sendiri. Hal yang sering disepelekan dalam pendakian salah satunya adalah perbekalan konsumsi dan alat yang safety. Pendaki pemula pada umumnya hanya membawa perbekalan mie instan, makanan ringan, dan air. Hal itu tentunya tidak mencukupi untuk kebutuhan aktivitas mendaki yang termasuk dalam salah satu aktivitas olahraga yang ekstrim. Sekitar 7 dari 10 pendaki tidak terlalu memperhatikan keselamatan mereka dan lebih memperhatikan eksistensi. Harapan dari penelitian ini adalah supaya banyak pendaki lebih memperhatikan keselamatan mereka sebeum melakukan pendakian agar bisa mengurangi korban berjatuhan.
... Athletes competing in these types of sports have displayed an increased prevalence of disordered eating and chronically low body weight (Sundgot-Borgen and Garthe, 2011). Studies assessing eating behavior or nutrient intake among climbers have found disordered eating (Joubert et al., 2020), energy restriction (Zapf et al., 2001;Michael et al., 2019;Sas-Nowosielski and Wycislik, 2019), and iron deficiencies (Gibson-Smith et al., 2020). Some research indicates no correlation of low BMI and high climbing performance (Grønhaug, 2019), yet anecdotal evidence points to a climbing culture that values thinness and often encourages athletes to minimize weight through restrictive eating habits (Leslie-Wujastyk, 2019; Lucas, 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Elite competitive sport climbers exhibit a high strength-to-weight ratio and are reported in the literature to be lighter and leaner than their athletic counterparts. Current research regarding nutrition among climbers is sparse but suggests that they may be at high risk for low energy availability and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). The prevalence of amenorrhea, one of the primary indicators of RED-S, is unknown in this athletic population. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of current (previous 12 months) amenorrhea among elite level competitive sport climbers. Methods: An anonymous online survey was distributed via email to 1,500 female climbers registered as competitors within the International Federation of Sport Climbing to assess the prevalence of amenorrhea over the past 12 months. Results: A total of 114 female sport climbers answered all survey questions regarding menstrual function and 18 athletes (15.8%) presented with current amenorrhea. The majority of the athletes (72%; n = 82) were categorized with eumenorrhea. An additional 14 athletes (12.3%) provided information that indicated irregular cycles, but answers to all menstrual cycle questions were not congruent to elicit a classification of amenorrhea and these athletes were categorized with a menstrual status of unsure. The average BMI for climbers with eumenorrhea was 20.8 ± 1.8 kg/m2 and 19.9 ± 2.4 kg/m2 for those with amenorrhea. A higher percentage of climbers with amenorrhea revealed they currently struggle with an eating disorder compared to those without amenorrhea (13.5 vs. 22.2%, respectively). Conclusion: This study indicates that some female climbers competing at the World Cup level do have menstrual disturbances with relatively normal BMIs and some currently struggle with one or more eating disorders. Even though World Cup competitions use BMI critical margins to screen competitors, this research highlights the need for more medical supervision of competitive elite female sport climbers in order to protect their overall health, including menstrual function. Further research is required to clarify how many climbers suffer from endocrine abnormalities related to RED-S. With more scientific evidence in this area practitioners will be better equipped to educate the athlete and coach with evidence-based nutrition recommendations.
... Regarding the difference in the error rate with different body positions, anxiety levels may differ due to the fear of being overtaken or chased and other psychological factors; as found in difficulty climbing, anxiety caused by the fear of falling off can affect a competitor's performance [13]. Nutrition should also be paid attention to, which is an important factor for athletes to maintain stable performance and reduce the error rate in the multi-round competition system [21][22][23]. To the best of the authors' knowledge, there are limited findings on athletes' psychology during speed climbing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Speed climbing has become an Olympic event. However, there have been limited studies on the athletic performance of elite speed climbers under the current IFSC rule. Thus, this study aims to perform a statistical analysis of the performance of elite speed climbers and compare the different sex of the 2019 IFSC Speed Climbing World Cup. The 384 times climbing result in total climbing time, the time of four phases, and the start reaction time were calculated. In addition, the statistical data of men and women’s total error rate in the final round, the error rate in each final round, as well as the body position and the phase when errors occurred were gathered. Several results were not found in previous studies. Firstly, there is no statistical significance between starting reaction and climbing time of male and female. Secondly, there was no significant correlation between phases of the route for male athletes. While there was a statistical correlation between adjacent stages for women, the time of women in each stage was significantly correlated with the previous stage (p < 0.05). The error rate of both men and women in the medal competition stage reached a high rate of ~50%. While the error rate of men in each phase of route has no significant difference, While the error rate of women in the fourth phase was significantly different from the first three parts (p < 0.05), gender-specific training procedures should be developed for elite athletes. Future research should test the psychological state and pressure of speed athletes in the competition.
... Energy expenditure averages about 14.7 MJ in climbs between 2,500 and 4,800 m (Westerterp et al., 1992), and ranges from 13.6 to 20.6 MJ on Himalayan 8,000 m peak expeditions while climbing above 5,000 m (Pulfrey and Jones, 1985;Westerterp et al., 1992;Reynolds et al., 1999;West et al., 2007c). The steeper slopes that climbers encounter at higher elevations, which require more effort, might partially explain the higher energy expenditures at these altitudes (Watts et al., 1999; vmax, maximum wind speed (m·s −1 ) VO 2 max, maximum oxygen uptake (mlO 2 ·kg −1 ·min −1 ) vp, water vapor pressure in the ambient air (hPa) vp', vapor pressure equal to 5% of RH (hPa) vps, water vapor pressure on the surface of the skin (hPa) Bertuzzi et al., 2007;Ainsworth et al., 2011;Sas-Nowosielski and Wycislik, 2019). BMR is the largest component of daily energy expenditure at high altitude because periods of intense activity seldom last long (West et al., 2007c). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Mountaineers must control and regulate their thermal comfort and heat balance to survive the rigors of high altitude environment. High altitudes feature low air pressure and temperatures, strong winds and intense solar radiation, key factors affecting an expedition’s success. All these climatic elements stress human heat balance and survival. We assess components of human heat balance while climbing Mt. Everest. Materials and Methods: We calculated climbers’ heat balance using the Man-ENvironment heat EXchange model (MENEX-2005) and derived meteorological data from the National Geographic Expedition’s in situ dataset. Three weather stations sited between 3810 and 7945 m a.s.l. provided data with hourly resolution. We used data for summer (1 May–15 August 2019) and winter (16 October 2019–6 January 2020) seasons to analyze heat balance elements of convection, evaporation, respiration and radiation (solar and thermal). Results: Meteorological and other factors affecting physiology—such as clothing insulation of 3.5–5.5 clo and activity levels of 3–5 MET—regulate human heat balance. Elevation above sea level is the main element affecting heat balance. In summer two to three times more solar radiation can be absorbed at the summit of the mountain than at the foot. Low air pressure reduces air density, which reduces convective heat loss at high altitude by up to half of the loss at lower locations with the same wind speed and air temperature. Conclusion: 1. Alpinists face little risk of overheating or overcooling while actively climbing Mt. Everest, despite the potential risk of overcooling at extreme altitudes on Mt. Everest in winter. 2. Convection and evaporation are responsible for most of the heat lost at altitude. 3. Levels of physical activity and clothing insulation play the greatest role in counteracting heat loss at high altitude.
... Our previous study [28] showed that the diet of advanced climbers provides an average of 2500 kcal, adequate amounts of protein and fats, and moderate amounts of carbohydrates. The quantities of these ingredients in the mentioned study were 1.6 g/kg, 1.2 g/kg, and 4.2 g/kg, respectively. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Supplementing β-alanine (BA) improves exercise performance in efforts that are highly dependent on anaerobic glycolysis. As it has not yet been established whether it relates to climbing, the current study aimed to investigate the effects of BA on climbing-specific performance. Methods: Fifteen elite climbers performed intermittent high-force high-velocity campus board exercise, and two bouldering traverses, hard and easy. They ingested 4.0 g·d-1 BA or placebo for four weeks in a double-blind, pre/post experimental design. Results: In the campus board trial, ANOVA revealed a tendency toward significance (p = 0.066). Post hoc analysis revealed that there was a significant (p = 0.002) and "large" (d = 1.55) increase in the total number of "slaps" in the BA group. No significant supplementation × group interaction was found in "hard" traverse and a significant interaction for mean changes in number of moves (p = 0.025) and in time to failure (p = 0.044) on an "easy" traverse. Post hoc analysis revealed that only the BA group significantly improved from baseline in number of moves (+9.5) and time to failure (+32 s). Effect sizes were d = 1.73 and d = 1.44, respectively. Conclusions: Four weeks of BA supplementation can improve performance during continuous climbing lasting about 1 min and repeated bouts of upper body campus-like movements. However, it failed to enhance climbing of a shorter duration.
... Additionally, rock climbing performance is determined by the food consumed by athletes. Some focus on macronutrients that need to be adequate, such as protein and fat (energy sources mostly for the young generation), as well as other micronutrients in form of minerals and vitamins [24]. Conversely, the Body mass index (henceforth BMI) has found no significant impact on climbing ability [25]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Abstract Background: The speed world record (WR) performance is an achievement achieved by athletes in the competitive rock-climbing category, where the athlete must complete the climbing route on a standard artificial climbing wall with a height of 15m in the shortest possible time. Purpose: This study aimed to construct and validate of an observational instrument to assess technical execution in lead climbing. The instrument developed can be used to assess progress to achieve the important aspects of climbing movement methods. Design/methodology/approach: Importantly, the construction of its validity and reliability was conducted in four stages. The first stage was a literature review on the construction of the observational instrument. In the second stage, the instrument’s construction was established. The content validity coefficient was determined in the third stage using Aiken's V and 7 experts with various qualifications, including the level of understanding, appropriateness of the words, and the relevance of the statement with a grading scale of 0-10. The instrument’s internal validity was calculated using 20 climbers and was quantitatively tested using the product-moment correlation. In the fourth stage, instrument reliability was determined using Cronbach's Alpha reliability test. Results showed that the observational instrument has content validity with optimal internal value as well as satisfactory reliability. Conclusion: Observational instruments were valid and reliable; therefore, they can be used to assess technical execution for novice climbers in lead climbing. It allows instructors, coaches, and teachers to assess the technical execution of novice climbers specifically in lead climbing. Keywords: Validity, Reliability, Instrument, To Assess, Technical, Lead Climbing
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Sport climbing has gained increased scientific attention, including studies investigating the dietary habits and nutritional requirements of climbers; however, significant gaps in the literature remain. An assessment of nutritional knowledge, weight loss for competition, and supplement use has not been previously reported in senior competition climbing athletes. Methods Fifty climbers (26 male, 24 female; BMI 21.6 ± 1.9; 23.7 ± 5.2 years) participated in the study. Participants answered a 72-item questionnaire, comprised of demographic data and three main sections to assess general and sports nutrition knowledge, weight loss strategies, and supplement use. Results The mean nutrition knowledge score was ‘average’, with considerable individual variation (53.5 ± 11.1 %). There were no significant sex differences in the general (GNK) or sport (SNK) nutrition knowledge scores, or effect of age. Significantly higher knowledge was demonstrated by national vs. international athletes for the GNK scores (11.09 ± 1.58 vs. 9.58 ± 1.75; p = 0.028). Participants scored well in questions concerning protein, carbohydrates, alcohol, and supplements, and conversely, performed poorly in hydration and micronutrient related questions. Less than one-fifth of respondents had access to a dietitian. Forty-six percent of males and 38% of female climbers reported intentional weight loss for competition on at least one occasion. Of those, ~76% reported utilizing concerning practices, including methods that conform with disordered eating and/or eating disorders, dehydration, vomiting, and misuse of laxatives. Approximately 65% of athletes reported using at least one nutritional supplement in the previous 6 months, with 44% reporting multiple supplement use. There was no significant difference in supplement use between sexes or competition level. Discussion Due to the established importance of nutritional intake on athlete health and performance, educational support should be employed to improve knowledge in climbers and address shortcomings. Moreover, intentional weight loss for climbing competition is common, with most athletes achieving ~3–8% body weight loss over ≥2 weeks. It is crucial that professionals working with competitive climbers are vigilant in identifying athletes at risk of concerning weight management and establish referral pathways to the appropriate specialist services. High quality intervention trials to assess the efficacy of ergogenic aids in climbing remains inadequate.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Sports nutrition is a constantly evolving field with hundreds of research papers published annually. In the year 2017 alone, 2082 articles were published under the key words 'sport nutrition'. Consequently, staying current with the relevant literature is often difficult. Methods: This paper is an ongoing update of the sports nutrition review article originally published as the lead paper to launch the Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition in 2004 and updated in 2010. It presents a well-referenced overview of the current state of the science related to optimization of training and performance enhancement through exercise training and nutrition. Notably, due to the accelerated pace and size at which the literature base in this research area grows, the topics discussed will focus on muscle hypertrophy and performance enhancement. As such, this paper provides an overview of: 1.) How ergogenic aids and dietary supplements are defined in terms of governmental regulation and oversight; 2.) How dietary supplements are legally regulated in the United States; 3.) How to evaluate the scientific merit of nutritional supplements; 4.) General nutritional strategies to optimize performance and enhance recovery; and, 5.) An overview of our current understanding of nutritional approaches to augment skeletal muscle hypertrophy and the potential ergogenic value of various dietary and supplemental approaches. Conclusions: This updated review is to provide ISSN members and individuals interested in sports nutrition with information that can be implemented in educational, research or practical settings and serve as a foundational basis for determining the efficacy and safety of many common sport nutrition products and their ingredients.
Article
Full-text available
Bouldering competitions are held up to International level and governed by the International Federation of Sport Climbing. Bouldering has been selected to feature at the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo, however, physiological qualities and nutritional requirements to optimise performance remain inadequately defined due to large gaps in the literature. The primary goals of training include optimising the capacity of the anaerobic energy systems and developing sport-specific strength, with emphasis on the isometric function of the forearm flexors responsible for grip. Bouldering athletes typically possess a lean physique, similar to the characteristics of sport climbers with reported body fat values of 6-12%. Athletes strive for a low body weight to improve power to weight ratio and limit the load on the extremities. Specialised nutritional support is uncommon and poor nutritional practices such as chronic carbohydrate restriction are prevalent, compromising the health of the athletes. The high intensity nature of bouldering demands a focus on adequate carbohydrate availability. Protein intake and timing should be structured to maximise muscle protein synthesis and recovery, with the literature suggesting 0.25-0.3 g/kg in 3-4 hour intervals. Supplementing with creatine and β-alanine may provide some benefit by augmenting the capacity of the anaerobic systems. Boulderers are encouraged to seek advice from nutrition experts to enhance performance, particularly important when weight loss is the desired outcome. Further research is warranted across all nutritional aspects of bouldering which is summarised in this review.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this research was to determine if there is any influence of somatotype components on success in sport climbing on natural rock. The research was conducted on 31 male, Serbian sport climbers (mean age: 28.1 ± 5.5 years, body height 181.2 ± 6.5cm, weight 72 ± 6.2kg) with a climbing experience of 6.7 ± 4.1 years. Ten measurements were used for calculating somatotype components and regression analysis was used to determine the influence of somatotype components on competition results. The results showed that there is a statistically significant influence of somatotype components on competition results. The endomorphic component showed a statistically significant influence on success, while the mesomorphic and the ectomorphic component did not influence success in sport climbing. We can conclude that sport climbers can benefit from low body fat, which can improve their climbing results.
Article
Full-text available
The present study cross-sectionally investigated the influence of training status, route difficulty and upper body aerobic and anaerobic performance of climbers on the energetics of indoor rock climbing. Six elite climbers (EC) and seven recreational climbers (RC) were submitted to the following laboratory tests: (a) anthropometry, (b) upper body aerobic power, and (c) upper body Wingate test. On another occasion, EC subjects climbed an easy, a moderate, and a difficult route, whereas RC subjects climbed only the easy route. The fractions of the aerobic (W AER), anaerobic alactic (W PCR) and anaerobic lactic (W[La])(W_{{\rm [La}^{-}]}) systems were calculated based on oxygen uptake, the fast component of excess post-exercise oxygen uptake, and changes in net blood lactate, respectively. On the easy route, the metabolic cost was significantly lower in EC [40.3 (6.5) kJ] than in RC [60.1 (8.8) kJ] (P < 0.05). The respective contributions of the W AER, W PCR, and W[La]W_{\rm [La^{-}]} systems in EC were: easy route = 41.5 (8.1), 41.1 (11.4) and 17.4% (5.4), moderate route = 45.8 (8.4), 34.6 (7.1) and 21.9% (6.3), and difficult route = 41.9 (7.4), 35.8 (6.7) and 22.3% (7.2). The contributions of the W AER, W PCR, and W[La]W_{\rm [La^{-}]} systems in RC subjects climbing an easy route were 39.7 (5.0), 34.0 (5.8), and 26.3% (3.8), respectively. These results indicate that the main energy systems required during indoor rock climbing are the aerobic and anaerobic alactic systems. In addition, climbing economy seems to be more important for the performance of these athletes than improved energy metabolism.
Chapter
It has been well established that sound nutrition can accelerate recovery, enhance adaptations to training and improve performance. Competing in extreme sports places stress on the body, and conducting activities in extreme environments can exacerbate the physiological stress on the competitor. The physiological and metabolic requirements of different extreme sports vary greatly; thus nutritional requirements across the various extreme sports are diverse. Typically, for extreme sports that are longer in duration such as mountaineering, adventure racing, ultra-endurance activities and expedition-type events, the energy demands are much greater, and thus competitors should plan their dietary needs in advance. An inadequate diet and poor fuelling strategies can impair performance and increase the risk of injury and illness during events.
Article
Lower body fat percentage is positively associated with climbing performance. This may lead climbers to practice unhealthy diet restriction when no sport-specific nutrition information exists. This study examined whether prolonged diet restriction affects body composition, oxidative stress, or other potential health risks in outdoor rock climbers. Two healthy male climbers conducted a 5 week rock climbing trip with a limited food budget ($1 each per day). Subjects underwent an energy restriction of approximately 40%. Loss of body weight and fat mass at week 5 were 5.8% and 16.1%, respectively, and were accompanied by significant subcutaneous fat loss in the iliac crest and abdomen. Triacylglycerols (TG), free fatty acids and C-reactive protein (CRP) dramatically decreased from baseline to week 2, and then maintained the lower level until week 5. Plasma vitamin C was below the normal range, and F2-isoprostanes, a marker of oxidative stress, continuously increased to week 5. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase increased to week 2, but had returned to baseline levels at week 5. These results indicate that prolonged reduced energy intake while climbing may have an impact on weight loss and fat mass loss, which may contribute to low circulating TG and CRP, indicating improvements in markers of cardiovascular risk, and may lead to increased oxidative stress and reduced circulating antioxidants. Further studies are warranted to determine whether antioxidant supplementation or increased energy intake reduce oxidative stress.
Article
Over the past few years, competitive rock climbing--for a long time a popular sport in Europe--has increased in popularity in North America. An annual international World Cup competition circuit was started in 1988 which has shown growing success and a definite elite group of athletes has emerged. Descriptive anthropometric profiles of elite climbers have been unavailable. In order to fill this information void, 39 world-class climbers (21 males, 18 females) were assessed immediately prior to competition at an international World Cup sport climbing championship. All of the subjects tested were competition semi-finalists and, among these, seven males and six females advanced to the finals. The variables measured included age, years of climbing experience, height, body mass, height-weight ratio, sum of seven skinfolds, % body fat, fat-free mass, hand and arm volumes via plethysmography, average of right and left grip strengths, grip strength to body mass ratio (SMR), and climbing ability defined as the most difficult route climbed on lead. The results indicated that elite sport climbers are of small to moderate stature and exhibit very low % fat, moderate grip strength and high SMR when compared with other athletic groups. Values for the height-weight ratio and sum of seven skinfolds in the female finalists were very near those of the male finalists, which may indicate that reduction of body mass and % fat are primary adaptations in these female athletes. Climbing ability was predictable from SMR and % fat, though the R2 was low.
Article
In general, elite climbers have been characterised as small in stature, with low percentage body fat and body mass. Currently, there are mixed conclusions surrounding body mass and composition, potentially because of variable subject ability, method of assessment and calculation. Muscular strength and endurance in rock climbers have been primarily measured on the forearm, hand and fingers via dynamometry. When absolute hand strength was assessed, there was little difference between climbers and the general population. When expressed in relation to body mass, elite-level climbers scored significantly higher, highlighting the potential importance of low body mass. Rock climbing is characterised by repeated bouts of isometric contractions. Hand grip endurance has been measured by both repeated isometric contractions and sustained contractions, at a percentage of maximum voluntary contraction. Exercise times to fatigue during repeated isometric contractions have been found to be significantly better in climbers when compared with sedentary individuals. However, during sustained contractions until exhaustion, climbers did not differ from the normal population, emphasising the importance of the ability to perform repeated isometric forearm contractions without fatigue becoming detrimental to performance. A decrease in handgrip strength and endurance has been related to an increase in blood lactate, with lactate levels increasing with the angle of climbing. Active recovery has been shown to provide a better rate of recovery and allows the body to return to its pre-exercised state quicker. It could be suggested that an increased ability to tolerate and remove lactic acid during climbing may be beneficial. Because of increased demand placed upon the upper body during climbing of increased difficulty, possessing greater strength and endurance in the arms and shoulders could be advantageous. Flexibility has not been identified as a necessary determinant of climbing success, although climbing-specific flexibility could be valuable to climbing performance. As the difficulty of climbing increases, so does oxygen uptake (V̇O2), energy expenditure and heart rate per metre of climb, with a disproportionate rise in heart rate compared with V̇O2. It was suggested that these may be due to a metaboreflex causing a sympathetically mediated pressor response. In addition, climbers had an attenuated blood pressure response to isometric handgrip exercises when compared with non-climbers, potentially because of reduced metabolite build-up causing less stimulation of the muscle metaboreflex. Training has been emphasised as an important component in climbing success, although there is little literature reviewing the influence of specific training components upon climbing performance. In summary, it appears that success in climbing is not related to individual physiological variables but is the result of a complex interaction of physiological and psychological factors.
Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance
References: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(3): 501-528.
Compendium of Physical Activities: A second update of codes and MET values
  • B E Ainsworth
  • W L Haskell
  • S D Hermann
  • N Meckes
  • D R Basset
  • C Tudor-Locke
  • J L Greer
  • J Vezina
  • M C Whitt-Glover
  • A S Leon
Ainsworth, B.E., Haskell, W.L., Hermann, S.D., Meckes, N., Basset, D.R., Tudor-Locke, C., Greer, J.L., Vezina. J., Whitt-Glover, M.C. & Leon, A.S. (2011). 2011 Compendium of Physical Activities: A second update of codes and MET values. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(8), 1575-1581.
Advanced sports nutrition. Champaign, Human Kinetics
  • D Benardot
Benardot, D. (2012). Advanced sports nutrition. Champaign, Human Kinetics.
Reporting climbing grades and grouping categories for rock climbing Isokinetics Exercise Science
  • N Draper
  • , Jc Canalejo
  • S Fryer
  • T Dickson
  • D Winter
  • G Ellis
  • M Hamlin
  • J Shearman
  • C North
Draper, N., Canalejo,.JC., Fryer, S., Dickson, T., Winter, D., Ellis, G., Hamlin, M., Shearman, J. & North, C. (2011). Reporting climbing grades and grouping categories for rock climbing Isokinetics Exercise Science, 19, 273-280. DOI 10.3233/IES-2011-0424
Eat to climb. Major nutrient metabolism. Climbing
  • S Ilg
Ilg, S. (1986). Eat to climb. Major nutrient metabolism. Climbing, 94.
Nutrition norms for Polish population
  • M Jarosz
Jarosz, M. (2017). Nutrition norms for Polish population [in Polish].
Nutritional assessment and counseling of athletes
  • S Kleiner
  • J Antonio
  • J Kalman
  • M Stout
  • D Greenwood
  • D S Willoughby
  • G Haff
Kleiner, S. (2008). Nutritional assessment and counseling of athletes. In: Antonio, J., Kalman, J., Stout, M., Greenwood, D., Willoughby, D.S. & Haff, G., editors. Essentials of sports nutrition and supplements. Totowa, NJ, Humana Press, 201-234.
Nutritional value of selected foodstuff and typical dishes
  • H Kunachowicz
  • I Nadolna
  • K Iwanow
Kunachowicz, H., Nadolna, I. & Iwanow, K. (2012). Nutritional value of selected foodstuff and typical dishes [in Polish]. 6th ed. Warszawa: PZWL.