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Supply and demand of high quality protein foods in India: Trends and opportunities
Abstract
Indian diets and national subsidy programmes are biased towards cereals, offering only limited quality protein. Promoting appropriate levels of production and consumption of high quality foods rich in protein is critical in India's attempts to enhance diet quality and resolve stubbornly high levels of undernutrition. Using nationally representative datasets, simulations were performed to assess the likely additional requirements of quality protein sources in the context of environmental stressors in India. Results suggest that policymakers need to pay much more attention to the drivers of protein supply via pulses and milk, whose demand is expected to rise sharply. For eggs, fish and meat, demand is not expected to increase significantly, thus efforts are needed to encourage consumer demand growth. Overall, to achieve enhanced dietary quality in coming decades agricultural and other food policies need to shift from a cereals only focus, to stronger investment in pulses, dairy and egg production.
... Vilas et al. (2018) project the demand-supply gap for chickpea and pigeon pea widening from 4.8 million tonnes in 2025 to 11.5 million tonnes in 2030. Minocha et al. (2019) projected the economic demand for pulses to be about 26 million tonnes by 2026, and the availability to fall short by 2 million tonnes. Pulse production will have to grow at an annual rate of 2.2% to meet projected demand of 39 million tonnes in 2050 (Indian Institute of Pulse Research, 2015), although pulse production has been volatile in the period 2012-2017 with growth fluctuating between − 11% in -15 and + 40% in 2016-17 (Directorate of Pulses Development, 2017. ...
... As a result, India's National Institute of Nutrition (2011) recommends a daily pulse intake of 80 g per person/day. The risk of quality protein deficiency (based on Estimated Average Requirements for each age group) ranges from 4% to 26% for different age groups and sectors in India (Minocha et al., 2019). By 2026, projected availability would meet about 57-87% of pulse intake required to minimize the risk of dietary quality protein inadequacy to a very low level (Minocha et al., 2019). ...
... The risk of quality protein deficiency (based on Estimated Average Requirements for each age group) ranges from 4% to 26% for different age groups and sectors in India (Minocha et al., 2019). By 2026, projected availability would meet about 57-87% of pulse intake required to minimize the risk of dietary quality protein inadequacy to a very low level (Minocha et al., 2019). But this is not true for the whole of India because there is variability in production and consumption across the states as well as districts. ...
Pulses (also known as legumes) are important in achieving nutrient adequacy in India due to their quality protein content. This study compared district-level pulse production and consumption across India, and household and district-level determinants of pulse intake, including availability, accessibility and affordability, using multi-level models in nationally representative datasets for 2011–12. The per capita consumption was about 50% of recommended intake (80 g/day), even in high-producing districts. District-level pulse production was associated with household pulse intake (2.73 × 10⁻⁸ [5.19 × 10⁻⁹, 4.94 × 10⁻⁸]) and market accessibility (−0.0077 [-0.0133, −0.0021]). Affordability (absolute price of pulse) was also associated with household intake. While agricultural policies relating to pulses have been oriented towards improving pulse output and productivity, forward-looking policies to improve pulse intake should focus on demand-side factors, such as improved market accessibility and the affordability of pulses relative to other foods.
... In the past two decades, a renewed interest in aggregation models and smallholder commercialization began. Population growth, globalization, and economic liberalization in many developing countries have resulted in income growth, urbanization, and changing food preferences toward a diversified higher-quality diet (Minocha et al., 2019;Pingali et al., 2019;Ortega & Tschirley, 2017;Pingali, 2007). While the urban population in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean stood at 50%, 43%, and 81% in 2018, it is expected to grow to 66%, 59%, and 88%, respectively, by 2050 (UN, 2019). ...
Aggregation models where small farms jointly access credit, inputs, information, and product markets are not new to global agricultural systems. For over a century, agricultural cooperatives worldwide have tried rectifying small farm disadvantages in market access. In the last two decades, newer aggregation models such as farmer producer organizations, farmer groups, enterprises, and companies have increased. This scoping review assesses the taxonomy of aggregation models, identifies factors responsible for their re-emergence, analyzes their benefits to smallholders, and pinpoints the research gaps in the literature. The review finds that in erstwhile socialist economies, cooperatives emerged as a means of voluntary aggregation following decollectivization from the 1980s onwards. In countries that traditionally had cooperatives, newer aggregation models emerged as cooperatives faltered in adapting to market transformations. The new aggregation models focused on higher-value horticulture crops, livestock, dairy, and cash crops, in line with changing markets and demand. While identified qualitative and quantitative studies showed that aggregation models improved access to factor markets for credit, technology, and extension services, joint selling remained relatively low. Although many studies reported household welfare gains; studies assessing the organizational performance of aggregation models were fewer in number. The review's limitations were that it mainly identifies studies in English (and some Spanish) and evaluated only successful aggregation models, pointing to a survivorship bias in the literature. Long-term studies of aggregation models utilizing panel data and robust design to infer causation and multiple case studies to uncover the heterogeneity of aggregation models are crucial.
... Due to the demand for high-quality protein, the demand for high-quality meat is also increasing. Therefore, enhancing the amount and speed of muscle accumulation in livestock and poultry is the most crucial section in the development of animal husbandry (77). ...
Guanidinoacetic acid is the direct precursor of creatine and its phosphorylated derivative phosphocreatine in the body. It is a safe nutritional supplement that can be used to promote muscle growth and development. Improving the growth performance of livestock and poultry and meat quality is the eternal goal of the animal husbandry, and it is also the common demand of today's society and consumers. A large number of experimental studies have shown that guanidinoacetic acid could improve the growth performance of animals, promote muscle development and improve the health of animals. However, the mechanism of how it affects muscle development needs to be further elucidated. This article discusses the physical and chemical properties of guanidinoacetic acid and its synthesis pathway, explores its mechanism of how it promotes muscle development and growth, and also classifies and summarizes the impact of its application in animal husbandry, providing a scientific basis for this application. In addition, this article also proposes future directions for the development of this substance.
... High fluctuations in prices of NDPFs could be attributed to seasonal supply (fruits and vegetables), irregular demand, lack of storage infrastructure as well as the impact of shocks like drought and flood (Sekhar et al., 2017). Studies have also noted other challenges such as lack of price monitoring and policy level challenges such as lack of inter-ministerial coordination, lack of understanding of the nutritional implications of agriculture policies, prioritization of nonnutritious foods, policy investment in a more calorie-oriented approach to nutrition and a gap between policy-making and implementation (Choudhury et al., 2018;Khandelwal et al., 2019;Minocha et al., 2019;Raghunathan et al., 2020;Thow et al., 2016;van den Bold et al., 2015). ...
The triple burden of malnutrition in India is largely contributed by poor quality diets lacking adequate intake of nutrient dense perishable foods (NDPFs) - milk, eggs, fruits and vegetables. This is intriguing because India is one of the largest producers of NDPFs. This review examines possible reasons for this disparity. Poor post-harvest infrastructure, price volatility, unorganized supply chains, long-standing government policies favouring cereals and increasing consumer preference of convenience foods are identified as major reasons for the low intake of NDPFs. While nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions appear promising to improve intakes of NDPF, stronger evidence is needed to scale up these interventions.
... y t stands for predicted value of the signal at time t. y t−i stands for the value of the signal at a time ðt − iÞ and e t−j stands for error in the predicted value of signal as compared to the actual signal at a time ðt − jÞ: Since its inception it has been widely used for forecasting and modelling time-series data in areas of energy consumption and GHG emissions (Sen et al., Cocoa forecast through ARIMA and grey models 2016; Yuan et al., 2016), price of medium quality rice and its production (Bhavani and Singh, 2018;Ohyver and Pudjihastuti, 2018), fisheries (Stergiou, 1991), agriculture production (Praveen and Sharma, 2019), animal based protein sources (Minocha et al., 2019), among others. ARIMA forecast computation has been simplified in a forecast package in the R software to develop fitted models for data sequences. ...
Purpose
In the current study, two grey prediction models, Even GM (1, 1) and Non-homogeneous discrete grey model (NDGM), and ARIMA models are deployed to forecast cocoa bean production of the six major cocoa-producing countries. Furthermore, relying on Relative Growth Rate (RGR) and Doubling Time (D t ), production growth is analyzed.
Design/methodology/approach
The secondary data were extracted from the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) database. Grey forecasting models are applied using the data covering 2008 to 2017 as their performance on the small sample size is well-recognized. The models' performance was estimated through MAPE, MAE and RMSE.
Findings
Results show the two grey models fell below 10% of MAPE confirming their high accuracy and forecasting performance against that of the ARIMA. Therefore, the suitability of grey models for the cocoa production forecast is established. Findings also revealed that cocoa production in Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Ghana and Brazil is likely to experience a rise with a growth rate of 2.52, 2.49, 2.45 and 2.72% by 2030, respectively. However, Nigeria and Indonesia are likely to experience a decrease with a growth rate of 2.25 and 2.21%, respectively.
Practical implications
For a sustainable cocoa industry, stakeholders should investigate the decline in production despite the implementation of advanced agricultural mechanization in cocoa farming, which goes further to put food security at risk.
Originality/value
The study presents a pioneering attempt of using grey forecasting models to predict cocoa production.
... Indian diets and national subsidy programs are biased toward cereals, offering only limited quality protein. Promoting appropriate levels of production and consumption of high-quality foods rich in protein is critical in India's attempts to enhance diet quality and resolve stubbornly high levels of under-nutrition (Minocha et al., 2019). ...
In the present study, wheat flour was blended with varying proportions of flaxseed flour (0%–25%) for the formulation of supplementary food (Panjiri) with better nutritional characteristics. This will also add variety to supplementary foods being given to malnourished children. The ash, fat, protein, and fiber contents of Panjiri made from flour composites were 0.82–1.27, 1.60–8.32, 8.76–9.81, and 1.18%–2.54%, respectively. Nutritional components enhanced significantly (p ≤ .05) with increasing addition of flaxseed flour and Panjiries became darker in color with decreased yellowness. Zn and Cu concentration increased with an increase in flaxseed flour in Panjiri. Heavy metals (Cr and Cd) were detected in very low concentrations. Antioxidant activity, reducing power, total phenolic and total flavonoids contents of Panjiries ranged between 14.73%–21.08%, 982–1,259.11 µg AAE/g, 205.45–452.73 µg FAE/g, and 17.95–448.72 µg CE/g, respectively. Sensory evaluation scores revealed that flaxseed flour can be incorporated upto 15% in Panjiri to achieve better nutritional attributes and good acceptability scores. Supplementary food is necessary to overcome malnutrition and related complications. Many types of supplementary foods, which are available are quite expensive and the parents belonging to middle and lower income groups are unable to afford them. Hence, children in these families have to consume the foods that adults eat. Preparation of supplementary foods such as Panjiri on home‐scale provides a better option in combating malnutrition problems. These foods may be formulated with oilseeds (flaxseed), which can enhance their nutritional qualities to desired levels. The nutraceutical components found in different cereals and oilseeds might be helpful in curing chronic health problems and other related co‐morbidities. In addition, home‐scale formulations of Panjiri can also be easily afforded by middle class and low‐income families.
... For instance, the universal adoption of affluent high-meat diets by the Indian population would increase GHG emissions, water footprints, and land by 19-36% [80]. Even though the dietary guidelines issued by the National Institute for Nutrition (NIN) of India are among the most sustainable in the world [81], they call for an increase in meat and fish intake, which is seen as beneficial from a lens of food security [82], but has the aforementioned unintended environmental consequences. These unintended consequences heighten the need for interconnected public policies, as noted by Springmann, Wiebe, Mason-D'Croz, et al. [56], to meet both health and environmental objectives. ...
Little is known about the consumer preferences of next-generation plant-based and cell-based meat alternatives, two food technologies that offer a demand-side solution to the environmental, nutritional, and other societal concerns associated with animal-intensive agriculture. To address this gap, this paper estimates consumers’ willingness to pay for four sources of protein (conventional meat, plant-based meat, cell-based meat, and chickpeas) in a developing country with rising demand for meat—India. A latent class model of a discrete choice experiment conducted in Mumbai identifies four heterogeneous segments in the Indian market. Aggregating across all four segments, respondents are willing to pay a premium for plant-based meat and a smaller premium for cell-based meat over the price of conventional meat. However, our main findings show that these premiums strongly differ across the four consumer-class segments. The results offer important insights into future price points and policy options that might make these meat alternatives commercially successful, and therefore, a viable option in addressing societal concerns.
... Most effective among these is ASF, where the addition of 200 or 50 g milk or egg improves the DIAAS of the daily diet of children aged <3 y to 100% and can reduce the risk of quality protein inadequacy from 29 to <10% (14). However, this requires an adequate production and supply of such quality protein foods (15), which is not trivial in low-and middle-income countries, when due consideration to the environment is given. ...
... Millets fulfil about 30% of fibre and zinc, 40% of iron and 60% of calcium daily requirements through a single staple diet. As such, economic demand models based on secondary level analysis of food expenditure and consumption patterns in India predict negative income elasticity and a declining intake of coarse grains (Minocha et al 2019;Mittal 2010). This is not surprising given the historical notion of millets as a poor man's food. ...
Millets can play a role in providing nutrition security as they are rich in various macro and micronutrients, and can help to fight various non-communicable diseases. Hence, a suggestion was made to include them in the basket of goods provided through the public distribution system. The findings of this article suggest that, with the present level of production, millets can be provided in some states of India which have culturally grown as well
as consumed them. However, scaling this policy to the
national level may not be possible unless rigorous
measures are undertaken to improve production as well
as consumer acceptability.
Enriching cereals-based products with bioactive compounds is a valuable strategy to improve product quality. We studied carotenoid bioaccessibility and intestinal uptake from a pumpkin-enriched porridge, cookies and sponge cakes by using in vitro digestion coupled with Caco-2 cell uptake. Among the carotenoids recovered in different products, α-carotene was the most important one. However, lutein displayed a significantly higher bioaccessibility compared to α-carotene and β-carotene in baked products (up to 10.28% compared to 1.22% and 0.88%, respectively). α-Carotene was the only carotenoid recovered in Caco-2 cells after micelle incubation. Cookie micelles led to the highest percentage of α-carotene cell uptake (2.33% and 1.38% for cookies with butter and cookies with vegetable oil, respectively) compared to the other baked products, followed by dry pumpkin puree micelles (1.31%). Overall, our data showed that both bioaccessiblity and cell uptake of carotenoids from cereal-based products were variable and highly depend on food formulation and structure.
In recent times, there has been an increased international interest in India's food systems. There is a concern that, with rising population and incomes, India's adoption of unsustainable dietary patterns could have disastrous consequences not only for public health but also for the environment, locally and globally. This in turn can seriously threaten the progress toward achievement of the United Nations global Sustainable Development Goals. Identifying and informing stakeholders of sustainable dietary behaviors is thus essential. Here, using a non-linear optimization algorithm, we identify a sustainable diet for each of India's 35 states. These diets meet daily recommendations for 29 nutrients, exist within five environmental planetary boundaries, including greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, cropland use, nitrogen, and phosphorus application, and satisfy several cultural acceptability constraints. Results reveal that, while such a sustainable diet is possible, it will cost 50% more than current diets in most Indian states. Our results offer optimistic news that India's nutrition problem can be solved without jeopardizing the environment.
Hindi and English are India’s official languages, but there are also 17 regional languages that are considered official. India has capitalized on its large educated English-speaking population to become a major exporter of information technology services and software workers India has several cities that have undergone place name changes, such as Bombay being renamed Mumbai. These changes were mainly done in an effort to return the city names to local dialects instead of British translations. This chapter follows the dominant values and beliefs according to the 12 domains of the Purnell Model of Cultural Competence: overview/heritage, communication, family roles and organization, workforce issues, biocultural ecology, high-risk behaviors, nutrition, pregnancy, death rituals, spirituality, health-care practices, and health-care practitioners.
In this study, the co-pyrolysis characteristics of cow manure (CM) and Meihuajing bituminous coal (MHJ) blends were investigated in detail. The mass loss behavior and gas evolution characteristics of the blends were analyzed online by thermogravimetry–mass spectrometry (TG–MS), and kinetic analysis was performed. The results demonstrate that the addition of CM to the MHJ increases the reactivity of blends, indicating that interaction between the CM and MHJ occurred during co-pyrolysis. For conventional gases, the release order of gases during CM and MHJ blend pyrolysis is H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2. For sulfur-containing gases, with increasing proportion of CM, the emissions of H2S, COS, and C4H4S increase and that of SO2 decrease, and the release temperature interval shifts to lower directions. The Coats & Redfern model was used, an increase of activation energy with CM addition was observed. The optimum blending ratio based on the lowest activation energy is CM:MHJ = 1:3 and the activation energy is 41.9 kJ/mol.
The daily energy requirements are now based on replacing the measured daily energy expenditure (WHO/FAO/UNU 1985). When energy expenditure is equal to energy intake, energy balance is achieved, and is best indicated by weight stability. The specific energy requirement (expenditure) of a population is calculated using a factorial method that is based on the product of estimates of the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and the physical activity level (PAL). Some calculations also consider additional energy expenditure due to the thermic effect of food (TEF) which is typically about 10% of BMR. During pregnancy, and in childhood energy cost of deposition of tissues and optimal growth and during, lactation, energy cost of milk secretion is added. However, the factorial method is potentially problematic, as errors in any one factor propagate through to the final estimate of the requirement. For example, BMR is predicted from age and gender specific equations provided by the FAO/WHO/UNU, but these equations overestimate BMR of adult Indians by 5 to 12%. The PAL used for sedentary activities may also be wrong. In the latest recommendation of the Indian Council of Medical Research, the PAL is taken to be 1.53 for sedentary adults; this may need to be revised to a lower value as studies indicate that PAL of sedentary adult Indians is generally lower in this context, the current energy recommendation may be overestimated in Indians, and should be reconsidered in the context of the dual burden of nutritional disease.
Background/objectives:
Fruits and vegetables are integral parts of a healthy diet. This study evaluated the quantity and diversity of the fruit and vegetable intake in India, with a focus on its distribution across sectors and wealth quintiles.
Subjects/methods:
A secondary data analysis on the nation-wide NSSO Household Consumer Expenditure Survey 2011-2012 was performed to estimate the amount (g/capita/day) and diversity of household intake of fruits and vegetables in the rural and the urban sectors of India. Using the expenditure data, households in both the sectors were further divided into wealth quintiles and differences in the diversity of intake was evaluated across these quintiles separately for each sector.
Results:
The per capita household vegetable and fruit intake was found to be 145 and 15 g, respectively, for rural India, and 155 and 29 g for urban India. A significant portion of this intake came from energy-dense food items; potatoes and bananas for vegetable and fruit intake respectively. Further, while wealth marginally improved the diversity in vegetable intake, no such trend was observed in fruit intake.
Conclusions:
Given the high proportion of energy-dense fruits and vegetables in the Indian total intake, the focus should be on improving the diversity of vegetables, as well as on increasing the intake and diversity of fruits.
BACKGROUND: Crops grownunderelevatedatmosphericCO2 concentrations (eCO2) contain less protein.Crops particularly affected include rice and wheat, which are primary sources of dietary protein for many countries.
OBJECTIVES: We aimed to estimate global and country-specific risks of protein deficiency attributable to anthropogenic CO2 emissions by 2050.
METHODS: To model per capita protein intake in countries around the world under eCO2, we first established the effect size of eCO2 on the protein concentration of edible portions of crops by performing a meta-analysis of published literature.We then estimated per-country protein intake under current and anticipated future eCO2 using global food balance sheets (FBS).
We modeled protein intake distributions within countries using Gini coefficients, and we estimated those at risk of deficiency from estimated average
protein requirements (EAR) weighted by population age structure.
RESULTS: Under eCO2, rice, wheat, barley, and potato protein contents decreased by 7.6%, 7.8%, 14.1%, and 6.4%, respectively. Consequently, 18 countries may lose>5% of their dietary protein, including India (5.3%). By2050, assuming today’s diets and levels of income inequality, an additional 1.6% or 148.4 million of the world’s population may be placed at risk of protein deficiency because of eCO2. In India, an additional 53million people may become at risk.
CONCLUSIONS: Anthropogenic CO2 emissions threaten the adequacy of protein intake worldwide. Elevated atmospheric CO2 may widen the disparity in protein intake within countries, with plant based diets being the most vulnerable.
Background: Development of more cost-effective ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) is a global public health priority. To date, previous lower-cost recipes have been less effective than the standard peanut and milk (PM)–based RUTF, particularly in children aged <24 mo.
Objective: We aimed to compare the efficacy of the PM-RUTF to a milk-free soya, maize, and sorghum (FSMS)–RUTF enriched with crystalline amino acids without cow milk powder and a milk, soya, maize, and sorghum (MSMS)–RUTF containing 9.3% skim cow milk powder.
Design: This nonblinded, 3-arm, parallel-group, simple randomized controlled trial enrolled Malawian children with severe acute malnutrition.
Results: In intention-to-treat analyses, FSMS-RUTF showed noninferiority for recovery rates in children aged 24–59 mo (Δ: −1.9%; 95% CI: −9.5%, 5.6%) and 6–23 mo (Δ: −0.2%; 95% CI: −7.5%, 7.1%) compared with PM-RUTF. MSMS-RUTF also showed noninferiority for recovery rates in children aged 24–59 mo (Δ: 0.0%; 95% CI: −7.3%, 7.4%) and 6–23 mo (Δ: 0.6%; 95% CI: −4.3%, 5.5%). Noninferiority in recovery rates was also observed in per-protocol analyses. For length of stay in the program (time to cure), both FSMS-RUTF in children aged 24–59 mo (Δ: 2.8 d; 95% CI: −0.8, 6.5 d) and 6–23 mo (Δ: 3.4 d; 95% CI: −1.2, 8.0 d) and MSMS-RUTF in children aged 24–59 mo (Δ: 0.2 d; 95% CI: −3.1, 3.6 d) and 6–23 mo (Δ: 1.2 d; 95% CI: −3.4, 5.8 d) were not inferior to PM-RUTF. FSMS-RUTF was also significantly better than PM-RUTF at increasing hemoglobin and body iron stores in anemic children, with mean hemoglobin increases of 2.1 (95% CI: 1.6, 2.6) and 1.3 (95% CI: 0.9, 1.8) and mean body iron store increases of 2.0 (95% CI: 0.8, 3.3) and 0.1 (95% CI: −1.1, 1.3) for FSMS-RUTF and PM-RUTF, respectively.
Conclusions: FSMS-RUTF without milk is efficacious in the treatment of severe acute malnutrition in children aged 6–23 and 24–59 mo. It is also better at correcting iron deficiency anemia than PM-RUTF. This trial was registered at www.pactr.org as PACTR201505001101224.
Great progress has been made in addressing global undernutrition over the past several decades, in part because of large increases in food production from agricultural expansion and intensification. Food systems, however, face continued increases in demand and growing environmental pressures. Most prominently, human-caused climate change will influence the quality and quantity of food we produce and our ability to distribute it equitably. Our capacity to ensure food security and nutritional adequacy in the face of rapidly changing biophysical conditions will be a major determinant of the next century's global burden of disease. In this article, we review the main pathways by which climate change may affect our food production systems-agriculture, fisheries, and livestock-as well as the socioeconomic forces that may influence equitable distribution. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health Volume 38 is March 20, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Protein consists of amino acids (AA) linked by peptide bonds. Dietary protein is hydrolyzed by proteases and peptidases to generate dipeptides, tripeptides, and AA in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract. These digestion products are utilized by bacteria in the small intestine or absorbed into enterocytes. AA that are not degraded by the small intestine enter the portal vein for protein synthesis in skeletal muscle and other tissues. AA are also used for cell-specific production of low-molecular-weight metabolites with enormous physiological importance. Thus, protein undernutrition results in stunting, anemia, physical weakness, edema, vascular dysfunction, and impaired immunity. Based on short-term nitrogen balance studies, the Recommended Dietary Allowance of protein for the healthy adult with minimal physical activity is 0.8 g protein/kg body weight (BW) per day. To meet functional needs such as promoting skeletal-muscle protein accretion and physical strength, dietary intake of 1.0, 1.3, and 1.6 g protein/kg BW/day is recommended for individuals with minimal, moderate, and intense physical activity, respectively. Long-term consumption of protein at 2 g/kg BW/day is safe for healthy adults, and the tolerable upper limit is 3.5 g/kg BW/day for well-adapted subjects. Chronic high protein intake (> 2 g/kg BW/day for adults) may result in digestive, renal, and vascular abnormalities and should be avoided. The quantity and quality of protein are determinants of its nutritional values. Therefore, adequate consumption of high-quality protein from animal products (e.g., lean meat and milk) is essential for optimal growth, development, and health of humans.
Lysine requirements of well-nourished children from developing regions have been found to be similar to those of children from developed regions (33.5 mg ⋅ kg(-1) ⋅ d(-1)). However, intestinal parasites have been shown to increase lysine requirements in undernourished adults, and it is not known if a similar phenomenon occurs in undernourished children from poor and unsanitary environments.
Our objective was to measure the lysine requirement of moderately undernourished school-aged Indian children by the indicator amino acid oxidation technique before and after successful treatment for intestinal parasites.
Twenty-one undernourished school-aged children (∼8 y of age) with z scores between -2 SD and -3 SD for height-for-age or weight-for-age, who tested positive for intestinal parasites, were studied before and after successful antiparasite treatment. Children were fed any 2 of 7 levels of lysine intakes (5, 15, 25, 35, 50, 65, and 80 mg ⋅ kg(-1) ⋅ d(-1)) in random order. The lysine requirement was determined by applying a 2-phase linear regression crossover analysis on the fractional oxidation rate of the tracer L-[1-(13)C] phenylalanine in response to the graded lysine intakes.
The lysine requirement of undernourished children with intestinal parasite infestations was determined to be 42.8 mg ⋅ kg(-1) ⋅ d(-1) (95% CI: 32.6, 53.1), and after successful antiparasitic treatment it was determined to be 35.5 mg ⋅ kg(-1) ⋅ d(-1) (95% CI: 25.5, 45.5). The results were significantly different (P < 0.05), although the 95% CIs overlapped.
The lysine requirement in undernourished children is similar to that of well-nourished children, and intestinal parasitic infestation increased the lysine requirement by ∼20%.
© 2015 American Society for Nutrition.
Reaching vulnerable populations in low-resource settings with effective business solutions is critical, given the global nature of food and nutrition security. Over a third of deaths of children under 5 years of age are directly or indirectly caused by undernutrition. The Lancet series on malnutrition (2013) estimates that over 220,000 lives of children under 5 years of age can be saved through the implementation of an infant and young child feeding and care package. A unique project being undertaken in Ghana aims to bring in two elements of innovation in infant and young child feeding. The first involves a public-private partnership (PPP) to develop and test the efficacy and effectiveness of the delivery of a low-cost complementary food supplement in Ghana called KOKO Plus™. The second involves the testing of the concepts of social entrepreneurship and social business models in the distribution and delivery of the product. This paper shares information on the ongoing activities in the testing of concepts of PPPs, social business, social marketing, and demand creation using different delivery platforms to achieve optimal nutrition in Ghanaian infants and young children in the first 2 years of life. It also focuses on outlining the concept of using PPP and base-of-the-pyramid approaches toward achieving nutrition objectives.
© 2014 New York Academy of Sciences.
This paper estimates the impact of climate change on foodgrain yields in India, namely rice and millets. We estimate a crop-specific agricultural production function with exogenous climate variables, namely, precipitation and temperature and control for key inputs such as irrigation, fertilizer and labour. Our analysis is at the district level using a panel dataset for physical yield (output per hectare – gross cropped area) for the period 1966-99. Thus, we eschew crop simulation approaches that rely on experimental data. We do not also estimate reduced form relationships between economic variables such as profits or the monetary value of yield and weather measures. Consistent with other studies at the district and state level we find significant impacts of climate change (temperature and precipitation) on Indian agriculture. The implication of our results for inter-state disparities and corrective measures is elaborated.
Higher economic growth has led to diversification of the consumption bundle of households away from staple food. This has implications for the food policy as demand projections for different commodities impacts the farmers decision to diversify its production base which further has implications for the issue of food security. Thus it becomes important to project the demand, based on most realistic demand elasticities. Using the households consumer expenditure survey of the major National Sample Survey rounds, the paper estimates the price and expenditure elasticity’s of different food items/ groups in India. A two-stage Quadratic AIDS (QUAIDS) model is used to compute coefficients and calculate the demand elasticity’s. In this model assumption of linearity in the expenditure function is given away.
This paper attempts to project the future supply and demand up to the year 2025 for rice and wheat, the two main cereals cultivated and consumed in India. A review of studies that forecast the supply and demand of Indian agriculture commodities revealed three important limitations of such studies: (a) The forecasts are generally overestimated (in the ex post situation); (b) the methodology is not clearly outlined; (c) ex-ante validation of the forecast have not been carried out. This study presents forecasts based on models that are validated so that forecast performances can be assessed.
Indian diets derive almost 60 % of their protein from cereals with relatively low digestibility and quality. There have been several surveys of diets and protein intakes in India by the National Nutrition Monitoring Board (NNMB) over the last 25 years, in urban and rural, as well as in slum dwellers and tribal populations. Data of disadvantaged populations from slums, tribals and sedentary rural Indian populations show that the protein intake (mainly from cereals) is about 1 gm/kg/day. However, the protein intake looks less promising in terms of the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS), using lysine as the first limiting amino acid, where all populations, particularly rural and tribal, appear to have an inadequate quality to their protein intake. The protein: energy (PE) ratio is a measure of dietary quality, and has been used in the 2007 WHO/FAO/UNU report to define reference requirement values with which the adequacy of diets can be evaluated in terms of a protein quality corrected PE ratio. It is likely that about one third of this sedentary rural population is at risk of not meeting their requirements. These levels of risk of deficiency are in a population with relatively low BMI populations, whose diets are also inadequate in fruits and vegetables. Therefore, while the burden of enhancing the quality of protein intake in rural India exists, the quality of the diet, in general, represents a challenge that must be met.
The demand studies for the fish sector are limited by their high degree of aggregation, and the lack of empirical basis for estimating the underlying elasticity of demand. In this study, the three-stage budgeting framework with quadratic almost ideal demand system (QAIDS) model has been used for fish demand analysis by species, using consumer expenditure survey data of India. Income and price elasticities of fish demand have been evaluated at mean level for different economic groups and have been used to project the demand for fish to a medium-term time horizon, by the year 2015. The domestic demand for fish by 2015 has been projected as 6.7-7.7 million tonnes. Aquaculture would hold the key to meet the challenges of future needs. Among species, Indian major carps (IMC) would play a dominating role in meeting the fish demand. Results have shown that the estimated price and income elasticities of demand vary across species and income classes. Fish species have not been found as homogenous commodities for consumers. All the eight fish types included in the study have been found to have positive income elasticity greater than one for all the income levels. Hence, with higher income, fish demand has been projected to increase substantially with change in the species mix. The own-price elasticities by species have been found negative and near to unitary.
The food demand in India has been examined in the context of a structural shift in the dietary pattern of its population. The results have reinforced the hypothesis of a significant diversification in the dietary pattern of households in recent years and has found stark differences in the consumption pattern across different income quartiles. The food demand behaviour has been explained using a set of demand elasticities corresponding to major food commodities. The demand elasticities have been estimated using multi-stage budgeting with QUAIDS model and another alternative model, FCDS. The study has revealed that the estimated income elasticities vary across income classes and are lowest for cereals group and highest for horticultural and livestock products. The analysis of price and income effects based on the estimated demand system has suggested that with increase in food price inflation, the demand for staple food (rice, wheat and sugar) may not be affected adversely but, that of high-value food commodities is likely to be affected negatively. Therefore, the study has cautioned that if inflation in food prices remains unabated for an extended period, there is the possibility of reversal of the trend of diversification and that of consumers returning to cereal-dominated diet, thus accentuating under-nourishment.
Climate change poses formidable challenge to the development of livestock sector in India. The anticipated rise in temperature
between 2.3 and 4.8°C over the entire country together with increased precipitation resulting from climate change is likely
to aggravate the heat stress in dairy animals, adversely affecting their productive and reproductive performance, and hence
reducing the total area where high yielding dairy cattle can be economically reared. Given the vulnerability of India to rise
in sea level, the impact of increased intensity of extreme events on the livestock sector would be large and devastating for
the low-income rural areas. The predicted negative impact of climate change on Indian agriculture would also adversely affect
livestock production by aggravating the feed and fodder shortages. The livestock sector which will be a sufferer of climate
change is itself a large source of methane emissions, an important greenhouse gas. In India, although the emission rate per
animal is much lower than the developed countries, due to vast livestock population the total annual methane emissions are
about 9–10Tg from enteric fermentation and animal wastes.
Policy planners face the challenge of formulating suitable agricultural policy by which the required growth in domestic production can be achieved. To attain effective food security policy, one needs reliable empirical knowledge about the degree of responsiveness of factor demand and output supply for commodities. This paper is an attempt in this direction and estimates the factor demand and output supply elasticity for major crops grown in India. These elasticities are used to project the domestic supply of major commodities, viz. rice, wheat, pulse grains, nine major edible oilseeds, and sugarcane under various scenarios with and without acreage expansion and TFP growth. The results of supply projections are compared with the food demand and policy prescription to attain food security is suggested.
We previously used the 24-h indicator amino acid balance method to show that the lysine requirement in undernourished Indian men from low socioeconomic and unsanitary environments is approximately 50% higher than the mean requirement of 30 mg lysine. kg(-1). d(-1) in well-nourished men.
It is possible that this higher lysine requirement in persons with chronic undernutrition is due to environmental influences, including the presence of intestinal parasites. We assessed this possibility by using 24-h indicator amino acid balance (with leucine) at both the "normal" requirement for lysine intake and the higher requirement, before and after successful treatment to eradicate intestinal parasites in affected, undernourished men.
Fourteen chronically undernourished men were studied before and after treatment for intestinal parasites, during each of two 7-d (6-d dietary adaptation plus 1-d tracer experiment) diet periods supplying either 30 (n = 7) or 45 (n = 7) mg lysine. kg(-1). d(-1) from an L-amino acid diet. Twenty-four-hour indicator amino acid balance was estimated on day 6 by [(13)C]leucine tracer infusion.
Before the parasite treatment, subjects were in neutral 24-h leucine balance at both lysine intakes. After the eradication of intestinal parasites, there was a significant (P < 0.001) improvement in 24-h leucine balances, which were positive at both lysine intakes.
On the basis of the 24-h indicator amino acid balance approach, it appears that intestinal infestation with parasites increases the requirement for lysine and that this may be one factor responsible for the higher lysine requirement observed in persons with chronic undernutrition.
Lysine is a limiting amino acid in diets based on wheat as the staple. In experimental animals, prolonged dietary lysine inadequacy increases stress-induced anxiety. If observed in humans, such a result would have a strong implication for the relationship between nutrition and communal quality of life and mental health. As part of a 3-month randomized double-blind study, we tested whether lysine fortification of wheat reduces anxiety and stress response in family members in poor Syrian communities consuming wheat as a staple food. In the lysine-fortified group, the plasma cortisol response to the blood drawing as a cause of stress was reduced in females, as was sympathetic arousal in males as measured by skin conductance. Lysine fortification also significantly reduced chronic anxiety as measured by the trait anxiety inventory in males. These results suggest that some stress responses in economically weak populations consuming cereal-based diets can be improved with lysine fortification.
India has among the highest lost years of life from micronutrient deficiencies. We investigate what dietary shifts would eliminate protein, iron, zinc and Vitamin A deficiencies within households’ food budgets and whether these shifts would be compatible with mitigating climate change. This analysis uses the National Sample Survey (2011–12) of consumption expenditure to calculate calorie, protein and the above micronutrient intake deficiencies and relate them to diets, income and location. We show that more than two-thirds of Indians consume insufficient micronutrients, particularly iron and Vitamin A, and to a lesser extent zinc. A greater proportion of urban households than rural households are deficient at all income levels and for all nutrients, with few exceptions. Deficiencies reduce with increasing income. Using constrained optimization, we find that households could overcome these nutrient deficiencies within their food budgets by diversifying their diets, particularly towards coarse cereals, pulses, and leafy vegetables, and away from rice. These dietary changes could reduce India's agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by up to 25%. Current agricultural and food pricing policies may disincentivize these dietary shifts, particularly among the poor.
Food security of the country has been improved due to green revolution and enhancement of cereal production. However, recent surveys showed 35.8% of children suffer from malnutrition in India. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has taken lead for the biofortification of cereal crops based on earlier national and international research efforts, targeting the enhancement of nutrients in staple food crops. In this article, the significant progress made in rice, wheat, maize and millets for identification of genotypes, development, evaluation and release of the varieties with high nutrient contents and their bioavailability studies is discussed.
The connection between the production, availability, and consumption of high-quality food is becoming very important in developing countries. The requirement of protein is linked to its quality, or its digestibility and ability to meet human indispensable amino acid requirements. This requirement is particularly relevant in India, where commonly consumed cereal-based diets and cereal-based food subsidy programs offer low-quality protein and therefore pose a risk of quality protein deficiency. The production of and access to sustainable sources of high-quality protein will be important parts of mitigating risks to human health. Although milk production has risen in India, its consumption by the poor remains low. On the other hand, leguminous grain production, which has greater climate resilience and soil improvement properties, has fallen, yet this can help resource-poor farmers increase their intake of quality food. Nonetheless, concerns about the nutritional quality of plant protein exist and may be more relevant in settings where environmental enteric dysfunction already affects nutrient absorption. With the use of nationally representative household protein consumption data in India, the percentage of the population at risk of quality protein deficiency was found to vary between 4% and 26% among different age groups and between the urban or rural sector. Mitigating these risks requires a greater intake of high-quality proteins, such as pulses and milk, and that food subsidy policies move beyond cereals and become more quality conscious.
In this paper a method of estimating the parameters of a set of regression equations is reported which involves application of Aitken's generalized least-squares [1] to the whole system of equations. Under conditions generally encountered in practice, it is found that the regression coefficient estimators so obtained are at least asymptotically more efficient than those obtained by an equation-by-equation application of least squares. This gain in efficiency can be quite large if “independent” variables in different equations are not highly correlated and if disturbance terms in different equations are highly correlated. Further, tests of the hypothesis that all regression equation coefficient vectors are equal, based on “micro” and “macro” data, are described. If this hypothesis is accepted, there will be no aggregation bias. Finally, the estimation procedure and the “micro-test” for aggregation bias are applied in the analysis of annual investment data, 1935–1954, for two firms.
This study estimates the weather sensitivity of rice yield in India, using disaggregated (district) level information on rice and high resolution daily weather data over the period 1969–2007. Compared to existing India specific studies on rice which consider only the effects of nighttime (minimum) temperature, the present study takes into account the effects of both nighttime and daytime (maximum) temperatures along with other weather variables on rice yield. The results suggest that both nighttime and daytime temperatures adversely affect rice during different growth phases. The effect of higher nighttime temperature on rice yield was much lower than those estimated by previous studies. Further, the negative impact of higher daytime temperature on rice yield was much larger than the impact due to higher nighttime temperature. The study further estimates that average rice yield would have been 8.4% higher had the pre-1960 climatic conditions prevailed during the period of study. This translates into an annual average loss of 4.4 million tons/yr or a cumulative loss of 172 million tons over the 39 year period for India. The paper argues that such significant loss in rice production under climate change conditions in future will have strong implications for the region's food-security and poverty, given that a large number of producers and consumers depend on rice for their livelihood and sustenance.
This paper reviews recent evidence on food intake and nutrition in India. It attempts to make sense of various puzzles, particularly the decline of average calorie intake during the last 25 years. This decline has occurred across the distribution of real per capita expenditure, in spite of increases in real income and no long-term increase in the relative price of food. One hypothesis is that calorie requirements have declined due to lower levels of physical activity or improvements in the health environment. If correct, this does not imply that there are no calorie deficits in the Indian population — nothing could be further from the truth. These deficits are reflected in some of the worst anthropometric indicators in the world, and the sluggish rate of improvement of these indicators is of major concern. Yet recent trends remain confused and there is an urgent need for better nutrition monitoring.
Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost?. By - Prof Zulfiqar A Bhutta PhD, Jai K Das MBA, Arjumand Rizvi MSc, Michelle F Gaff...
In the literature, a variety of approaches have been used to calculate demand elasticities in almost ideal demand system (AIDS) models of demand. It is common to estimate the linear approximate almost ideal demand system (LA/AIDS) instead of the AIDS. When the LA/AIDS is estimated, all of the previously reported approaches to compute elasticities are theoretically incorrect. This paper presents correct formulas for LA/AIDS elasticities and illustrates the potential errors from using incorrect computing formulas.
This paper extends and improves the author's earlier work on measuring own- and cross-price elasticities from spatial variation in prices using household survey data. Double-logarithmic demand functions are replaced by functions that relate budget shares to the logarithms of prices and incomes, and zero expenditures are treated appropriately. Formulae are developed for estimation and for the calculation of standard errors. Limited Monte Carlo evidence suggests that the asymptotic approximations work well in practice. An eleven–commodity system of food demands is estimated using Indonesian data from 1981.
A randomized, controlled school feeding study was conducted in rural Embu District, Kenya to test for a causal link between animal-source food intake and changes in micronutrient nutrition and growth, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes. Twelve primary schools were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups. Children in Standard I classes received the local plant-based dish githeri as a midmorning school snack supplemented with meat, milk, or fat added to equalize energy content in all feedings. The Control children received no feedings but participated in data collection. Main outcome measures assessed at baseline and longitudinally were 24-h food intake recall, anthropometry, cognitive function, physical activity, and behaviors during school free play. For cognitive function, the Meat group showed the steepest rate of increase on Raven's Progressive Matrices scores and in zone-wide school end-term total and arithmetic test scores. The Plain githeri and Meat groups performed better over time than the Milk and Control groups (P < 0.02-0.03) on arithmetic tests. The Meat group showed the greatest increase in percentage time in high levels of physical activity and in initiative and leadership behaviors compared with all other groups. For growth, in the Milk group only younger and stunted children showed a greater rate of gain in height. The Meat group showed near doubling of upper midarm muscle area, and the Milk group a smaller degree of increase. This is the first randomized, controlled feeding study to examine the effect of meat- vs. milk- vs. plant-based snacks on functional outcomes in children.
The aim of this paper is to assess the importance of using micro-level data in the econometric analysis of consumer demand. To do this we utilize a time series of repeated cross sections covering some 4,000 households in each of 15 years. Employing a number of different aggregation procedures, we conclude that aggregate data alone are unlikely to produce reliable estimates of structural price and income coefficients. However, once certain "aggregation factors" as well as trend and seasonal components are included, an aggregate model is not necessarily outperformed across all demand equations in terms of forecasting ability.
The mean lysine requirement of healthy Indian subjects was estimated from short-term experimental diet periods to be 29 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1), which is higher than the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU upper requirement of 12 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1).
Our objective was to confirm our proposed requirement of 29 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1) by extending the diet period to 21 d and by using 4 test lysine intakes (12, 20, 28, and 36 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1)) and a 24-h indicator amino acid oxidation and balance approach.
During two 21-d diet periods, 18 healthy Indian men were randomly assigned to receive 12 and 28 or 20 and 36 mg lysine x kg(-1) x d(-1) as part of an L-amino acid diet. At 1800 on days 6 and 20, [(13)C]leucine was infused over 24 h to assess leucine oxidation and daily leucine balance at each test intake.
Leucine oxidation, balance, and flux did not differ significantly between days 7 and 21. Twenty-four-hour leucine oxidation was lower at lysine intakes of 28 and 36 mg than at 12 and 20 mg. Leucine balances at lysine intakes of 12 and 20 mg were negative and significantly less than equilibrium (P < 0.01) and lower (P < 0.02) than balances at 28 and 36 mg lysine. Two-phase regression analysis indicated a breakpoint at 31 mg lysine x kg(-1) x d(-1) in the relation between lysine intake and 24-h leucine oxidation and balance.
Full adaptation to a low lysine intake occurs within 7 d. The previously proposed tentative mean lysine requirement for Western subjects of 30 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1) is confirmed for healthy Indian adults.
We show that immigrant managers are substantially more likely to hire immigrants than are native managers. The finding holds when comparing establishments in the same 5-digit industry and location, when comparing different establishments within the same firm, when analyzing establishments that change management over time, and when accounting for within-establishment trends in recruitment patterns. The effects are largest for small and owner-managed establishments in the for-profit sector. Separations are more frequent when workers and managers have dissimilar origin, but only before workers become protected by EPL. We also find that native managers are unbiased in their recruitments of former co-workers, suggesting that information deficiencies are important. We find no effects on entry wages. Our findings suggest that a low frequency of immigrant managers may contribute to the observed disadvantages of immigrant workers.
This paper develops and implements a method for estimating price elasticities of demand using cross-sectional household survey data. Geographically clustered households report unit values, which when corrected for quality effects and for measurement error, indicate the underlying spatial variation in prices, and can be matched to variation in demand patterns. A simple model of quality choice is proposed, while the correction for measurement error exploits the clustered design of such surveys. Data from a 1979 household survey from the Ivory Coast are used to estimate price elasticities for beef, meat, fish, cereals, and starches. Copyright 1988 by American Economic Association.
Ever since Richard Stone (1954) first estimated a system of demand equations derived explicitly from consumer theory, there has been a continuing search for alternative specifications and functional forms. Many models have been proposed, but perhaps the most important in current use, apart from the original linear expendi- ture system, are the Rotterdam model (see Henri Theil, 1965, 1976; Anton Barten) and the translog model (see Laurits Christensen, Dale Jorgenson, and Lawrence Lau; Jorgen- son and Lau). Both of these models have been extensively estimated and have, in addition, been used to test the homogeneity and symmetry restrictions of demand the- ory. In this paper, we propose and estimate a new model which is of comparable gener- ality to the Rotterdam and translog models but which has considerable advantages over both. Our model, which we call the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS), gives an ar- bitrary first-order approximation to any de- mand system; it satisfies the axioms of choice exactly; it aggregates perfectly over consumers without invoking parallel linear Engel curves; it has a functional form which is consistent with known household-budget data; it is simple to estimate, largely avoid- ing the need for non-linear estimation; and it can be used to test the restrictions of homogeneity and symmetry through linear restrictions on fixed parameters. Although many of these desirable properties are possessed by one or other of the Rotterdam or translog models, neither possesses all of them simultaneously. In Section I of the paper, we discuss the theoretical specification of the AIDS and justify the claims in the previous paragraph. In Section II, the model is estimated on postwar British data and we use our results to test the homogeneity and symmetry re- strictions. Our results are consistent with earlier findings in that both sets of restric- tions are decisively rejected. We also find that imposition of homogeneity generates positive serial correlation in the errors of those equations which reject the restrictions most strongly; this suggests that the now standard rejection of homogeneity in de- mand analysis may be due to insufficient attention to the dynamic aspects of con- sumer behavior. Finally, in Section III, we offer a summary and conclusions. We be- lieve that the results of this paper suggest that the AIDS is to be recommended as a vehicle for testing, extending, and improving conventional demand analysis. This does not imply that the system, particularly in its simple static form, is to be regarded as a fully satisfactory explanation of consumers' behavior. Indeed, by proposing a demand system which is superior to its predecessors, we hope to be able to reveal more clearly the problems and potential solutions asso- ciated with the usual approach. I. Specification of the AIDS
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